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Abstract
In this paper are discussed the baseline geochemical maps of elements harmful to human health, using concentration values of
2389 stream sediment samples collected over the Campania region (Southern Italy). Each sample was digested in aqua regia and
analysed by ICP-MS. For compilation of baseline geochemical maps, a recently developed multifractal inverse distance weighted
(lDW) interpolation method and spectral analysis (S-A) was applied, using a new geochemistry dedicated GIS software (GeoDAS).
The aim of this study is to discriminate between the geogenic natural content (background) and the anthropogenic contribution in
the collected sediments. The definition of background values, in contrast to baseline values, is very important in determining the
extent of polluted areas in countries like Italy, where environmental legislation has not yet established intervention limits for stream
sediments.
In the Campania region, baseline and background values are often coincident, where the samples represent catchment basins
away from urban or industrial areas. Potential polluted areas are often very small in size, except for some sites where the
anthropogenic influence on sediments is clearly evident, due to the wide extent of local industrial and agricultural activities (e.g.,
the Sarno River catchment basin).
R-mode factor analysis has proved very useful in distinguishing geochemical data, clearly dominated by anthropogenic in
comparison to geogenic sources.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Campania region for selected elements (considered to be some selected toxic elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg,
harmful to human health), compiled from stream sedi- Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Tl, V and Zn) in soil and stream water
ment data, are discussed. (Ministero dell'Ambiente, 1999) and, recently, in
The term geochemical baseline indicates the actual marine sediments, but not for stream sediment.
content of an element in the superficial environment at Because of the geological complexity and long-term
a given point in time, as is defined by Salminen and economical development of the Campania region, it is
Gregorauskiene (2000). The geochemical baseline of reasonable to presume that elevated concentrations of
stream sediments in an area of heavy anthropogenic metals in stream sediment are, in most cases, strongly
impact includes the geogenic, natural content (back- influenced by anthropogenic contributions.
ground). The determination of background (geogenic) Studies carried out on soil of the Neapolitan province
values, in contrast to baseline values, is very important have already highlighted the influence of human activities
for defining the extent of pollution in areas where en- on different sample types (Tarzia et al., 2002; Cicchella
vironmental legislation has not yet established interven- et al., 2005). Discriminating between geogenic and
tion limits for all environmental matrices. In 1999, the anthropogenic contributions with respect to total concen-
Italian government established intervention values for trations of toxic elements is fundamental in the
S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34 23
Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Campania region (Bonardi et al., 1998).
24 S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34
Fig. 3. Campania region land use map after Corine Land Cover 2000 (V.A., 2004).
S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34 25
olive trees and vineyards. Campania is the foremost 4. Chemical analyses and quality control
consumer of fertilisers in southern Italy and azotic fer-
tilisers represent 50% of the regional consumption per All air-dried sediment samples were sieved and 30 g
year. Non-rational use of nutritive (P- and N-based) of the b 150 μm fraction was retained for analysis of 37
fertilisers can produce stream water enrichments phe- elements (Ag, Al, As, Au, B, Ba, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu,
nomena that develop eutrophication processes and co- Fe, Ga, Hg, K, La, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Sb, Sc,
precipitation of metallic elements. Se, Sr, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, U, V, W and Zn).
