1.

0 Introduction

Pavement is the actual travel surface especially made durable and serviceable
to withstand the traffic load and pedestrian load coming upon it. Pavement grants
friction for the vehicles thus providing comfort to the driver and transfers the traffic
load from the upper surface to the natural soil. Pavement construction begins by
properly grading and preparing the site aggregate subbase and base course which are
topped with the finish pavement

2.0 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

2.1 MURRAM PAVING

Laterite, also called as murram, varies considerably in the proportion of stones

(which are usually very small) to earth and sand. It ranges from a hard gravel to a
softer earth embedded with small stones. They may be referred to as 'dirt roads' in
common speech, but that term is used more for unimproved roads with no surface
material added.Compared to sealed roads, which require large machinery to work and
pour concrete or to lay and smooth a bitumen-based surface, Murram roads are easy
and cheap to build.Murram which contains a significant proportion of clay becomes
very slippery when wet, and in the rainy season, it may be difficult even for four-
wheel drive vehicles to avoid slipping off very cambered roads into the drainage
ditches at the side of the road. As it dries out, such laterite can become very hard, like
sun-dried bricks

2.2 BRICK PAVING

Block paving also known as brick paving is a commonly used decorative method of
creating a hard standing. The main benefit over other materials to create a hard
surface are that the individual bricks that go together to make up the block paved
surface are able to be lifted up and then replaced.This allows for remedial work to be
carried out under the surface of the paving without any visible notice to the surface
once the paving bricks have been replaced.This kind of brick paving is said to be
flexible paving. Typical areas of use would be for driveways, pavement, patios, town
 centre's, precin cts and more commonly in road surfacing.There are two common
makes of block paving brick, concrete and clay. Although other composite materials
do exist to make up an individual brick. There are many different laying patterns that
can be achieved using block paving.The most common of these is the herringbone
pattern. This pattern is the strongest of the block paving bonds as it offers the most
interlock, therefore making it a good choice for driveways and road surfacing.

2.3 STONE PAVING

Stone fulfills all the conditions of a good pavement. It is the most durable material for
pavement construction. It is comfortable for travelling, clean, dirt free, noise free and
does not require frequent repairs. It is cheap .The nature of stone prevents its ever
becoming smooth or polished by use and hence it presents as good and firm a foot
hold. Being uniform in its texture or hardness, it wears equally .The closeness of the
joints prevent little or no water penetration and it is never affected by frost and it
never get into partial holes. Usually granites are used for the purpose of paving but
stones which are hard and fine grained, containing very little mica, and which is very
similar in texture, color and hardness are also used.

3.0 Basic Components

3.1 Subgrade

It is the soil layer beneath the pavement which bears the design load, receives
infiltration water, and is subject to ground water infusion due to seasonal fluctuations
or upward capillary migration.Subgrade bearing capacity, uniformity, and
permeability are key factors in determining various pavement layers thickness.

3.2 Aggregate Base and Subbase

The base layer consists of a grades aggregate foundation that transfers the pavement
load to the Subgrade in controlled radiating manner. Heavy-duty pavements or weak
subgrades, usually require an additional layer of base material, called a subbase,
which also consists of a clean but coarser-graded aggregate layer. Both aggregate base
and subbase typically extend beyond the pavement edge to provide lateral support and
to prevent uneven subgrade loading.
3.3 Pavement

The pavement material receives traffic wear and transfers loads to the base and
subgrade.

3,4 Pavement Edge

Pavement edge require extra reinforcing to prevent breaking or crumbling due to

eccentric loading, invasion plant roots, or wind erosion in coastal sandy soils.

3.5 Pavement Joints

Rigid pavements requires expansion and control joints to allow for contraction and
expansion due to temperature fluctuation. Such joints may be butted, doweled or
keyed using pre-molded expansion joint fillers.
4.0 Types of Pavement

4.1
Flexible
pavement

commonly have thin wearing surface and thick aggregate base and subase. Flexible
monolithic pavement consists of aggregate shredded rubber or polymers which mixed
with asphalt or proprietary binder and placed on a prepared base to create a seamless
monolithic surface. It require edge repair due to crushing and periodic sealing to protect
surface uniformity.

