Composite materials

A composite material (or just composite) is a mixture of two or more materials with properties superior to
the materials of which it is made. Many common examples of composite materials can be found in the
world around us. Wood and bone are examples of natural composites. Wood consists of cellulose fibers
embedded in a compound called lignin. The cellulose fibers give wood its ability to bend without breaking,
while the lignin makes wood stiff. Bone is a combination of a soft form of protein known as collagen and a
strong but brittle mineral called apatite.

Traditional composites
Humans have been using composite materials for centuries, long before they fully understood the
structures of such composites. The important building material concrete, for example, is a mixture of
rocks, sand, and Portland cement. Concrete is a valuable building material because it is much stronger
than any one of the individual components of which it is made. Interestingly enough, two of those
components are themselves natural composites. Rock is a mixture of stony materials of various sizes,
and sand is a composite of small-grained materials.

Reinforced concrete is a composite developed to further improve the strength of concrete. Steel rods
embedded in concrete add both strength and flexibility to the concrete.

Cutting wheels designed for use with very hard materials are also composites. They are made by
combining fine particles of tungsten carbide with cobalt powder. Tungsten carbide is one of the hardest
materials known, so the composite formed by this method can be used to cut through almost any natural
or synthetic material.

Words to Know
Fiber: In terms of composite fillers, a fiber is a filler with one long dimension.
Matrix: The part of the composite that binds the filler.
Particle: In terms of composite fillers, a particle is a filler with no long dimension.
Some forms of aluminum siding used in homes are also composite materials. Thin sheets of aluminum
metal are attached to polyurethane foam. The polyurethane foam is itself a composite consisting of air
mixed with polyurethane. Joining the polyurethane foam to the aluminum makes the aluminum more rigid
and provides excellent insulation, an important property for the walls of a house.

In general, composites are developed because no single structural material can be found that has all of
the desired characteristics for a given application. Fiber-reinforced composites, for example, were first
developed to replace aluminum alloys (mixtures), which provide high strength and fairly high stiffness at
low weight but corrode rather easily and can break under stress.

Composite structure
Composites consist of two parts: the reinforcing phase and the binder, or matrix. In reinforced concrete,
for example, the steel rods are the reinforcing phase; the concrete in which the rods are embedded are
the binder or matrix.

In general, the reinforcing phase can exist in one of three forms: particles, fibers, or flat sheets. In the
cutting wheels described above, for example, the reinforcing phase consists of tiny particles of cobalt
metal in a binder of tungsten carbide. A plastic fishing rod is an example of a composite in which the
reinforcing phase is a fiber. In this case, the fiber is made of threadlike strips of glass placed in an epoxy
matrix. (Epoxy is a strong kind of plastic.) An example of a flat sheet reinforcing phase is plywood.
Plywood is made by gluing together thin layers of wood so that the wood grain runs in different directions.

The binder or matrix in each of these cases is the material that supports and holds in place the reinforcing
material. It is the tungsten carbide in the cutting wheel, the epoxy plastic in the fishing rod, or the glue
used to hold the sheets of wood together.
High-performance composites
High-performance composites are composites that perform better than conventional structural materials
such as steel and aluminum alloys. They are almost all fiber-reinforced composites with polymer
(plasticlike) matrices.

The fibers used in high-performance composites are made of a wide variety of materials, including glass,
carbon, boron, silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and certain types of polymers. These fibers are generally
interwoven to form larger filaments or bundles. Thus, if one fiber or a few individual fibers break, the
structural unit as a wholethe filament or bundleremains intact. Fibers usually provide composites with
the special properties, such as strength and stiffness, for which they are designed.
In contrast, the purpose of the matrix in a high-performance composite is to hold the fibers together and
protect them from damage from the outside environment (such as heat or moisture) and from rough
handling. The matrix also transfers the load placed on a composite from one fiber bundle to the next.

Most matrices consist of polymers such as polyesters, epoxy vinyl, and bismaleimide and polyimide
resins. The physical properties of any given matrix determine the ultimate uses of the composite itself. For
example, if the matrix melts or cracks at a low temperature, the composite can be used for applications
only at temperatures less than that melting or cracking point.

