10. il 12. 13 14 15. 16 17. 18, 19 20. 21, 22. 23 Samyoga Vibhaga .- Parathwa_ .. Aparathwa Guruthwa Dravathwa .. Sneha Sabda . Buddhi . Sukha a Dukbay .. Ichcha o Dwesha Prayatnaf .. Dharma Adharma 36 - Conjunction or combinatioa (which can be seperated) ot integration Disjunction or seperation of disintegration A telative creiterion of compati sion with reference to time, and space, e.g., remotentss or prionty or anterionty Do, but the opposite of parathw, proximity or posteriority Heaviness ( gravitation ) Fluidity Viscosity (oiliness) Sound (audition ) Gnana, understanding or knoW- ledge Pleasure Pain or misery Desire (attraction ) Aversion, dishke or repulsion Action, effort, volition Merit, virtue, support, duty and law The opposite of No 22 7Doakkha or pain or micery, according to Sankhyakatiha arises out of the seperation of mind from what ts liked and union with what fs not liked. ane BeazarnPradaiente- 2 Behaviour such as effort etc., is sald to be action, (Charaka) saale wa ABa geet24 Samskara Restitution including motion, elasticity, memory and sclf- reproduction; (retention; en- duranee; reiteration ) It may be noted here that according to Vaiseshikas, hight and heat are different forms of the same substance. Jn ths description may perhaps be included electricity and magnetism Akasa, in ths view, is an uncompounded substance, infinite and cternal im nature — It is posited only as the substrate of sound, the vibrations of which 1s stated to travel wave-hhe Parnspandas in the manifesting medum~—the Vayu In fact, 1s the substrate of not only Sabda, but also sparsa, rupa, rasa and gandha Manas It was already seen that Manas or mind was described as atomic in its dimension and, therefore, capable of receiving "It as interesting to note that the Nyaya Vaiseththes recognised that all action of matter can be resolved into motion Fxceps Abasa which is none atomic and Incapable of any change ot activity (Nishknya), all paramanus from those of Vayu onwards are gtated to be In incessant motion of an anfinitude of continually whirling or vibratory particles BATE WReTaaal Tea aaa TANITA | gama. f& aaaiera warerdeen sardift 0 Udayana Kucumyal, ( Stavaha V) quoted by BN Seal in his Mechanical, Physical and Chemical Theones of the Ancient Hindus The effect and by the fame token the action of matenal esents are held to be the resultant of the combined motions of the various causes involved A ray of light connotes the teculinear propagation of extremely minute particles in all directions with inconaerable velocity. ara ig aufiaa oat wade, aia gaRET 0 { Udyotakara, Vachaspati, quoted by BN Seal) through the vehicle of air waves are stated to travel by concentric circles in many planes (Vide, The History of Hindu Chemistry by P.C Ray, Vol If, PP 218-29 ), Thesound waves in and38 only one sensation at a time and transmit the same to the Atman. It is stated to be eternal and distinct from both the body and the Atman with which it 1s intimately associated t This topic will be pursued again at a later stage Guruthva Guruthva means the mode of being heavy. This term 1s interpreted by Colebrook as gravity which ‘‘1s the peculiar cause of primary descent or falling” In the view of Udayanacharya, gravity is imperceptible and can be inferred from the act of falling. Vallabbacharya thinks that it 1s percerved in the position of a thing descending to a lower situation This mode 1s specially mbherent in Prithvi and Ap. Laguthva Laguthva or levity 1s the negation of Guruthva. Kala “Kala or Time, is the measure of change” says Charaka “are: g4 afta %* It is the relative dating of events and the interval that arises between two events in a t Charaka observes, '‘ The mind which is super sensual 1s designated as ‘Satva” and some call it ‘Chetah’ (consciousness) Its function 15 dependent on the presence of the mental obyect and the Atma It 1s the cause of the activity of the sense-organs ” arifaa gaa acqdad aa! gage aealen aga 22 ae wa yaiaraarong 1 Charaka, Sutra 8, 4 “ On account of the multiplicity or mental objects sense obiects and impulses, as also of the combinations of the quahties of Rajas, Tamas tnd Sutwa the mind appears as multifaceted in one and the same person There 1* 10 multipheity of minds, because a single mind cannot have contact with many sense objects simultaneously Hence all sense objects do not function at one and the same time "" * Charka, Vimana, 8, 7639 causal series. Ordinarily Kala or Time 1s teckoned with reference to the sun, and the time relationship that cxists between the sun and the carth, It 1s described in terms of Bhuta (1.c.) the past or priority, and Bhavishyat (1.c.) subsequence From a technical point of wew, which 1s important, Kala or Time is the unit of measurement of physical and chemical reactions and changes, or better still, physico-chemical reactions that take place at micro, molecular and atomic levels. Stated an general terms, Vaiscshikas consider Kala or Time as Vibhu or non-atomic and a Dravya (1 ¢.) an entity by atself which possesses measurable qualitics However, as stated above, it has special reference to physical and chemical changes. It is interesting to note in this connection that, extremely small fractions of tume have becn employed by both the ancient physicists and astronomers in their calculations, For example, the following Kalamana of the astronomers is sigmficant 30 Kshanas » | Day 2 Ghatikas -» 1 Kshana 30 Kalas . 