4.2 Rigid pavement

pavement loads are distributed internally within the rigid pavement and transferred to the
subgrade over the broad area in a manner similar that found in concrete spread footing.
Rigid pavement requires a thinner aggregate base than flexible pavement.

4.0 Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement Flexible Pavements

 Flexible pavement
Deformation in the sub grade is transferred
to the upper layers
Have low flexural strength
Load is transferred by grain to grain contact
Have low completion cost but repairing cost
is high
Have low life span (High Maintenance Cost)
Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the sub
grade but a sub base is needed
No thermal stresses are induced as the
pavement have the ability to contract and
expand freely
expansion joints are not needed
Strength of the road is highly dependent on
the strength of the sub grade
Rolling of the surfacing is needed
Road can be used for traffic within 24 hours
Damaged by Oils and Certain Chemicals
5.0 CLASSIFICATION OF PAVEMENTS
1. In-situ paving
2. Unit paving
3. Soft paving
5.1 IN SITU PAVING
Rigid pavement
Deformation in the subgrade is not
transferred to subsequent layers Have high
flexural strength
No such phenomenon of grain to grain load
transfer exists
Have low repairing cost but completion cost
is high
Life span is more as compare to flexible
(Low Maintenance Cost)
Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub
grade
expansion joints are needed
Strength of the road is less dependent on
the strength of the sub grade
Rolling of the surfacing in not needed
Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
Force of friction is high
No Damage by Oils and Greases
 Concrete asphalt

i. Relatively Easy To Install i. Low Heat And Light

Reflectivity
ii. Available With Several Finishes,
Many Colors And Various ii. Durable
Textures
iii. Dust Free Surface
iii. Durable Surface
iv. Can Be Made Porous
iv. Low Life Time Maintenance
Cost v. Will Fray At Edges, If Not
Supported
v. Long Lasting
vi. Can Soften In Warm
vi. Hard, Nonresillent Surface Weather

vii. Adaptable To Curvilinear Forms vii. Soluble In Gasoline And

Kerosene
viii. Joints Are Required

ix. Relatively Low Tensile Strength

5.2 Unit Paving

Brick unit paving Granite unit paving Slate unit paving

Non-glare surface Hard and dense Durable

easily repaired Very durable under extreme Wide range of colors

weather conditions
wide color range Slow to weather
Will support heavy traffic
High installation cost Relatively expensive
Relatively expensive
Difficult to clean Can be slippery in wet
weather
Can disintegrate in freezing
weather
 5.3 Soft Paving

Turfgrass soft paving Turf blocks soft paving

Colourful Same as turf alone but has added stability to

withstand light vehicular loads
Relatively low installation cost
Requires high level of maintenance
Dust free Good drainage characteristics

Difficult and expensive to maintain

6.0 DESIGN CRITERIA

6.1 APPLICATION

6.1.1 Loading

Heavy, medium, & heavy duty applications generally refer to the type of
vehicular and pedestrian traffic which a pavements must accommodate.

6.1.2 Durability

Pavement design must accommodate sustained pavement loading as well

as maintenance methods and natural weathering effects

6.1.3 safety

Both vehicular and pedestrian pavements are required to be universally

accessible and safe, therefore constrained by texture, joinery, slope,
drainage and associated with site finishing.

6.2 CLIMATE
 Regional climate factors of daily temperature extremes, precipitation rate and
frequency, and frost/thaw cycles heavily influence pavement details and finishes.
Hot arid, hot humid, temperate, and cold.

6.3 SUBGRADE

Well-drained or clay subsoil, rooftop gardens, or other unique site Subgrade

features play a significant role in determining a structural pavement design
strategy. Well drained soils are idea for construction with regard to permeability
and bearing capacity. Clay soils are subjected to swelling thus have a high
potential for lateral shearing.

6.4 MAINTAINANCE

Annual maintenance for pavement typically requires periodic coating, pointing,

cleaning, and sealing of joints, repair of broken segments or settled areas, re-
sitting of unit pavers, and general sweeping to remove accumulated fines and
debris.

