Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
BY
Supervisor:
Dr: Kamal Ramadan
A REPORT SUBMITTED TO
University of Khartoum
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
B.Sc. (HONS) Electrical and Electronic Engineering
(POWER ENGINEERING)
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
July 2010
DIDCATION
To my family
To my mates
To my country
I
Acknowledgement
First of all I am pleased for ALLAH blessings in finishing writing
these papers so I say alhamdullah.
II
ABSTRACT
Losses of power transmission are considered as a measure of transmission
efficiency, the less the power lost the more efficient the transmission system,
the reduction of this lost power increases the power which can be used and
delivered to the consumers to be sold instead of being lost. This report is about
High voltage Direct current transmission; it mentions the advantages of using
HVDC in transmission exactly the effect in transmission losses reduction. In
order to examine this effect a number of DC links are used for power
transmission, instead of AC transmission lines with application on the
Sudanese national grid. The project resulted in transmission losses reduction
about 14% in case of peak load .The simulation program ETAP was used to
construct the network model and implementation of DC links specified in
order to simulate the network and to get load flow results.
,
.
.
.
.
) ETAP (
.
. %14
III
Table of Contents
Dedication......I
Acknowledgement.......II
Abstract...III
.......III
Table of Contents.................................................................................IV
List of Figures.....VII
List of Tables.........................................................................................VIII
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 3
2.2History of HVDC transmission ......................................................... 3
2.3 HVDC Configurations ...................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Monopole and earth return ........................................................ 6
2.3.2Bipolar ........................................................................................ 7
2.3.3Back to back ............................................................................... 8
2.4 Systems with transmission lines ....................................................... 9
2.5 Tri-pole: current-modulating control ................................................ 9
2.6 Advantages & disadvantages HVDC ............................................. 10
2.6.1 Advantages: ............................................................................. 10
2.6.1Disadvantages: .......................................................................... 11
2.7 Environmental considerations ........................................................ 12
IV
2.7.1 Field and corona effects ........................................................... 12
CHAPTER III: System components modeling ........................................ 15
VI
List of Figures
Figure 2-1:Thury HVDC transmission system....4
Figure 2-2: Block diagram of a monopole system with earth return.......6
Figure 2-3: Block diagram of a bipolar system that also has an earth
return.........................................................................................................7
Figure3.1: 2-windings transformer equivalent circuit...15
Figure 3.2: Equivalent circuit of a three-winding transformer.16
Figure 3.3: Transmission line equivalent circuit...19
Figure 3.4: major elements of the convertor.20
Figure 3.5 Symbol for controlled valve.....21
Figure 3.6 Three-phase, full-wave bridge circuit...21
Figure 3.7 Equiv circuit for three-phase full-wave bridge converter23
Figure 3.8 waveforms of voltages and currents of bridge circuit of figure
3.7............................................................................................................24
Figure 3.9: voltage wave forms and valve currents, with ignition delay.26
Figure 3.10: Line Current waveform.27
Figure 3.11: Effect of overlap angle on periods of conduction of valves28
Figure 3.12: periods of valve conduction with ignition delay......28
Figure 3.13: Equivalent circuit during commutation......29
Figure 3.14: valve currents during commutation in relation to
commutation voltage..31
Figure 3.15: Voltage waveforms showing the effect of overlap during
commutation from valve 1 to valve 3.31
Figure 3.16: Bridge rectifier equivalent circuit...33
Figure 3.18: Angles used in rectifier and inverter...35
Figure 3.19: Inverter equivalent circuits (with positive)..36
Figure 3.20: Schematic representation of a three-phase synchronous
generator...............................................................................................37
Figure 3.21: AC & DC costs break even at about 500 Km....55
VII
List of tables
Table 4.1: DC links and AC loses and DC loses for each and the
percentage of saving.54
VIII
Chapter one Introduction 2011
Chapter I
Introduction
HV is needed to transmit power over long distance offering numerous
potential benefits to utilities seeking to meet load growth, minimizing the
transmission losses as less as possible putting in mind the economic constraint,
relieve transmission congestion, and increase grid reliability. Also the higher the
voltage the longer the electricity can be carried without much losses.
1.2 Objectives:
HVDC project aims to develop a model to represent HVDC transmission
system in order to be connected with other components of power system and to apply
and analysis HVDC transmission on the Sudanese national grid.
1.3 Methodology:
The methods were Combination of theoretical & mathematical methods and
simulation implementations. In order to develop a model including the HVDC link
and its controllers together with the interfaces with AC power systems.
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Chapter one Introduction 2011
1.4 Tools:
Simulation based on the model will be performed to review the system
performance specially on the losses side using ETAP power system program
especially the load flow application package.
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
High voltage is used for electric long distance power transmission to reduce
the energy lost in the resistance of the wires. For a given quantity of power
transmitted, higher voltage reduces the transmission power loss. The power lost as
heat in the wires is proportional to the square of the current. So if a given power is
transmitted at higher voltage and lower current, power loss in the wires is reduced.
Power loss can also be reduced by reducing resistance, for example by increasing the
diameter of the conductor, but larger conductors are heavier and more expensive.
High voltages cannot easily be used for lighting and motors, and so
transmission-level voltages must be reduced to values compatible with end-use
equipment. Transformers are used to change the voltage level in alternating current
(AC) transmission circuits. The competition between the direct current (DC) of
Thomas Edison and the AC of Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse was known as
the War of Currents, with AC emerging victorious. Practical manipulation of DC
voltages became possible with the development of high power electronic devices such
as mercury arc valves and, more recently, semiconductor devices such as thyristors,
insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), high power MOSFETs and gate turn-off
thyristors (GTOs).[1]
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
5,000 volts on each machine, some machines having double commutators to reduce
the voltage on each commutators. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over
a distance of 120 km[3].