Poisoning of superficial water can be related also to Analyses were carried out by Acme Analytical La-
the use of anticryptogamics, as well as to the presence of boratories Ltd. (Vancouver, Canada) through its Italian
fungicides, and biological fertilisers, produced from affiliate (ERS Srl, Napoli). Each sample was digested in a
organic wastes (i.e., compost). Metallic impurities in P- modified aqua regia solution and analysed by inductively
based fertilisers, containing Cd as a natural pollutant, coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and atom-
can also impact on sediment contamination. ic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Specifically, a 15-g
Industries present a scattered spatial distribution and split of the pulp was digested in 45 ml of the aqua regia
are mainly concentrated in the northern half of the
regional territory. The majority of industries have been
developed next to main cities and around agricultural Table 1
Detection limits, accuracy and precision
areas. Industries are mainly devoted to vegetable pre-
serving processes, textile-apparel, clothes production Elements Unit Detection limit Accuracy Precision
(DL) (%) (%RPD)
and tannery. While textile industries have a low en-
vironmental impact (raw materials are produced and Al % 0.01 0 1.8
Ca % 0.01 3.9 2.2
imported from foreign countries), non-fitness of purifi-
Fe % 0.01 0.7 1.3
cation systems in the tannery and vegetable preserving K % 0.01 6.3 5.3
industries can produce considerable pollution phenom- Mg % 0.01 0 1.5
ena in stream waters and sediments. Na % 0.001 3.6 2.9
Transport communication networks are strongly P % 0.001 0 3.6
S % 0.02 30 11.9
developed in coastal areas and in the central-northern
Ti % 0.001 0 5.7
part of the region, due to the strong economic develop- As mg/kg 0.1 0.3 3
ment. Highways cross the whole territory but, espe- B mg/kg 1 0 11
cially during the summer, highway A3 in the southern Ba mg/kg 0.5 0.3 1.5
sector (Vallo di Diano) is not able to sustain intense Bi mg/kg 0.02 1.8 3.2
Cd mg/kg 0.01 1.4 5.6
traffic that moves to southern regions of Italy (Calabria
Co mg/kg 0.1 0 2.7
and Sicily). Cr mg/kg 0.5 1.5 3.2
No economic mineral deposits occur in Campania; Cu mg/kg 0.01 1.6 3.7
only a few minor bauxite mineral occurrences–of no Ga mg/kg 0.1 3.2 2.2
economic relevance–are situated in the Mesozoic rocks La mg/kg 0.5 3.5 3.4
Mn mg/kg 1 0.5 1.9
of Mt. Matese in the Apennine Mountains.
Mo mg/kg 0.01 1.2 3.1
Ni mg/kg 0.1 0.6 1.7
3. Sampling methods Pb mg/kg 0.01 0.6 3.5
Sb mg/kg 0.02 1.2 3.1
During 1998 to 2000, 2389 stream sediment samples Sc mg/kg 0.1 0 4.4
Se mg/kg 0.1 0 28
were collected from the study area (13,600 km2) with
Sr mg/kg 0.5 5.3 2.4
a nominal density of one sample per 5 km2. Finer grain Te mg/kg 0.02 0.9 8.4
size material was collected from the centre of the streams, Th mg/kg 0.1 5.1 3.6
avoiding, wherever possible, the collection of organic Tl mg/kg 0.02 1 3.6
matter. Each sample represents composite material taken U mg/kg 0.1 1.6 3.7
V mg/kg 2 1.3 2.4
from five points over a stream stretch of 200–500 m. The
W mg/kg 0.2 2.7 4.4
sample collection protocols are described in detail by Zn mg/kg 0.1 0.5 2.6
Salminen and Tarvainen et al. (1998). At each sample Ag mg/kg 2 0.4 7.9
site pH and conductivity of stream water were mea- Au μg/kg 0.2 4.8 28.9
sured, together with partial and total radioactivity using a Hg μg/kg 5 0 8
portable Scintrex GRS-500. RPD = relative percent difference.
26 S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34
mixture (1 part concentrated hydrochloric acid to 1 part Hf, Zr, Nb (zircon and some oxides) and Ba sulphates are
nitric acid to 1 part deionised water) at 90 °C for 1 h. The most resistant to attack.
solution was taken to a final volume of 300 ml with 5% Precision of the analysis was calculated using three
HCl. Aliquots of sample solution were aspirated into a in-house replicates, and two blind duplicates submit-
Jarrel Ash Atomcomp 975 ICP-Emission Spectrometer ted by the authors. Accuracy was determined using
and a Perkin Elmer Elan 6000 ICP-Mass Spectrometer. ACME's in-house reference material, DS2 (HMTRI,
The digestion by modified aqua regia is considered 1997) (Table 1).