Inexpensive and versatile, concrete is simply the best building material for many applications.
The issue is how to make concrete stand up to environmental and structural loads for long-
term performance. A true composite, concrete typically consists of gravel and sand
aggregate bound together in a matrix of fine Portland cement, with metal rebar usually
incorporated for strength. It performs admirably under compression, but tends to be brittle and
somewhat weak in tension. Tensional stress as well as plastic shrinkage during cure leads to
cracks, which invite moisture ingress that eventually leads to corrosion of the embedded metal
and eventual loss of integrity as the metal deteriorates.

Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites long have been envisioned as an enabling

material for improved concrete performance. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) and other
groups, such as the Japan Society for Civil Engineers, have been instrumental in developing
specifications and test methods for composite reinforcing materials, many of which are
accepted and well-established today in concrete construction. "In addition to design guideline
documents, we now have the test methods," says John Busel, chairman of the ACI's
Committee 440, formed in 1990 to provide engineers and designers with information and
direction for composite materials. Test methods are outlined in ACI 440.3R-04. (This and other
significant published documents related to composite reinforcement of concrete can be found
in the accompanying sidebar, "Concrete Design Guides") "We're also steadfastly working on a
revision of our 1996 state-of-the-art report, to update concrete practitioners on the many new
applications and emerging market opportunities," says Busel.

Composite rebar and reinforcing grids continue to find use in a number of applications. More
recently, products have been developed and applications are beginning to proliferate for fiber-
reinforced concrete, a material that uses steel or polymer fibers as reinforcement in
pavements, floor slabs and precast parts.
COMPOSITE REBAR: ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGY

Over the past 15 years, composite rebar has gone from experimental prototype to effective
replacement for steel on many projects, particularly with rising steel prices. "Fiberglass rebar
is commonly used, and it's a very competitive market," says Doug Gremel, director of
nonmetallic reinforcing for Hughes Bros. (Seward, Neb.), an established maker of rebar
products. "The industry's state of knowledge about the material is immensely better than 10
years ago."

For some construction projects, like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) facilities in hospitals,
or the approaches to toll road booths that employ radio frequency identification (RFID) tag
technology for identifying pre-paid customers, composite rebar is the only choice. Steel rebar
can't be used, because it interferes with electromagnetic signals. In addition to
electromagnetic transparency, composite rebar also offers exceptional corrosion resistance,
light weight about one-fourth the weight of steel and thermal insulation, because it
resists heat transfer in building applications. The two largest manufacturers are Hughes and
Pultrall (Thetford Mines, Canada).

Composite rebar is typically pultruded, using E-glass fiber rovings and vinyl ester resin, with
standard forming techniques. Hughes' Aslan products are made with a helical wrap to create
an undulating profile, while Pultrall's V-ROD bar is smooth. Both have an outer sand coating,
applied during manufacture, to create a rough surface for optimum bond adhesion. According
to Gremel, a high-quality vinyl ester resin is needed, coupled with the correct fiber sizings, to
achieve the best corrosion properties and resistance to the high alkali in the Portland cement,
as well as a tenacious bond.

Because fiberglass mechanical properties are different than steel, concrete structure design
with composite rebar is developed using ACI 440.1R-03, Guide for the Design and
Construction of Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars. The Guide addresses flexure,
serviceability, creep rupture and fatigue, in addition to shear and detailing for stirrups, says
Busel. Both Hughes and Pultrall are members of the FRP Rebar Manufacturers Council,
under the umbrella of the American Composites Manufacturers Assn. (ACMA) and are
involved with ACI in developing minimum performance standards for rebar. While it is true that
composite rebar can't be bent at the job site to meet unexpected conditions, Gremel says it's a
non-issue. "Epoxy-coated steel bars can't be bent either, without breaking the epoxy coating,"
he states. "We can pre-bend fiberglass bars during manufacturing to an engineer's design,
according to a detailed schedule, which is how it should be done." With the release of the new
test methods for concrete with composite rebar, owners and designers now have assurance
that the structure will perform as anticipated. Gremel notes that the test document will be
converted to an ASTM standard.

Pultrall V-ROD is distributed in the U.S. exclusively by Concrete Protection Products Inc.
(CPPI, Dallas, Texas). CPPI's president Sam Steere reports several recent projects employing
V-ROD, including a new bridge that spans U.S. highway I-65 in Newton County, Indiana. The
58m/191-ft long, three-span bridge is 10.5m/34.5 ft wide with a reinforced concrete deck that
sits atop steel I-beams, that are supported on concrete piers. The 203 mm/8-inch thick
concrete deck is reinforced with epoxy-coated steel rebar in the lower half, but corrosion-
resistant V-ROD composite bar is used in the upper half, where the potential for contact with
deicing salts is greatest. Two sizes of composite bar were placed, each on 152 mm/6-inch
centers #5 bar (16-mm/0.625-inch diameter) in the transverse direction and #6 (19-
mm/0.75-inch diameter) running in the longitudinal direction. The entire structure was
instrumented with optical fiber sensors by researchers at Purdue University, for ongoing
evaluation of the deck's performance via a remote connection. It's the first use of composite
bar in a bridge deck application by the Indiana Department of Transportation, says Steere.