In 1902 Hewitt developed the first mercury arc rectifier , which was an
efficient way of converting alternating current power to direct current for use in
electric railways, industry, and HVDC power transmission[4].
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
batteries, then connect the batteries in parallel to serve distribution loads. While at
least two commercial installations were tried around the turn of the 20th century, the
technique was not generally useful owing to the limited capacity of batteries,
difficulties in switching between series and parallel connections, and the inherent
energy inefficiency of a battery charge/discharge cycle[5][6].
By the latter part of the 19th century the AC power transformer had
progressed to a practical reality and when combined with Teslas work on 3-phase
systems the transformer became the catalyst for the development of efficient power
transmission. Because, at that time, static converter equipment did not exist, the DC
technology could not benefit from this breakthrough and its use as a transmission
medium lapsed.[7]
But engineers never forgot the advantages of DC and by the 1930s the
appearance of the mercury-arc valve led many to contemplate the return of DC
transmission .In the period 1920 to 1940 The grid controlled mercury arc valve was
used for power transmission .In 1932, General Electric tested mercury-vapor valves
and a 12 kV DC transmission line, which was used to convert 40 Hz generation to
serve 60 Hz loads, at Mechanicville, New York. In 1941, a 60 MW, +/-200 kV,
115 km buried cable link was designed for the city of Berlin using mercury arc valves
(Elbe-Project), but owing to the collapse of the German government in 1945 the
project was never completed[8]. The main reason of executing the project was that
buried cables would be less conspicuous as a bombing target in wars. The equipment
was moved to the Soviet Union and was put into service there. [9]
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
Modern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically 1,500 MW.
If underground or underwater cables are used, the typical value is 600 MW.
2.3.2Bipolar
In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential
with respect to ground, in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated
for the full voltage, transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return
conductor.
Figure 2-3: Block diagram of a bipolar system that also has an earth return
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
2.3.3Back to back
A back-to-back station (or B2B for short) is a plant in which both static
inverters and rectifiers are in the same area, usually in the same building. The length
of the direct current line is kept as short as possible. HVDC back-to-back stations are
used for:
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points, are rare. The
configuration of multiple terminals can be series, parallel, or hybrid (a mixture of
series and parallel). Parallel configuration tends to be used for large capacity stations,
and series for lower capacity stations. An example is the 2,000 MW Quebec - New
England Transmission system opened in 1992, which is currently the largest multi-
terminal HVDC system in the world[11].
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
Additional losses are generated through the cable due to the Additional current
which must flow in the cable to charge the cable capacitance when using the
alternating current also; there is a dielectric loss component in the material of the
cable insulation, which consumes power. When, however, direct current is used, the
cable capacitance is charged only when the cable is first energized or when the
voltage is changed; there is no steady-state additional current required. For a long AC
Page
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
undersea cable, the entire current-carrying capacity of the conductor could be used to
supply the charging current alone. The cable capacitance issue limits the length and
power carrying capacity of AC cables. DC cables have no such limitation, and are
essentially bound by only Ohm's Law.
4. For a given power rating, the constant voltage in a DC line is lower than the
peak voltage in an AC line; so HVDC can carry more power per conductor.
5. Because DC operates at a constant maximum voltage, this allows existing
transmission line corridors with equally sized conductors and insulation to
carry more power into an area of high power consumption than AC, which can
lower costs.
6. HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution
systems so it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading
failures from propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to
another.
7. HVDC seems particularly suited to many renewable energy sources such as
Sources of supply (hydro, geothermal, wind, tidal) are often distant from
demand centers, Wind turbines operating at variable speed generate power at
different frequencies, requiring conversions to and from DC and Large hydro
projects, for example, also often supply multiple transmission systems.
2.6.1Disadvantages:
1. HVDC is less reliable and has lower availability than AC systems, mainly due
to the extra conversion equipment [12].
2. The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity.
At smaller transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be
bigger than in an AC transmission line. The cost of the inverters may not be
offset by reductions in line construction cost and lower line loss. With two
exceptions, all former mercury rectifiers worldwide have been dismantled or
replaced by thyristor units.
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11
Chapter two Literature Review 2011
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
2. The steady and direct magnetic field of a d.c. transmission line near or at the
edge of the transmission right-of-way will be about the same value in
magnitude as the earths naturally occurring magnetic field. For this reason
alone, it seems unlikely that this small contribution by HVDC transmission
lines to the background geomagnetic field would be a basis for concern.
3. The static and steady electric field from d.c. transmission at the levels
experienced beneath lines or at the edge of the right-of-way have no known
adverse biological effects. There is no theory or mechanism to explain how a
static electric field at the levels produced by d.c. transmission lines could
affect human health. The electric field level beneath a HVDC transmission
line is of similar magnitude as the naturally occurring static field which exists
beneath thunder clouds. Electric fields from a.c. transmission lines have been
under more intense scrutiny than fields generated from d.c. transmission lines.
4. The ion and corona effects of d.c. transmission lines lead to a small
contribution of ozone production to higher naturally occurring background
concentrations. Exacting long term measurements are required to detect such
concentrations. The measurements taken at cross-sections across the Nelson
River d.c. lines in Canada failed to distinguish background from downwind
levels. While solar radiation influences the production of ozone even in a rural
environment, thereby maintaining its level, any incremental contribution from
a d.c. line source is subject to breakdown, leading to a resumption of
background levels downwind from the line. Investigations of ozone for indoor
conditions indicate that in well mixed air, the half-life of ozone is 1.5 minutes
to 7.9 minutes. Increases in temperature and humidity increase the rate of
decay.
5. If ground return is used with monopolar operation, the resulting d.c. magnetic
field can cause error in magnetic compass readings taken in the vicinity of the
d.c. line or cable. This impact is minimized by providing a conductor or cable
return path (known as metallic return) in close proximity to the main
conductor or cable for magnetic field cancellation. Another concern with
continuous ground current is that some of the return current may flow in
metallic structures such as pipelines and intensify corrosion if cathodic
protection is not provided. When pipelines or other continuous metallic
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Chapter two Literature Review 2011
grounded structures are in the vicinity of a d.c. link, metallic return may be
necessary [13].