6.5 COST

Initial installation cost is a function of material cost, labour, business overhead

and profit required to install the pavement and associated support structure.
Every layer and associated operation carries a discreet cost per m. Cost
therefore may be considered as equal to the sum of each layer installation cost
per m.

7.0 DESIGN ASPECT

Pavement design has several aspects that are typically identified by the creative
expertise of the designer and that are then definitively determined through a collaboration
among different design disciplines working toward a common. The structural, functional
and aesthetical design aspects are interdependent , and often involve the application of
expertise from very difficult design disciplines.

7.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Involves determination of structural composition of pavement. Looks at entire

pavement system,full depth of soil,base material and its resistance to settling and
material failure. .Factors affecting location, climate, soil conditions.

7.2 FUNCTIONAL DESIGN

Determines the arrangements of paved areas with respect to their intended use
Includes highways, roads, streets, driveways, parking areas, sidewalks ,etc .
 Factors considered safety and accessibility , circulation and traffic, parking and
access.

7.3 AESTHETICAL DESIGN

Mainly focuses on appearance of the pavement. Requires knowledge and

expertise of design principles and characteristics.

8.0 PROCEDURE TO INSTALL PAVIOR

8.1 Excavation

Dig off as required, and dispose of spoil. The excavation depth for a typical domestic
driveway is 200-250mm below finished paving level, based on 100-150mm sub-base,
40mm sand bed and 50mm block. Typical builders' skips hold approximately 4.5 m of
excavated material, which, assuming a 200mm dig depth, works out that each 20-25 m
of paving will require 1 skip to dispose of spoil. Remember that excavated material bulks
up by 20-30%, so each 1m dug out will become 1.3m for disposal.

8.2 Sub-base

The sub-base should be profiled or graded to match the planned profile of the finished
paving and should be accurate to 10mm. There should be no voids within the sub-base
- any such voids should be filled with stone dust or grit sand and compacted before
placing the laying course.
 Spreading the sub-base complete the sub base

8.3 Edge Courses and Kerbs

Set up taut string lines to guide line and level of edge courses and kerbs.Edge
course bricks and kerbs should be laid onto a concrete bed. Check that straight
lines are indeed straight, and that the curves are 'sweet'. Once satisfied with the
lines and curves, edge courses and kerbs should be solidly haunched with
concrete at least 75mm thick.

Kerbas are laid first laying the edge course

8.4 Laying Course

Spread, level and compact laying course sand, and screed to correct level.

Screeding the laying course

8.5 Block laying

The plan calls for a 45 pattern, so a starter course of blocks square to the
building is established. 90 patterns are best started at a corner or main edge of
the building.

Laying of all full blocks continues, with the operatives working from the already
laid paving, not from the screeded laying course. The bricks (blocks) are
randomised prior to laying by selecting them from at least three open packs. this
helps prevent blotching or banding of colours and allows the paving to show off
the full range of hues to best effect.

Starting off the block laying

8.6 Alignment and compliance

Once all the full blocks are laid, they need to be checked for alignment by using a
string line stretched along the diagonal courses and adjusting as necessary,
using the alignment bar tool as shown in the photograph. Clay pavers often
require significant re-alignment as the imperfect rectangles are prone to drifting
off-line during the laying process. Concrete blocks, being moulded as perfect
rectangles, usually suffer less drift and so require less re-alignment, but they
should always be checked prior to cutting-in.

Use a taut string line to get the diaganol looking straight

8.7 cutting in

Once the alignment has been checked and verified, the edges can be cut in

Marking block before cutting

8.8 Jointing and compaction

The final task is jointing. This is done once all the cutting-in has been completed,
and the compliance checks carried out.Kiln-dried jointing sand is spread over the
block surface and swept into the joints using a soft brush

Use the brush t spread the jointing sand

8.9 completion

Excess jointing sand can be swept off the surface and it is now ready to be
used.The jointing sand may settle over the first few weeks and should be topped
up as soon as this becomes apparent. Many block pavements, of both clay and
concrete pavers, may exhibit efflorescence in their early life but this should
disappear within 12 months.
Rujukan

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