Hughes Bros. Aslan 100 fiberglass bars were recently installed in a site-cast concrete bridge
in Morrison, Colo., built by the Colo. Dept. of Transportation (CDOT) in cooperation with the
City and County of Denver Parks and Recreation Dept. The 13.8m/45-ft long bridge, which
spans Bear Creek, used fiberglass rebar in the footings, abutments, wing walls, parapets and
a curved poured-in-place concrete arch. A one-piece, all-composite deck that sits atop the
concrete arch was fabricated by Kansas Structural Composites (Russell, Kan.). A number of
different rebar sizes were incorporated into the cast elements, including #5, #6 and #7 (19-
mm/0.75-inch diameter). Many bent stirrups and unique shapes were required to achieve the
detailed design, Gremel points out, adding that all were fabricated at the factory prior to
shipment. CDOT engineer Mark Leonard says the state has had good success with composite
rebar in past projects and selected Aslan because Hughes submitted the lowest bid. Although
the deck gets minimal traffic at low speeds, Leonard says the bridge designer, Parsons
Brinkerhoff (Denver, Colo.), followed all ACI design guidelines and used the new ACI440.3R-
04 testing methods for certifying the materials.

The composite rebar market is expected to become even more competitive as a new material
basalt fiber gains a foothold. Sudaglass Fiber Technology (Houston, Texas), a basalt
fiber producer with facilities in Russia and the Ukraine, has broken ground on a U.S.
production facility in northern Texas, says Sudaglass' executive VP Graham Smith.
Basalt/epoxy rebar is currently being pultruded in the Ukraine, and is in the process of being
certified for U.S. construction, according to Smith.

With a density only slightly greater than typical glass fibers, the company's basalt fibers have
a much wider thermal range of -260C to 982C (-436F to 1850F) compared to a nominal
range of -60C to 650C (-76F to 1202F) for glass and a melt point of 1450C (2642F),
making basalt useful in applications that demand fire resistance. In addition, Smith notes that
the material demonstrates excellent resistance to the alkali content in concrete without resort
to the special sizings used to protect glass fibers.

Whatever the reinforcement choice, composite rebar is expected to have wide appeal among
project decision makers. "The bottom line is, a good engineer or designer is trying to solve the
corrosion problem," concludes Gremel. "For a 5 to 7 percent greater cost in project materials,
you achieve 10 to 20 years longer life for the structure with this product."

COMPOSITE GRIDS IN PRECAST PANELS: HIGH POTENTIAL

Since CT first reported on the use of fiber-reinforced polymer grids in precast concrete
construction panels ("Composite Solutions Meet Growing Civil Construction
Demands," CT August 2002, p. 40), the market has witnessed significant growth, says Busel.
"This application is huge," he contends. "There's tremendous potential."

The charge is being led by AltusGroup, a consortium of five precast concrete manufacturers
and reinforcement producer TechFab LLC (Anderson, S.C.), formed specifically to promote
CarbonCast technology in which the latter's C-GRID carbon fiber/epoxy grids replace
traditional steel grid or rebar in precast structures as secondary reinforcement. TechFab is a
50/50 joint venture of Hexcel (Dublin, Calif.) and Chomarat Group (Le Cheylard, France). So
far, AltusGroup members include Oldcastle Precast (Edgewood, Md.), HIGH Concrete
Structures (Denver, Pa.), two precasters owned by Cretex Companies (Elk River, Minn.) and
Metromont Prestress (Greenville, S.C.), but new members are likely to be added due to
growing sales volume, says John Carson, TechFab's director of commercial development and
program leader for C-GRID technology.