Page
14
Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
CHAPTER III
where
1
=
1
=
2 (3.1)
= 0 + 0
0
0
=
0
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
The three windings of the transformer may have different MVA ratings.
However, the per unit impedances must be expressed on the same MVA base. As in
the case of the two-winding transformer equivalent circuit in the previous section, off-
nominal turns ratios are used to account for the differences between the ratios of
actual turns and the base voltages. The values of the equivalent impedances Zp, Zs
and Zt may be obtained by standard short-circuit tests as follows [14]:
Zps = leakage impedance measured in primary with secondary shorted and tertiary
open
Zpt = leakage impedance measured in primary with tertiary shorted and secondary
open
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
Zst = leakage impedance measured in secondary with tertiary shorted and primary
open
With the above impedances in ohms referred to the same voltage base, we have
= +
= + (3.2)
= +
Hence
1
= +
2
1
= ( + ) (3.3)
2
1
= ( + )
2
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
Overhead lines :
Overhead lines are used for long distances in open land and rural regions,
whereas cables are used for underground transmission in cities and urban areas and
for underwater crossings [14].
= 2 0 +
= 2 0 sin +
(3.4
= 2 0
= 2 + 0 + + cos
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
Where
= , = , =
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
A thyristor valve will conduct only when the anode is positive with respect to
the cathode and when there is a positive voltage applied to the gate. Conduction may
be initiated by applying a momentary or sustained current pulse of proper polarity to
the gate.
Once conduction is initiated, the current through the valve continues until
current drops to zero and a reverse voltage bias appears across the valve. In the
forward direction, the current is blocked until a control pulse is applied to the gate.
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
When not conducting, the valve should be capable of withstanding the forward or
reverse bias voltages appearing between its cathode and anode[14].
Figure 3.5 shows the symbol used to represent a controlled valve (mercury-arc or
thyristor).
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
The converter transformer has on-load taps on the ac for voltage control. The ac side
windings of the transformer are usually star-connected with grounded neutral; the
valve side-windings are delta-connected or star-connected with ungrounded
neutral[14].
(b) The direct current Id is constant and ripple-free; this is justified because of the
large smoothing reactor Ld used on the dc side.
(c) The valves are ideal switches with zero resistance when conducting, and
infinite resistance when not conducting.
Due to the assumptions, the bridge converter of figure 3.6 may be represented by the
equivalent circuit shown in figure 3.7.
( + 60 )
= cos
( 60 )
= cos (3.6)
( 180 )
= cos
( + 30 )
= = 3 cos
( 90 )
= = 3 cos (3.7)
( + 150 )
= = 3 cos
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
Figure 3.8(a) shows the voltage waveforms corresponding to equations 3.6 and 3.7. In
case of negligible source inductance (i.e. Lc=0) and no ignition delay. Well discuss
convertor performance; study the effects of the delaying valve ignition through
gate/grid control and then the effect of source inductance.
In figure 3.7, the cathode of valves 1, 3 and 5 of the upper row are connected
together. Therefore, when phase (a) is more positive than the other two phases,
valve 1 conducts. The common potential of the cathodes of the three valves is
then equal to that of the anode of valve 1. Since the cathodes of valves 3 and 5
are at a higher potential than their anodes, these valves do not conduct. In the
lower row, the anodes of valves 2, 4 and 6 are connected together. Therefore,
valve 2 conducts when phase c voltage is more negative than the other two
phases.
From the waveforms shown if fig 3.8(a) we see that valve 1 conducts when
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
Figure 3.8 waveforms of voltages and currents of bridge circuit of figure 3.7
Figure 3.8(b), identifies the period of conduction of each valve, and the
magnitude and duration of current in it. Since, by assumption, the direct
current Id is assumed constant, the current in each valve is Id when conducting
and zero when not conducting.
The transfer of current from one valve to another in the same row is
called commutation in the above analysis; we have assumed that the source
inductance Lc is negligible. Therefore, commutation occurs instantaneously,
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
The instantaneous direct voltage across the bridge (between the cathodes
of the upper row and the anode of the lower row) is composed of 60 degrees segments
of the line-to-line voltage. Therefore, the average direct voltage can be found by
integrating one of these segments.
3 0
0 = 3 cos( + 30) (3.8A)
60
3 2 sin 30 = 1.65
Where
In terms of RMS line to line ELL and line to neutral ELN voltages Vdo becomes
The grid control could delays the ignition of the valves. The delay angle is denoted
by (); it corresponds to time delay of / seconds. With delay, valve 3 ignites when
= (instead of 0), valve 4 when =+60and so on this is illustrated in figure
3.9.The delay angle is limited between 0 and 180. Exceeding 180 the valve fails to
ignite.
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
3
=
(60)
3
= 3 cos( + 30)
(60)
= 0 (3.9)
Figure 3.9: voltage wave forms and valve currents, with ignition delay
The delay ignition reduces the average direct voltage by the factor cos , since is in
the range from 0 to 180 cos . Therefore can be a range from 0 to 0 .
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
The ignition delay shifts the current wave and its fundamental component by
an angle = . In figure 3.10 with =0, the fundamental current component ia1 is in
phase with the phase voltage ea; the active power = 1 is positive and
power decreases and the reactive power increases .At =90 = 0 and is
Due to inductance Lc the transition of current from one phase to another one
requires a finite time called commutation time or overlap time. The corresponding
overlap or commutation angle is denoted by .
A new commutation begins every 60 and last for . So the period of only
two valves conduct with no ignition delay (=0) is 60 - as shown in figure3.11 .