to give “pseudo-total” concentrations of metals bound as
water-soluble salts, in cation-exchange sites, statically 5. Statistical analyses
bound to clay particles, in organic chelates, in amor-
phous oxides and hydroxides of Mn and Fe, in car- Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses were
bonates, in sulphides and some sulphates. It also partially performed in order to show the single element geo-
solubilises metals in silicates (generally the darker chemical distribution, and the distribution of elemental
coloured ferromagnesian-rich silicates), and some crys- association factor scores resulting from R-mode factor
talline oxides of Fe, Ti and Cr. Refractory minerals of Ta, analysis. The main descriptive statistics for multi
Table 2
Statistical parameters of 2389 stream sediment samples from the Campania region
Element Unit Number Minimum Maximum Mean Median Geometric Standard Skewness Kurtosis
of samples mean deviation
Al % 2389 0.29 8.59 2.03 1.53 1.69 1.34 1.41 1.37
Ca % 2389 0.10 26.73 6.68 6.43 5.16 4.09 0.91 1.70
Fe % 2389 0.33 7.66 2.21 2.11 2.07 0.83 1.09 2.97
K % 2389 0.03 4.21 0.42 0.25 0.28 0.51 3.39 14.45
Mg % 2389 0.05 8.81 1.00 0.60 0.69 1.18 3.02 9.61
Na % 2389 0.00 2.02 0.09 0.03 0.04 0.18 4.58 27.68
P % 2389 0.01 0.67 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.05 3.39 20.49
S % 1577 0.00 1.43 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.08 7.06 85.09
Ti % 2389 0.00 0.48 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.07 1.78 3.05
As mg/kg 2389 0.08 126.20 7.18 5.70 5.66 5.84 5.94 90.30
B mg/kg 2389 0.80 65.00 7.74 7.00 6.21 5.48 2.29 10.15
Ba mg/kg 2389 16.30 1429.20 193.31 152.10 157.41 138.18 2.13 6.99
Bi mg/kg 2389 0.03 1.40 0.30 0.26 0.26 0.18 1.71 4.00
Cd mg/kg 2389 0.02 4.25 0.30 0.21 0.23 0.36 5.40 38.96
Co mg/kg 2389 1.50 22.50 11.18 10.50 10.36 4.54 1.84 9.54
Cr mg/kg 2389 1.60 1117.90 24.18 19.90 19.63 42.40 18.04 397.61
Cu mg/kg 2389 3.61 4699.48 38.90 30.30 30.44 101.24 41.21 1884.05
Ga mg/kg 2389 0.90 18.90 5.42 4.50 4.78 2.83 1.15 0.88
La mg/kg 2389 1.20 124.20 22.64 15.80 16.97 18.33 1.61 2.64
Mn mg/kg 2389 100.00 7118.00 903.86 811.00 803.40 543.69 4.42 34.09
Mo mg/kg 2389 0.11 29.07 1.01 0.80 0.82 1.15 11.33 203.96
Ni mg/kg 2389 1.60 352.00 23.21 21.20 20.65 12.87 7.76 179.52
Pb mg/kg 2389 3.29 546.30 31.69 22.40 24.45 31.85 5.86 59.39
Sb mg/kg 2389 0.04 5.82 0.47 0.34 0.38 0.41 4.57 36.12
Sc mg/kg 1222 0.40 12.60 2.63 2.40 2.41 1.13 1.28 5.11
Se mg/kg 2389 0.08 3.10 0.44 0.40 0.38 0.27 2.97 17.71
Sr mg/kg 2389 8.80 924.40 159.74 152.30 134.85 90.21 1.75 7.07
Te mg/kg 2389 0.02 0.46 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 3.11 24.69
Th mg/kg 2389 0.70 43.50 7.83 5.60 6.03 6.46 2.04 4.77
TI mg/kg 2389 0.05 2.98 0.52 0.27 0.33 0.54 1.60 2.05
U mg/kg 2389 0.10 22.50 1.58 0.90 1.11 1.56 3.30 25.85
V mg/kg 2389 6.00 299.00 47.61 35.00 39.26 33.72 2.11 6.45
W mg/kg 2389 0.10 5.50 0.43 0.20 0.29 0.44 2.59 13.81
Zn mg/kg 2389 8.10 2074.70 89.27 70.80 73.31 106.18 9.52 121.94
Ag mg/kg 2389 1.80 17,459.00 105.93 54.00 57.99 519.19 23.84 668.25
Au μg/kg 2389 0.15 668.80 11.67 4.00 4.75 33.68 9.99 137.21
Hg μg/kg 2389 3.80 6286.00 84.66 43.00 47.27 244.08 12.99 235.33
S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34 27
Fig. 4. (A) Zn interpolated map. (B) Fractal Concentration–Area (C-A method) plot for Zn interpolated data. (C) Zn anomaly map. (D) Spectrum-
Area plot for Zn data: the vertical axis represents log A(≥E) and the horizontal axis the log-transformed power spectrum value itself; the cut-off
indicated by the vertical line was applied to generate the corresponding filter used for geochemical baseline and anomaly separation. (E) Zn baseline
map. (F) Zn baseline C-A plot.