A variety of CarbonCast products are offered by AltusGroup, including both structural and
nonstructural insulated wall panels and architectural cladding. C-GRID typically replaces
secondary steel wire mesh reinforcing elements conventional steel rebar is still used for
primary reinforcement in most cases. C-GRID is made in an efficient, proprietary quasi-
weaving process that aligns superimposed warp and weft large-tow carbon fibers wet out with
a rapid cure epoxy, in an open structure. Grid openings vary in size from 25.4 mm to 76 mm
(0.25 inch to 3 inches), depending on panel strength requirements, concrete type and
aggregate size. During the manufacturing process, the grid is given a rough surface that
enhances bond strength between the grid and cured concrete. Grids, featuring glass, aramid
or polymer fibers in combination with any one of a variety of resins, are also available, in
TechFab's MeC-GRID product line. Carbon and noncarbon grids both find use in other
applications, such as decorative elements, cast-in-place concrete and repair/rehabilitation.

The advantages of CarbonCast panels are significant, says Carson. C-GRID is much lighter
and has nearly seven times greater tensile properties than steel. Cracking due to cure
shrinkage is greatly reduced, and C-GRID won't corrode, which eliminates the often unsightly
surface staining that occurs on concrete panels with steel grids. Its corrosion resistance
permits the use of as little as 6.35 mm/0.25 inch of concrete cover, while up to 76.2 mm/3
inches of cover may be required to shield steel grid from moisture. Therefore, panel weight
can be reduced by as much as 66 percent, compared to conventional precast. Lighter panels
allow for lower overall wall weight, which in turn requires less substantial steel substructure,
resulting in significantly lower construction costs. C-GRID also is thermally nonconductive, so
the panel's insulation value isn't compromised. Further, openings can be cut in the panels at
the job site with a power saw, which isn't possible with a steel grid. All of these benefits
translate to lower transportation, erection and superstructure costs for more efficient
construction.

Over 3 million ft2 of CarbonCast panel products have been sold to date and demand is so high
that TechFab recently announced major expansion plans. A new plant will house an additional
grid manufacturing line that, according to Carson, should be operational by October of this
year. The announcement closely followed the company's announced multiyear agreement with
Zoltek Corp. (St. Louis, Mo.), the supplier of the Panex 35 large-tow fiber used in C-GRID.
According to Carson, the agreement will ensure a consistent supply for C-GRID during initial
product launch years. "Zoltek has been our primary fiber supplier and advocate from day one
of this project," he notes.

The precast panels have been used in projects as diverse as movie theatres, churches and
parking garages. A recent project was the 332,000-ft2 Cardinal Health office/warehouse
complex near Baltimore, Md. CarbonCast panels up to 15.5m/51-ft long were cast to form the
two-story building's vertical exterior walls. Each panel is a sandwich construction featuring 152
mm/6 inches of foam insulation (achieving R-16 insulation value) between facesheets
consisting of a 50-mm/2-inch thick outer wythe (concrete layer) and a 100-mm/4-inch thick
inner wythe, C-GRID placed perpendicular to the panel faces connects inner and outer
wythes, providing shear reinforcement.

"We're moving into high gear with this concept," says Carson. "We're adding new products to
meet the application growth."

FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE: COMING ON STRONG

The use of short fibers in concrete for improved properties has been an accepted technology
for decades even centuries, considering that in the Roman Empire structural mortars were
reinforced with horsehair. Fiber reinforcements increase concrete's toughness and ductility
(the ability to deform plastically without fracturing) by carrying a portion of the load in the case
of matrix failure and by arresting crack growth. Dr. Victor Li of the University of Michigan has
researched the properties of high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites, a
very high-performance subset of fiber-reinforced concrete, and he believes that acceptance of
the material will grow, as long as performance, low cost and easy execution are maintained.

"Using this material may lead to elimination of shear reinforcing bars, resulting in a reduction
of material and labor costs," says Li. "A thinner structure reduces material volume and dead
load, and makes transportation easier. These overall cost reductions can easily justify the cost
of the fiber-reinforced material."
Official recognition of fiber-reinforced concrete has spurred publication of standards and
guidelines for its use over the past five years (see CT July/August 2001, p. 44). Since that
time, commercial applications have burgeoned.

Building materials giant Lafarge SA (Paris, France) has promoted its ultrahigh-performance
fiber-reinforced concrete material, trade marked Ductal, for nearly ten years, targeting a wide
variety of civil infrastructure and architectural applications. Ductal is a mixture of Portland
cement, silica fume, quartz flour, fine silica sand, plasticizers, water and either steel or organic
fibers, typically 12 mm/0.5 inch in length. Vic Perry, VP/general manager for Ductal, says the
combination of fine powders, selected for relative grain size, creates maximum compaction
during cure, resulting a complete absence of continuous porosity, which virtually eliminates
moisture ingress and potential corrosion of steel fibers. To be on the safe side, polyvinyl
alcohol (PVAL) fibers are typically specified for architectural or decorative applications, to
preclude any possibility of surface staining which might occur with rusting steel fibers and
eliminate abrasiveness where human contact is a concern. The materials are sold in bulk
bags to precasters or concrete ready-mix suppliers.