During each commutation period the current the current in the incoming valve
increases from 0 to and the current in the outgoing valve decreases from to 0.
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
During the period of commutation, valves 1, 2 and 3 are conducting and the effective
convertor circuit is as showing in figure 3.13 from the figure, for the loop containing
valves 1 and 3
3 1
=
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
3 1
3 = (3.10A)
Since 1 = 3
1 3
=0
Hence
3
= 3 = 2 (3.10B)
3 3
= (3.10C)
2
Taking a definite integral with respect to t, with lower limit corresponding to the
beginning of the commutation (t=/) and upper limit to t we have the current 3 of
the incoming valve during commutation consists of two terms const term and
sinusoidal one lagging the commutating voltage by90.
From figure 3.13 the commutation current is segment of the sinusoidal curve .the
shape of the segment is function of the so the overlap depends on 3 , , .
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
When =0 (or 180) the commutation period is the gretest and it is the shortest when
=90
3 3
0
3 =
2
3
So it gives 3 = (3.11A)
2
3 = 2 ( ) ,
3
2 = (3.11B)
2
3
==
3
=
2
+
= = =
2 2
That means that voltage at terminal p as In figure 3.13 after t= follows the curve of
+
2
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
Figure 3.15: Voltage waveforms showing the effect of overlap during commutation
from valve 1 to valve 3
So the drop in voltage due to overlap can be found by calculating area A and So the
average voltage drop is given by
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
+
= =
2 2
3 3
= (cos cos ) (3.10)
2 2
3 3
= = (cos cos )
3 2
= (cos cos ) (3.9)
2
3
3 =
2
3
=
2
Hence
3
= (3.13)
2
3
= (3.14)
With commutation overlap and ignition delay, the reduction in direct voltage is
represented by areas and ; the direct voltage is given by
= cos (3.15)
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
= cos
Where
3 3
= =
Rectifier operation
The equivalent circuit of the bridge rectifier based on the above analysis is given in
Figure 3.16. The direct voltage and current in the equivalent circuit are the average
values. The internal voltage is a function of the ignition angle . The overlap angle
does not explicitly appear in the equivalent circuit; the effect of commutation overlap
is represented by . [14].
Inverter operation
With overlap
= cos
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
= cos (cos cos )
2
= (cos cos ) (3.16)
2
The transitional value of the ignition delay angle, at, beyond which inversion takes
place is given by
cos cos = 0
= =
= (3.17)
2
Since valves conduct in only one direction, the current in a converter cannot
be reversed. A reversal of Vd results in a reversal of power. An alternating voltage
must exist on the primary side of the transformer for inverter operation. The direct
voltage of the inverter opposes the current, as in a dc motor, and is called a counter
voltage or back voltage. The applied direct voltage from the rectifier forces current
through the inverter valves against this back voltage[14]..
For successful commutation, the changeover from the outgoing valve to the
incoming valve must be complete before the commutating voltage becomes negative.
For description of rectifier operation, we use the following angles:
=ignition delay angle
=overlap angle
=extinction delay angle =+
As illustrated in Figure3.18, is the angle by which ignition is delayed from the
instant at which the commutating voltage ( for valve 3) is zero and increasing.
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
The inverter operation may also be described in terms of a and 6 defined in the same
way as for the rectifier, but having values between 90 and 180. However, the
common practice is to use ignition advance angle and extinction advance angle for
describing inverter performance. These angles are defined by their advance with
respect to the instant (wt=180 for ignition of valve 3 and extinction of valve 1) when
the commutating voltage is zero and decreasing, as shown in Figure 3.18 From the
figure, we see that
= ignition advancs angle
= extinction adance angle
= = = overlap
since cos = cos and cos = cos equation 3.13 and equation 3.16 becomes
in terms of and
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
= 2 (3.18)
+
= (3.19)
2
Or
= cos + (3.20A)
Or
= cos (3.20B)
Based on the above equations, the inverter may be represented by the two alternative
equivalent circuits shown in Figure3.19[14].
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
The relative position of the rotor with respect to the stator is given by the angle _
between the rotors direct axis and the stators phase a axis, termed the d axis and a
axis, respectively. In the stator, the axis of phases a, b, and c are displaced from each
other by 120 electrical degrees. In the rotor, the d axis is magnetically centered in the
north pole of the machine. A second axis, located 90 electrical degrees behind the d
axis is termed the quadrature axis or q axis. Three main control systems directly affect
the turbine-generator set, namely the boilers firing control, the governor control, and
the excitation system control. The excitation system consists of the exciter and
absolute value rectifier (AVR). The latter regulates the generator terminal voltage by
controlling the amount of current supplied to the field winding by the exciter. For the
purpose of steady-state analysis, it is assumed that the three control systems act in an
idealized manner, enabling the synchronous generator to produce constant power
output, to run at synchronous speed, and to regulate voltage magnitude at the
generators terminal with no delay and up to its reactive power design limits[16].
0
= 0
+
0
+
3.22
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
0
= 0 3.25
0 0
0 0 0
= 0 0 , 3.28 = 0 0 3.29
0 0 0 0
Since the rotor circuits are represented by a field winding on the d axis and two short
circuited damper windings on the d axis and q axis, respectively, the rotor voltage
vector may be written as:
= 0 , 3.30
0
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
Where is the applied direct field For the purpose of steady-state analysis, it will
be assumed that the applied direct field voltage equals the voltage drop across the
field resistance owing to the DC component of the field current and that additional
voltages from can be neglected. Using such a simplification, the relevant part of
Equation (3.22) is solved for :
= 1
[ + . 3.31
The expression for pir can be further simplified by substituting the inverse relation of
Equation (3.25) into Equation (3.33):
1 cos
(m )
= 3
=1 2 cos(m ) 3.35
3 sin
(m )
Where
1 = 1
3.36
2 =
It should be mentioned that the following practical simplifications have been made
while substituting the inverse relation of Equation (3.25) into Equation (3.33): Lfd is
much greater than Lmkd, and Lkq = Lkd.