1 Ghatka 30 Kashtas - 1 Kala 18 Nimeshas - 1 Kahshta, 30 Tatparas 1 Numesha and 100 Trutis~1 Tatpara + According to B N Seal, a trut: of Time 1s equal to gg ofa second, which 1s nearly the measurement of the paramanu of Time.* The ancient physicists computed Time as per table mentioned below: t Kalamanadbyaya, Bhaskara, Siddhanta-Slromanf, quoted by B,N. Seal in his ‘Mechanical, Physical and Chemical Theones of Ancient Hindus, ‘ History of Hinde Chemustry’ Vol P 158 * Ibid40 30 Muhurtas t Day (24 hours) 30 Kalas 1 Muhurta 30 Kashtas 1 Kala 18 Nimeshas .. 1 Kashtha 2 Lavas .. 1 Nimesha 2 Kshanas 1 Lavat “This makes I Kshana of Nyaya Vaiseshikas equal to 2/45 of a second. Nyaya considers that the unit of physical change or the time taken by a single antecedent step ina causal series (1.e€) prior to the oncoming step, 1s equal to a kshana (1 e) 2/45 of a second + The consideration of Kala or Time leads us on toa related topic viz, the measurement of the duration of time mvolved in physical and chemical changes It will be profitable to take note in this connection, of the Varseshiha concept of atomic agglomeration or integration. It was seen earlier, that in the view of Vaiseshikas, the entire universe 1s constituted with paramanus or atoms. Basing on the view that “the properties that exist in the causative factor are present in the resultant factor, t -each Paramanu was Stated to possess some special or specific properties~the things arising out of their combination, are held to develop the same properties (1. e.) specific to the respective paramanus This view 1s supported by the analogy of waves in a lake. Waves occur in a big lake or tank due to the action of the wind. The water constituting the wave 1s not structurally different from the water at the tibid “ogg aa nal Mage Baga) aurea fuged Greg a Fer! fraaren age. art Harare a 0 *Iind P 189 t BRT IT Gas FI DH eaeAq bottom of the lake In both cases (i.¢) the waves, and the water at the depths of the Inke are ahke composed of extremely small particles of water—the difference in the physical appearance between the former and the latter notwithstanding Jt should be remembered in this connection that paramanus do not occur im nature in an uncombined state. Peelupaka or Chemical Change Peelu means paramanu or atoms, and paka means the transformation or change brought akout m their relationship under the influence of heat and light) Tt as in this context that the reference made above and elsewhere to the fact that (1) the paramanus (atoms and molecules) do not occur in nature in an uncombined state, and (11) they combine in twos, threes, fours, and so on, to form molecules of Dwayanukas, Thrayanukas, Chaturanukas etc, become significant. The Vaiseshikas note that paramanus always combine, scparate and recombine under the influence of heat and ght or Tejas, which 1s of two hinds wz, endothermic and exothermic. The observed difference between one substance and another, or in fact, between all substances im regard to their colour, consis- tency, roughness, smoothness, ctc , 1s held to be duc to what is known as Pakabheda or difference im chemical reactions. “Tt 1s heat and heat alone that can cause transformation in respect of colour, taste, smell or physical characteristics of paramanus. These depend on (a) the nature of the constituent substances in contact; (b) the intensity or degree of heat described in terms of Khara, Mrudu and Madhyapakas and, (c) the species of the Tejas corpuscles that impinge on paramanus or atoms (and molecules) and the nature of the impact (Reaves: adi ),’** “7 asian, TREN PoeTe atte ene fag ager ae ay dia aay ea a aaa aaa. anda Test eT AAT 6. 49 Stated in brief, the Vaiseshika School holds that “there 1s decomposition into homogeneous atoms (paramanus) transformation of atomic qualities (qualities of paramanus) and finally their recombination, all under the influence of heat and light ” + The views expressed above are illustrated with the following example: In the process of the baking of a raw clay pot by apotter,* quick succession of changes are observed to take place in the material of the pot, in respect of its colour, density, consistency etc , similar to changes that take place during the process of the cooking of food. The Vaiseshikas interpret and explain the successive phases of transformation and change, as duc to the decomposition of the constituent molecules of the material of the pot into their component atoms (paramanus) and their subsequent recombination under altered spatial relationship, different from their original disposition in the material of the raw clay pot before the same was subjected to the action of heat. The entire process of change in the molecular and atomic alignment 1s stated to take place in three consecutive steps wz , 1, the decomposition of the maternal of the pot into its molecules, in the first stage ; nu the decomposition of the molecules into their constituent paramanus, in the second stage; aaRaNes cave frac sreoemmoeqe 3 area yee wera sro Wa, Aer adie qaqa aeaRaTeTal Hf freea 1 Vachospit I 1, Sutra 4 quoted by BN. Seal, Mechanical, Physical and Chemical Theones of Ancient Hindus’? — History of Hindu Chemistry b, Su P C Ray, Vol II P. 194. t Ibd * Under the condition of temperature prevalent in the potter's laln438 ni the recombination of the paramanus in new relationships and altered spatial wignments into molecules of two paramanus - Dwaya- nuhas; into molecules of three paramanus — Thrayanuhas, and into molecules of four paramunus ~ Chaturnukas, and so forth. Thus, in the finished baked pot, the spatial relationship that originally existed between one paramanu and another in the material of the origin’) unbakcd clay pot 1s altered, and altogether new relationships are established resulting on the exhibition of new properties tn respect of colour, density, consistency ete of the behed pat The process of transformations and changes referred to above, in terms of Kila er Time, are stated to take place as follows: Tt takes nine moments or Kshanas for the completion of the consummation of the change from the unbaked to baked state in the clay pot In the first moment (Kshana), the Dvayanuka is destroyed In the second moment (Kshana) the orginal black colour of the unbaked clay 1s destroxed = In the third moment (Kshana) a different colour ~ted—1s generated due to the influence of heat and hght In the fourth moment (Kshana) the parumanus combine to form the new substance. In the fifth moment (Kshana), the paramanus separate themselves from their old status (te) from their former place or the previous position In the sixth moment (Kshana) they separate themselves again In the seventh moment (Kshana) they combine with other paramanus In the eighth moment (Kshana) they again align themselves as molecules of two paramanus (7 ¢ ) Dwayanukes In the ninth moment (Kshana), the specific or the characteristic properties of the paramanus, such as colour, etc, manifest in the constituent Dwayanukas of44 the material of the now fully baked pot. Thus, in nine moments (Kshanas), the soft, dark, unbaked clay pot 1s transformed into the hard and red baked pot It will be seen from the foregoing that the Vaiseshikas held that, when a raw clay jar or pot is baked, the old yar or pot as the case may be 1s destroyed, mvolving pari pasu the decomposition of the several compounds of its Dwayanukas The production of new red colour i the molecules themselves 1s stated to be brought about by ‘thermal influence on the compounds formed by them eventually producing a new jar or pot, as the case may be The rapidity with which the successive steps in the process of transformation has been envisaged to occur is stated to prevent the eye from detecting each conse- cutive individual step The followers of purely the Nyaya School assert that, ‘the Tejas penetrates ito the different compounds of two or more atoms (paramanus ) and thereby changes, not the jar, but its colour etc The yar 1s still the same Jar; only it 1s red and not black,”’* The conception of physical and chemical changes of Vaiseshihas viz, the old theory of Peclupaka are suggestive of the following important facts of physical chemistry (1) The Paramanus, which as noted earlier correspond to matter described upto a few micrograms, and which for purposes of following and interpreting chemical reactions was found to be sufficient enough as now evidenced, are in a constant state of vibratory motion (2) The Vaiseshikas have resolved all physical action Into motion - molar, molecular and subtle - of mass, molecules and atoms respectively This motion 1s stated to be of the whirling or rotatory and circular, and also harmonic (eg vibration) in kind) This motion, as noted earlier, 15 * Based on Nyasa Varseshi}a, Ayarseda Sihsha- Philosophical Background, Chapter 2, section 1, Vol. II, pp 1617,15 spoken of as ‘parispanda* All matter - atoms, molecules and aggregates of molecules—are always in a state of parispanda, (3) The fact that paramanus do not in nature occur im an uncombined state having been pasited, the problem of what is known to-day as pseudo-unmmolecular reaction® does rot anise and such a reachon is usually a rare pheno- menon, The more common and frequent reaction as contemplated by the theory of Peclupaka, involving the association and dissociation of two, three and four molecules, should remind us of bimolecular | termolecular? and sull higher reactions of modern physical chemistry (4) Physico-chemical changes and — transformations involve contact between and collision of atoms and molecules respectncly, a fact which 1s imphed in Pechipake (5) Apart. from the fact that associations and dissociations of paramanus or molecules in the consecutive steps of Peelupaka imply te utilisation and release of energy respectively, the fact that thermal influences take a leading part in accelerating or retarding the process of Paka or reactions will also emerge The theory of Peclupaka implies the formation of Exothermc compounds and Endothermic compounds, * Unimolecular reactions irewhose in which the reaction velocity is proportional 10 the first power of the concentration of the reacting rubstance = They are not £0 common and we rare and they do not represent homogenans reactions atall and they occur only in the gaseous phase fn Limolecclar reactions, the concentration of to molecular species may vary or two molecules of the same species may disappear as a result of the reactions = ‘Thir Jind of reaction is most common tin Termolecular and reactions of higher order, the concentrations of three molecular species vary dunng the change or three molecules of the sume species enter Into the rezction, This kind of reaction is rare “Compounds which are formed with the evolution of heat are called the Exothermic componnds These compounds are stable at ordinary tempera-