"The addition of the fibers makes the material deform in a ductile manner and support tensile
loads," says Perry. "The fibers provide toughness and improved micro-structural properties."

Depending on the type of fiber used, the compressive strength of Ductal ranges from 150 MPa
to 200 MPa (21,750 psi to 29,000 psi), compared to standard concrete's 15 MPa to 50 MPa
(2,175 psi to 7,250 psi). Tested flexural strength is as high as 40 MPa/5,800 psi, says Perry.
Ductal reinforced with Lafarge's Forta steel fibers has been used for precast construction and
in several prestress bridge beam applications. In Saint Pierre La Cour, France, a 20m/65-ft
long vehicular bridge was designed with 10 Ductal I-beam girders supporting a traditional,
cast-in-place 170-mm/6.5-inch thick rebar-reinforced concrete deck. The precast girders,
which contain no rebar, are 600-mm/24-inches deep and were prestressed with 13-mm/0.5-
inch steel strand cables, placed in the lower flange. Tension is applied to the strands before
the Ductal is poured into the beam form. Once the concrete covers the strands and material
has begun to cure, they are cut, which in effect puts compression stress on the concrete
mixture.

When you subject a prestressed beam to any bending, explains Perry, it doesn't experience
tensional stress but instead "uncompresses," greatly improving performance. Because of
Ductal's strength, the beams don't require rebar, which significantly cuts per-foot weight.

Ductal structures shaped in cross-section like the Greek capital letter "" (essentially a box
beam without a lower flange) are functioning as both deck and girders on an experimental
bridge installed on a test track at the U.S. Federal Highway Authority's (FHWA) Turner
Fairbank Laboratory, to investigate the design's suitability for future highway construction. The
"" girder/deck is designed to withstand American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) HL-93 load configurations.
"The Ductal beams allow longer spans for the same beam weight," says Perry. "Eventually,
we'll see fiber-reinforced concrete in beams and bridge decks."

SI Concrete Systems. (Chattanooga, Tenn.) is a manufacturer of fiber reinforcement for

concrete. SI offers Novomesh, Fibermesh and other fiber products that are used as an
alternate to secondary steel wire mesh reinforcement and light rebar in both commercial and
residential applications, says SI's Hal Payne, manager of strategic alliances. SI offers
polypropylene (PP) fibers, steel fibers, macrosynthetic fibers and engineered blends.
According to Payne, SI's polypropylene fiber products are critical for controlling "early age"
plastic shrinkage cracks to prevent these cracks from growing into major flaws as the concrete
cures. Novomesh 950 is a new product for the company, and consists of a blend of coarse
monofilament macrosynthetic and collated, fibrillated microsynthetic fibers. According to
Payne, the product gives as good a result as steel fibers in its intended use for commercial
floor slabs.

Kingspan (Sherburn, Malton, N. Yorkshire, U.K.) is a concrete construction specialist that uses
concrete fiber additives from Bekaert Building Products (Friedrichsdorf, Germany). Bekaert's
shaped Dramix steel fibers are added to concrete to produce floors and roofs without
reinforcing steel grids. The product is reportedly ideal for cramped building sites like the three-
story Spurriergate development deep in the historic U.K. city of York. Since the concrete does
not require steel grid reinforcement, the cost of steel grid and the labor required to deliver the
bulky rolls, then cut and place it in multi-story buildings prior to concrete pouring operations is
entirely eliminated. The project's fiber-reinforced concrete floors were placed in a single
operation, simply by delivering the fiber-reinforced material directly to each floor using
automated pumping equipment.

In Australia, France, Japan and the U.S., interim design guides (listed in the sidebar) now
provide guidance and allowables for fiber-reinforced concrete, a significant factor in its greater
acceptance by designers, engineers and project decision makers in the infrastructure
marketplace. "The material offers solutions such as speed of construction, improved
aesthetics, superior durability and corrosion resistance," concludes Perry. "That translates to
reduced maintenance and a longer life span for the structure."