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
Where ifd ,is the DC component of the field current. Inspection of Equation (3.34) and
(3.37) reveals that the presence of negative sequence currents at the machine
terminals gives rise to rotor currents of double the supply frequency.
In contrast, positive sequence currents are associated with zero frequency rotor
currents, other than the direct field current. Also, owing to balanced machine design
considerations, there is no contribution from zero sequence currents:
Substituting Equations (3.35) and (3.37) into Equation (3.22) we obtain a reduced
expression for the stator voltage vector:
0 0 1 sin
( + 1 )
0 0 2 sin
( + 2 ) +
0 0 3 sin
( + 3 )
1 1 1 1 sin
( + 1 )
0 1 1 1 2 sin
( + 2 ) +
1 1 1 3 sin
( + 3 )
cos
( + 1 ) cos
( + 2 120) cos
( + 3 + 120) 1
(1 22 )
cos( + 1 + 120 cos( + 2 ) ( + 3 120) 2
cos
4
cos
( + 1 120) cos( + 2 + 120 cos
( + 3 ) 3
1 sin
()
2 sin
( + 120) . 3.38
3 sin
( + + 120)
The last term in Equation (3.38) may be interpreted as an array of rotor emfs.
Moreover,
taking the stator a phase as reference,
V1 sin
()
= V2 sin( + 2 ) 3.39
V3 sin( + 3 )
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
It is seen that a root mean square (rms) form of Equation (3.38) may be established
very readily. Also, by negating the stator currents to correspond to generator operating
conditions, we have
= + 1 + 2 + 3 + 3.40
Where
0 0 0
1 = 0 0 0 3.41
0 0 0
(1 22 )
1 2
1 = 1 2 3.42
4
2 1
2 2
1 2
3 = 1 2 3.43
2
2 1
1
0 = 3 ( + + 0 )
1
0 = 6 ( + 20 ) 3.44
1
2 = 3 ( )
Equation (3.40) includes the effect of machine saliency through matrix X3, where
(Xd - Xq) expresses the degree of saliency. Notice that if saliency can be ignored (i.e.
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Chapter Three System components modeling 2011
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
CHAPTER IV
ETAP has been designed and developed by engineers for engineers to handle
the diverse discipline of power systems for a broad spectrum of industries in one
integrated package with multiple interface views such as AC and DC networks, cable
raceways, ground grid, GIS, panels, arc-flash, WTG, protective device
coordination/selectivity, and AC and DC control system diagrams.
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
ETAP keeps track of the detailed data for each electrical apparatus. Data editors can
speed up the data entry process by requiring the minimum data for a particular study.
ETAP one-line diagram supports a number of features that assist in constructing networks of
varying complexities. For example, each element can have individually varying orientations,
sizes, and display symbols (IEC or ANSI). The one-line diagram also allows to place
multiple protective devices between a circuit branch and a bus.
Among ETAP most powerful features are the composite network and motor
elements. Composite elements allow to graphically nest network elements within
themselves down to an arbitrary depth.
4.1.2 Capabilities
Elements
Buses Unlimited *
Load Terminal Nodes Unlimited
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
Branches Unlimited
Equipment/Feeder Cables Unlimited
Transformers with Tap Setting Unlimited
Motors, Loads, MOVs, Capacitors, Filters, etc. Unlimited
Nested Composite Networks Unlimited
Nested Composite Motors Unlimited
Presentations/Configurations/Data Revisions
One-Line Diagram (AC, DC) Unlimited
Underground Raceway System Unlimited
Control System Diagrams Unlimited
Ground Grid Diagrams Unlimited
Time-Current Characteristic Plots Unlimited
Geographical Presentations (GIS Interface) Unlimited
Configuration Status Unlimited
Data Revisions (Base and Revision Data) Unlimited
Loading Categories
Each Motor, MOV, Load, etc. 10 categories
Generation Categories
Each Generators and Power Grids 10categories
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
DC System
Duty Cycle Categories 5
Libraries
Headers and Records Unlimited
* The Maximum number of energized buses during calculations is license dependent.
For example, 100, 500, 2,000, or 20,000 buses.
4.1.3 Specifications
Modeling[17]
Features
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
Alert View
ETAP displays this view to summarize possible problems with the electrical system
including overloads, under/over voltage bus conditions, stressed devices, etc.
Etap Provides more than 250 Crystal Reports for different studies including the
following subsections: complete, results, customizable, report, summary and input
data.
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
And many other capabilities like :Panel and Single-Phase Systems, Short-Circuit
Analysis, Time-Current Device Coordination/Selectivity (Star),Arc Flash IEEE
1584,Motor Acceleration Analysis, Harmonic Analysis, Transient Stability Analysis,
User-Defined Dynamic Modeling , Generator Start-Up Analysis, Cable Derating
Analysis, Ground Grid Systems Optimal Power Flow, Schedule Report Manager, DC
Load Flow and DC Short-Circuit Analysis, Control System Diagram Reliability
Analysis, Unbalanced Load Flow, Optimal Capacitor Placement, Real-Time
Intelligent Load Shedding and Wind Turbine Generator (WTG)[17].