as a cut-off to group pixel values in the multifractal-IDW anomalies and noise, indicate an area that represents Zn
interpolated map (Fig. 4A). baseline geochemical patterns (Fig. 4E) (Cheng et al.,
Maps showing the distribution of geochemical 1994, 1996; Cheng, 1999a; Cheng et al., 2000). In the
baselines (Fig 4E) and anomalies (Fig. 4C) were ob- same way, the Zn anomaly map (Fig. 4C) was obtained
tained by the S-A method. by applying a band-type filter (selecting the second and
The S-A method, based on a Fourier spectral third break as the cut-off on the S-A plot) that remove
analysis, is a fractal filtering technique used to separate noise and baseline, related to lower and high power
the anomalies of an element from its baseline values. spectrum values.
The baseline Zn map generated from geochemical data The pixel values of baseline and anomaly geochem-
was transformed into the frequency domain in which a ical maps were classified by using the concentration–
spatial concentration–area fractal method was applied to area fractal method (C-A) (Fig. 4F), as discussed above.
distinguish the patterns on the basis of the power- In this paper only baseline maps (Fig. 5) for po-
spectrum distribution. tentially harmful elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg and
A log–log plot (Fig. 4D) shows the relationship Zn) are presented, together with the interpolated five
between the area and the power spectrum values on the maps of elements association (factor scores distribution)
Fourier transformed map of the power spectrum. The resulting from R-mode factor analysis (Fig. 6).
values on the log–log plot were modelled by fitting
straight lines using least-squares. Distinct classes can be 7. Results and discussion
generated, such as lower, intermediate, and high power-
spectrum values, approximately corresponding to base- 7.1. Single element distributions
line values, anomalies and noise of geochemical values
in the spatial domain. An irregular filter was applied on In order to better distinguish and evaluate geogenic
these distinct patterns to remove the anomalies and noise from anthropogenic contribution in the distribution of
related to intermediate and high power-spectrum values. baseline values obtained, with the S-A fractal technique,
The image, converted back to a spatial domain with the Table 4 reports the average distribution of the same
filter applied, shows patterns that, after the removal of elements in the upper continental crust (Wedepohl, 1978),
S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34 29
Fig. 5. Campania region: As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Hg baseline geochemical maps.
in representative Vesuvius eruptive formations (Paone the Solofra district cannot be excluded as potential
et al., 2001) and in the Earth's shales and limestones polluting sources.
(Levinson, 1974). A small area along the Cilento coastline, corre-
Table 5 shows intervention limits for stream sediments sponding to the town of Castellabate, shows very high
fixed by Dutch and Canadian law, because environmental As baseline values (between 13.9 and 29.3 mg kg− 1). Due
legislation in Italy has not yet set up intervention limits for to the absence of industries and agricultural activities, as
stream sediments. well as a geogenic source, it is presumed, on the basis of
information provided by local environmental authorities,
7.2. Arsenic that high As values may be due to an inefficient or
malfunctioning local water purification plant.
Arsenic baseline values (Fig. 5A) range from 0.08 to Table 4 shows clearly that As in Campanian stream
29.3 mg kg− 1. Highest baseline values (between 10.2 sediments is generally enriched in comparison to the
and 29.3 mg kg− 1) appear to be highly correlated to average upper continental crust value. On the other
pyroclastic deposits that generally cover carbonate rocks hand, areas characterised by the large occurrence of
outcropping mostly in the NW and SE sectors of the volcanoclastics have average concentrations in the range
region. The Volturno River plain also has high As of values of Neapolitan volcanoes (Paone et al., 2001)
values. It is assumed that baseline values (between 3.7 (Table 4).
and 10.2 mg kg− 1) occur on siliciclastic deposits in the Factor scores distribution of Fl association (Tl–La–
NE and SW sectors of Campania can be considered as Th–W–Ti–Al –U–V–K–Ga–Ba–As–Na–Pb–Bi–Sb–
the natural background variation for these lithologies. P–Mo–Fe) clearly provides evidence that high As
Although most of the baseline values for As are linked concentrations are related to the presence of pyroclastic
to the underlying volcanoclastic lithologies, agrochem- deposits (Mt. Roccamonfina in NW and Mt. Vesuvius in
icals in the Volturno River plain and tannery industries in Central SW part of the region).