Branch i.e. transformer, Transmission Line, Cable, Reactor, and Impedance required
data for load flow calculations includes:
Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and temperature, if applicable
Cable and transmission line, length, and unit
Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings
Impedance base kV and base kVA/MVA
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
Required data for load flow calculations for synchronous generators includes:
Operating mode (Swing, Voltage Control, or Mvar Control)
Rated kV
%V and Angle for swing mode of operation
%V, MW loading, and Mvar limits (max & min) for Voltage Control mode
MW and Mvar loading, and Mvar limits Mvar Control mode
MW loading and PF, and Mvar limits for PF Control mode
Note: The Mvar limits (Qmax and Qmin) can also be calculated from the
capability curve. The required additional data for this calculation includes:
All data on the Capability page
Synchronous reactance (Xd)
Required data for load flow calculations for static loads includes:
Static Load ID
Rated kVA/MVA and kV
Power factor
% Loading for desired Loading Category
Equipment cable data
Required data for load flow calculations for lumped loads includes:
I. Conventional
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
Load ID
Rated kV, kVA/MVA, power factor, and % motor load
% Loading for desired Loading Category
II. Unbalanced
Load ID
Rated kV, kVA/MVA, power factor, % motor load, and % static load
% Loading for desired Loading Category
III. Exponential
Load ID
Rated kV, P0, Q0, a, and b
% Loading for desired Loading Category
IV. Polynomial
Load ID
Rated kV, P0, Q0, p1, p2, q1, and q2
% Loading for desired Loading Category
V. Comprehensive
Load ID
Rated kV, P0, Q0, a1, a2, b1, b2, p1, p2, p3, p4, q1, q2, q3, and q4
% Loading for desired Loading Category
Required data for load flow calculations for HVDC links includes:
Element ID
All data on the Rating page is required for Load Flow calculations
Inverter current margin (Im)
There are some study case related data, which must also be provided. This includes:
Method (Newton-Raphson, Fast-Decoupled, or Accelerated Gauss-Seidel)
Max Iteration
Precision
Acceleration Factor (when Accelerated Gauss-Seidel method is selected)
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
Loading Category
Initial Voltage Condition
Report (report format) [17].
4.3.1 STAGE I
The network data has been collect from many sources, presented in
Appendices (I, II, III, IV& V) .Then network model was built using ETAP Editor as
follows :
Firstly: The general view of the network: (i.e. the generators ,transformers ,bus bars
,transmission lines and loads ) is constructed . No data was entered specified in any
component except bus bars voltages and its names.
Secondly: Entering Data did not bump into any problem in generators and lines
until entry of transformers, a missing data appeared which was the X/R ratio. So in
order to overcome this problem the LDC was consulted about this data, they replied
that they dont use this part of data in there calculation and they assume it to be
infinity but as far as Eng. Mohammed Amin : this value in the distribution is in the
range 5-10 and in the transmission is to be so much larger and he informed that some
studies are done usin ETAP software and they have constructed a model for the
network and the value of X/R entered was 15. Also D. karar was consulted about X/R
Ratio also he confirmed on Eng.Amin information and suggested 15 as a value for
X/R ratio.
The excel files contains some additional data about busbars & generators
&lines does not exist in the single line diagram , also as far as our knowledge
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
some parts of the network is missing in the single line diagram and also its
corresponding data were missed.
The load data is not complete since the only available data is the MVA rating
and the other data is not available
because of the previous reasons a visit to the LDC was decided to
complete missing data .
4.3.2 STAGE II
In our visit to the LDC a comparison between the LDCs network model and the
model has been constructed was the first thing done. Many things have been
noticed:
The LDCs engineers mentioned that the data contains some future planned
components, and the network is changing with time and every couple of weeks a new
components enters the network.
The loading data are the values of load for the last year2010 with total losses
of 60 MW these data contains the load (real power and reactive power ) connected to
110KV and 220Kv bus bars, and the peak load values if assumed to be 120% of the
given data as their advising Appendix (VI). Unfortunately the constructed model has
its loads connected to 33 ,11,110 & 220Kv bus bars .to bypass this bump for 11 &
33Kv ; the load were connected directly to the 110Kv and 220Kv bus bars and the
transformers of 33Kv and 11Kv are deleted.
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
By the end of this stage the first load flow for the model was done ,with some
marginal and critical alarms(limits violations in component).
All critical alarms were cleared and the marginal ones were reduced and full
report of the system was printed and the most vital info is that the total losses tend to
be 32.847MW Appendix (VII) .
All HVDC links implemented and AC link taken out of service are listed in
table 4.1
% of
Link Voltage AC
Form bus To bus DC losses saved
type ratings losses
power
Merwie
HVDC Kabashi 800Kv 4.443MW 2.687MW 39.5%
hydro
Port
HVDC Atbra 500Kv 812KW 235KW 71.1%
Sudan
Sennar
HVDC Roseires 500Kv 3.901MW 1.944MW 50.1%
junction
Table 4.1: DC links and AC loses and DC loses for each and the percentage of saving.
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Chapter Four Implementation and simulation 2011
Page 55
Chapter Five Conclusion and Future work 2011
Chapter 5
Page 56
References 2011
References
1. Narain G. Hingorani in IEEE Spectrum magazine, 1996.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel3/6/10407/00486634.pdf?tp=&arnumber=486634
&isnumber=10407
2. Xiangjiaba - Shanghai 800 kV UHVDC transmission project ,ABB HVDC
website.
http://www.abb.com/industries/ap/db0003db004333/148bff3c00705c5ac12577
4900517d9d.aspx
3. Rio Madeira,The longest transmission link in the world - 2,500 kilometers.
ABB HVDC website.
http://www.abb.com/industries/ap/db0003db004333/137155e51dd72f1ec1257
74b004608ca.aspx
4. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)Transmission Systems Technology
Review Paper, Roberto Rudervall : ABB power Systems, J.P. Charpentier:
World Bank , Raghuveer Sharma: ABB Financial Services
5. Wikipedia website. www.en.wikipedia.edu/High-voltage direct current
6. ACW's Insulator Info - Book Reference Info - History of Electrical Systems
and Cables
7. R. M. Black ,The History of Electric Wires and Cables, Peter Perigrinus,
London 1983 ISBN 086341 001 4 pages 94-96
8. Alfred Still, Overhead Electric Power Transmission, McGraw Hill, 1913 page
145, available from the Internet Archive
9. "Shaping the Tools of Competitive Power"
http://web.archive.org/web/20050826155135/http://www.tema.liu.se/tema-
t/sirp/PDF/322_5.pdf
10. IEEE - IEEE History Center,
http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/Che2004/DITTMANN.pdf
11. CSPToday:http://social.csptoday.com/qa/spain-invest-heavily-transmisson-
grid-upgrades-over-next-five-years IEEE - IEEE History Center
12. Basslink website. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basslink
Page 57
References 2011
Page 58
APPENDEX II: lines data (R,X,Y, from bus ,to bus and length)
Merowi
Line1 Merkhiat 363 0.028 0.276 4.11
Hydro
Merowi
Line2 Merkhiat 363 0.028 0.276 4.11
Hydro
Kabashi
Line16 Free Zone 26 0.067 0.302 4.11
220
Page 60
Line20 Mahdia110 Izergab 8 0.067 0.269 4.11
Eid Babikir
Line21 Izergab 24 0.067 0.269 4.11
110
Eid Babikir
Line22 Izergab 24 0.067 0.269 4.11
110
Khartoum
Line35 Kuku 4.5 0.067 0.302 4.11
North
Khartoum
Line36 Kuku 4.5 0.067 0.302 4.11
North
Local
Line39 Bus2 5 0.067 0.269 4.11
Market
Page 61
Local
Line40 Bus2 5 0.067 0.269 4.11
Market
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Line63 El Rank Rabak 180 0.067 0.302 4.11
Page 63
Line88 Bus5 Hasahisa 55 0.348 0.421 2.7
Page 64
APPENDEX III: Transformers data (ratings and reactances)
Two winding Transformer
Page 65
T68 225 10.5 50 13.79 Garri Garri
T69 225 11 50 13.79
T70 230 11 70 15
T71 230 11 70 15
T72 230 10.5 50 13.79
T73 230 10.5 50 13.79
T74 230 10.5 50 13.79
T75 230 11 50 13.79
T76 225 11 50 13.79
T77 230 11 50 13.79
T78 230 11 50 13.79
T79 230 11 50 13.79
T80 230 11 50 13.79
T81 220 10.5 50 13.6
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Three windings Transformers
ID PrimkV SeckV TerkV PrmMVA SecMVA TerMVA PS PT ST PrmBus SecRegBus TergBus
T 220 110 33 150 150 50 12.67 26.88 12.8
T22 525 13.8 13.8 282 141 141 24.62 24.56 49.3 Bus1 Bus1 Bus4
T23 525 13.8 13.8 282 141 141 24.62 24.56 49.3 Bus7 Bus7 Bus8
T24 525 13.8 13.8 282 141 141 24.62 24.56 49.3 Bus10 Bus10 Bus9
T25 525 13.8 13.8 282 141 141 24.62 24.56 49.3 Bus11 Bus11 Bus12
T26 525 13.8 13.8 282 141 141 24.62 24.56 49.3 Bus13 Bus13 Bus14
T27 220 11 11 86 43 43 17.9 17.9 34.3 Bus16 Bus16 Bus15
T28 220 11 11 86 43 43 17.9 17.9 34.3 Bus18 Bus18 Bus17
T29 220 11 11 86 43 43 17.9 17.9 34.3 Bus20 Bus20 Bus19
T30 220 11 11 86 43 43 17.9 17.9 34.3 Bus22 Bus22 Bus21
MRK TR1 500 220 33 300 300 75 16.97 43.36 24.6 Merkhiat 220 Merkhiat 220 MRK 33
MHDT2,3 110 33 11 70 50 20 24.54 20.48 15.5 MHD110 Bus25 Bus24
T35 110 33 11 70 50 20 24.54 20.48 15.5 Bus25 Bus25 Bus24
MUG TR1 110 33 11 100 50 20 11.6 21.8 8 Bus25 MUG11
T36 110 33 11 70 50 20 24.54 20.48 15.5 Bus25 Bus25 MUG11
MUG TR3 110 33 11 100 100 30 11.6 21.8 8 Bus28 Bus29
T37 110 33 11 100 50 20 11.6 21.8 8 Bus25 MUG11
OMD TR 03 110 33 11 200 200 60 12.1 22.14 7.89 Bus32 Bus33
SHG TR 110 33 11 140 100 40 20.6 25.6 14.2 Bus32 Bus33
GAM TR1 220 110 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 GAM 110 GAM 110 GAM 33
T39 220 115 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 GAM 110 GAM 110 GAM 33
GAM TR2 220 110 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 GAM 110 GAM 110 GAM 33
T40 220 115 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 GAM 110 GAM 110 GAM 33
T41 220 115 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 GAM 110 GAM 110 GAM 33
T43 220 115 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 GAM 110 GAM 110 GAM 33
JAS TR1 220 110 34.5 150 150 50 13.3 24.5 9.64 Gebel Aulia 110 Gebel Aulia 110 Bus34
JAS TR2 220 110 34.5 150 150 50 13.3 24.5 9.64 Gebel Aulia 110 Gebel Aulia 110 Bus34
T46 110 33 11 70 50 20 24.54 20.48 15.5 Bus25 Bus25 Bus24