30 S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34
Some stream sediment samples, collected in the SE side of the “Vallo di Diano” plain, have values between
sector of the region and along the lower sector of the 0.43 and 1.54 mg kg− 1, which according to our inter-
Volturno River Plain, have As values that are higher pretation represent the natural background for regional
than the Dutch intervention limit (N 55 mg kg− 1). volcanoclastic deposits.
Only two samples, collected along the Cilento coast- A close relationship between phosphate fertilisers
line (Mt. Bulgheria and Castellabate areas), exceed the and increasing Cd baseline values cannot be excluded
Canadian intervention limit of 13 mg kg− 1 (Table 5). for coastal areas where there is intensive farming.
Cadmium values are generally higher than average
7.3. Cadmium values of the upper continental crust (Wedepohl, 1978),
as well as shale and limestone (Levinson, 1974).
Distribution of Cd baseline values (Fig. 5B) range All the Campania territory has Cd values lower than
from 0.02 to 1.54 mg kg− 1. Most of the regional territory the Dutch and Canadian intervention limits (Table 5).
has moderate Cd baseline values below 0.43 mg kg− l,
which can be assumed to represent the natural back- 7.4. Chromium
ground for siliciclastic deposits outcropping all over the
region. Because of the pyroclastic sediments, covering The spatial distribution of baseline values for Cr
most of the carbonate mountains, stream sediments (Fig. 5C), ranging from 2 to 71 mg kg− 1, does not high-
collected from rivers draining carbonate rocks generally light any geogenic or lithological control related to the
have average Cd values higher than the rest of the element. It may be very probable that anthropogenic
regional territory. Thus, Cd baseline values related to the activities play an important role in determining high Cr
Mt. Matese area, and to the mountain belt on the western baseline values, between 28 and 71 mg kg− 1, along the
S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34 31
Isolated samples collected along the Campania region All the Campania territory presents Zn values that are
coastline (Volturno River outlet, the southern side of lower than the Dutch intervention limit, whereas a large
Mt. Vesuvius and the Salerno area) have Pb values higher part of the territory show values well above the Canadian
than the Canadian intervention limit (Table 5). intervention limit (Table 5).
The highest Hg baseline values (between 205 and The element association of factor 1 (F1: Tl–La–Th–
688 g kg− 1) occur in the northern sector of the Caserta W–Ti–Al–U–V–K–Ga–Ba–As–Na–Pb–Bi–Sb–P–
provincial area (Fig. 5F). There is no apparent cor- Mo–Fe) (Fig. 6A) accounts for 47.1% of total data
relation between lithologies and Hg distribution trends variability; it is strongly controlled by alkalic volcanic
in stream sediments, suggesting a possible anthropo- rocks and pyroclastics of the Campania region, main-
genic influence, possibly related to the presence of ly outcropping in the areas of Mt. Vesuvius and Mt.
illegal waste disposal in the S. Agata dei Goti industrial Roccamonfina and surrounding regions. These areas are
district, and to the extensive use of Hg compounds as usually characterised by factor scores ranging between
pesticides, especially in the Mt. Taburno area. 1 and 2.6; the values become lower moving away to-
It can be assumed that Hg concentrations between 4 wards E and SE. Other small areas away from the
and 205 μg kg− 1 have a geogenic source, and values volcanic centres have high F1 factor scores. This is
between 4 and 67 μg kg− 1 can be considered as be- explained by the presence of pyroclastic layers of
longing to the natural background for non-volca- Ignimbrites of the Campania plain (De Vivo et al., 2001;
nic rocks, whereas values in the range 67–205 μg kg− 1 Rolandi et al., 2003) overlying local bedrock lithologies
may be correlated to stream sediments derived from (mainly limestone). Areas with sedimentary rocks have
volcanoclastics covering the majority of carbonate rocks, negative factor score values, giving further evidence that
outcropping around the Neapolitan provincial area. the F1 association is clearly controlled by volcanics.
Some stream sediment samples have Hg values The factor scores association F2 (Co–Ni–Sc–Te–
exceeding both Dutch and Canadian intervention limits Cr–Mn–Fe) (Fig. 6B), which accounts for 18.6% of
in the northern sector of the Caserta provincial area total data variability, clearly marks two sedimentary
(S. Agata dei Goti industrial district) and on the southern lithological units outcropping in the north-eastern (sand-
side of Mt. Taburno (Table 5). stone and claystone) and south-eastern sector (limestone
and sandstone) of the Campania region, respectively.