IZG TR 110 33 11 70 50 20 20.75 26.01 14.5 IZG 33 1 IZG 11
T47 220 115 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 Gebel Aulia 110 Gebel Aulia 110 Bus34
T48 220 115 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 Gebel Aulia 110 Gebel Aulia 110 Bus34
MHD TR4 220 110 33 150 150 50 12.67 26.88 12.8 MHD110 MHD110 Bus37
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MHD TR5 220 110 33 150 150 50 12.67 26.88 12.8 MHD110 MHD110 Bus37
LOM TR 110 33 11 200 200 80 13.41 22.89 6.8 Bus37 LOM 11
T50 220 115 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 Bus37
T51 220 115 34.5 100 100 50 13 24.5 10 Bus37
T52 110 33 11 200 200 80 13.41 22.89 6.8 Bus37 LOM 11
KHE TR 110 33 11 200 200 80 13.41 22.89 6.8 Bus40 Bus40 Bus41
FAR TR 110 33 11 120 80 40 18.2 24.5 9.64 FAR 33 FAR 33 FAR 11
T55 110 33 11 70 50 20 20.75 26.01 14.5 IZG 33 1 IZG 11
IBA TR4,5 110 33 11 70 50 20 20 24.3 14.5 Bus47 Bus47 Bus48
T56 110 33 11 70 50 20 20.75 26.01 14.5 Bus47 Bus47 Bus48
KLX TR1,2 110 33 11 70 50 20 20 26.01 14.5 Bus49 Bus50
IBA TR3 220 110 11 150 150 22.5 9.69 37.5 26.7 Eid Babikir 110 Eid Babikir 110 Bus3
IBA TR2 220 110 11 150 150 22.5 9.69 37.5 26.7 Bus25 Bus25 Eid Babikir 110
T44 220 110 11 150 150 22.5 9.69 37.5 26.7 Eid Babikir 110 Eid Babikir 110 Bus3
KLX T4 220 110 11 100 100 15 6.02 16.6 9.6 Bus2 Bus2 Bus41
KLX T6 220 110 11 100 100 15 5.96 16.23 9.52 Bus2 Bus2 Bus43
KLX T8 220 110 11 100 100 15 6 31.6 20 Bus2 Bus2 Bus55
T57 215 110 11 100 100 15 6.02 16.6 9.6 Bus2 Bus2 Bus41
MAR T1 220 110 11 80 80 15 14.1 23.6 7.9 Bus5 Bus5 Bus57
MAR T2 220 110 11 80 80 15 14.1 23.6 7.9 Bus5 Bus5 Bus58
T59 220 110 34.5 150 150 50 13.3 24.5 9.64 Gebel Aulia 110 Gebel Aulia 110 Bus34
T61 220 110 34.5 150 150 50 13.3 24.5 9.64 Gebel Aulia 110 Gebel Aulia 110 Bus34
GAD T1 220 110 33 60 60 30 12.06 40.6 25.4 Giad110 Giad110 Bus61
ATB T3 500 220 33 300 300 75 16.8 42.8 24.3 Atbara 220 Atbara 220 Atbara 220
T34 500 220 33 300 300 75 16.8 42.8 24.3 Atbara 220 Atbara 220 Atbara 220
MRK T2 500 220 33 300 300 75 16.97 43.36 24.6 Merkhiat 220 Merkhiat 220 Bus62
KBA T1 500 220 33 300 300 75 16.8 42.8 24.3 Kabashi 220 Kabashi 220 Bus63
KBA T2 500 220 33 300 300 75 16.8 42.8 24.3 Kabashi 220 Kabashi 220 Bus64
MRK T1 500 220 33 300 300 75 16.97 43.36 24.6 Merkhiat 220 Merkhiat 220 Bus65
T62 220 110 11 80 80 15 14.1 23.6 7.9 Bus5 Bus5 Bus57
SNJ T2 220 110 33 55 55 30 8 39.9 30.6 Bus6 Bus6 Bus67
T64 220 110 11 80 80 15 14.1 23.6 7.9 Bus6 Bus6 Bus67
SNJ T1 220 110 11 55 55 17.5 7.7 25.9 16.9 Bus6 Bus6 Bus69
T82 500 220 33 300 300 75 16.97 43.36 24.6
Page 67
APPENDEX V: capacitors and reactors data (MVA rating)
Station name capacitor name capacitor type rated reactive power (MVar)
ATB CAP parallel_capacitance 5
IBAB CAP parallel_capacitance 2.5
IZGB CAP1 parallel_capacitance 5.0
KHN CAP1 parallel_capacitance 5.3
KHN CAP2 parallel_capacitance 5.3
HAS CAP parallel_capacitance 2.5
KUKU CAP1 parallel_capacitance 5.3
KUKU CAP2 parallel_capacitance 5.3
KUKU CAP3 parallel_capacitance 5.3
KUKU CAP4 parallel_capacitance 5.3
KLX RC1 parallel_reactance 15.0
KLX RC2 parallel_reactance 15.0
MAR CAP parallel_capacitance 5.0
MAR RC1 parallel_reactance 15.0
MAR RC2 parallel_reactance 15.0
SHN CAP parallel_capacitance 5.0
ROS RC1 parallel_reactance 15.0
ROS RC2 parallel_reactance 15.0
SHG CAP parallel_capacitance 2.5
MRW RC1 parallel_reactance 125
MRW RC2 parallel_reactance 125
MRK RC1 parallel_reactance 125
MRK RC2 parallel_reactance 125
ATB RC1 parallel_reactance 125
BAGIR CAP parallel_capacitance 2.5
DEB RC parallel_reactance 20
KHE CAP1 parallel_capacitance 5
KHE CAP2 parallel_capacitance 5
Local_Market CAP1 parallel_capacitance 5
Local_Market CAP2 parallel_capacitance 5
MHD1 CAP parallel_capacitance 5
MSH RC1 parallel_reactance 15
MSH RC2 parallel_reactance 15
RBK RC1 parallel_reactance 15
RBK RC2 parallel_reactance 15
OMD CAP parallel_capacitance 2.5
SENJ CAP parallel_capacitance 2.5
SENJ RC1 parallel_reactance 15
SENJ RC2 parallel_reactance 15
MWP RC1 parallel_reactance 125
MWP RC2 parallel_reactance 125
Page 71
APPENDEX VI: 2010 peak loading data on main bus-bars (110,220)
Page 72
APPENDEX VII: Etaps losses summary reports (in case of lines are all AC)
Page 73
Appendix VIII: Etaps losses summary report (in case of some lines are
DC)
Page 74