7.8. Zinc (Zn) Higher F2 factor score values (ranging from 1 to 2.9)
show a spatial correlation with many of the faults and
Zinc baseline values (Fig. 4E) are generally higher in overthrusts occurring in these areas.
areas covered by pyroclastics. Values ranging from 156 The factor scores association F3 (Ag–Au–Zn–Hg–
to 215 mg kg− 1 characterise areas where baselines may Cu–Pb–Sb) (Fig. 6C) accounts for 17% of total data
be influenced by both geology and anthropogenic variability. This association can be explained by elements
activities. In fact, such a range of values occur between introduced into the environment by human activities.
Mt. Taburno and Dugenta, Salerno and Torre Annun- Highest F3 factor scores show a scattered distribution
ziata (across M.ti Lattari) and all over the Calaggio along a wide belt to the coastline. This explanation stems
River basin (Lacedonia). Geogenic control on Calaggio
River stream sediments can be excluded, because it Table 6
is evident that enhanced Zn values depend on inef- Geogenic background value ranges for As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg and Zn
in Campania region stream sediments according to lithology
ficient or malfunctioning water and dust purification
plants of local industries that use Zn to galvanise steel. Element A B
Stream sediments assume values ranging between 82 As (mg/kg) 3.7–10.2 102–13.9
and 156 mg kg− 1 in the remaining territory covered Cd (mg/kg) 0.02–0.43 0.43–0.69
Cr (mg/kg) 12–28 12–28
by volcanoclastic deposits, and in the southern sector
Cu (mg/kg) 19–40 19–40
of the region (Cilento). Baseline values, lower than Pb (mg/kg) 5–29 29–51
82 mg kg− 1, can be assumed to represent natural Hg (mg/kg) 4–67 67–205
background for the whole Campania region, especially Zn (mg/kg) 16–82 82–156
for those areas where siliciclastic and alluvial deposits (A) Siliciclastic deposits. (B) Volcanoclastic deposits. (Single regional
outcrop. background value ranges were chosen for Cr and Cu.)
S. Albanese et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 93 (2007) 21–34 33
from the Sarno River basin, which is one of the most Elemental associations obtained by means of R-mode
polluted in Italy. Factor 3 values ranging between 1 and factor analysis are very useful in distinguishing geo-
5.9 mark areas next to main road junctions, urban set- chemical data, where anthropogenic sources are domi-
tlements, industrial cultivated areas where vineyards are nant (e.g., F3 association) in comparison to geogenic
present. sources (Fl, F2, F4 and F5 associations). The association
The factor scores association F4 (Sr–B–Ca–S–Na– F3 (Ag–Au–Zn–Hg–Cu–Pb–Sb) clearly marks areas
P–K) (Fig. 6D), which accounts for 10.6% of total data where human activities mostly influence baseline values.
variability, is lithologically controlled. It has high F4 All over the territory, only Cd has concentration
factor score values (N 1) in the area surrounding the values that are always below both Canadian and Dutch
Vesuvian plain (mainly in the Sarno River catchment intervention limits (Table 5). Whereas, As, Cr, Cu, Pb
basin), and covers the north-eastern sector of the region and Hg exceed these limits in some areas where the
(Benevento and Avellino provinces), where there is a anthropogenic influence is clearly evident. On the whole,
clear correlation with the '‘Flysch Rosso'’. these intervention limits appear to be applicable to
The factor scores association F5 (Mg–Cd–Ca–Se) Campania stream sediments, but not for all elements,
(Fig. 7E) accounts for 6.7% of total data variability. This e.g., Zn. Countries like Canada and the Netherlands have
association is again controlled by lithologies. It clearly established intervention limits taking into account their
marks all the carbonate masses outcropping over the local background variation, reflecting their bedrock
Campania region territory. In fact, F5 factor score values lithology. In the Italian case, the geochemical baseline
higher than 1 characterise the areas where Mt. Matese, definition for the Campania region stream sediments
Mt. Picentini and Mt. Alburni are located. could be an useful tool to assist legislators to establish
intervention and action limits in accordance with the
8. Concluding remarks local geogenic background values (Table 6).
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