Ada Guide To Digital Dental Photography and Imaging PDF

Proposed ADA Technical Report No.
1029
All Interested Parties review: June 2003
Proposed American Dental Association

Technical Report No. 1029
Guide to
Digital Dental
Photography and
Imaging
Copyright 2003 American Dental Association. All rights reserved. Any form of reproduction is strictly prohibited without prior written
permission.
Proposed ADA Technical Report No. 1029 2
PROPOSED AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 1029 FOR

A GUIDE TO DIGITAL DENTAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND IMAGING
INTRODUCTION
Though in its infancy in dentistry, digital photography, digital imaging and its management is exploding
at an extraordinary rate. At present, the use of digital photography in dentistry has no set nomenclature,
procedure codes, standards or continuity. The focus of this Technical Report is to provide basic
information on the use of digital photography in dentistry and to help facilitate: 1). The appropriate
selection of the necessary equipment; 2). Consistent communication with and interoperability of digital
images and the information the contained therein. The information provided will address the digital
imaging needs of the various dental specialties, the general dental practitioner, other health care
providers, the patient and any interested third parties such as insurance carriers, prosthetic and
pathology laboratories. These discussions take into consideration the interoperability required to insure
proper identification of the image, exporting and importing of the image and database management of
the image.
To capture a quality digital image is not enough the image has to have proper and standardized
labeling of what it contains (the structures that are visible in the image) and the necessary DICOM
descriptors of what, how and when it was captured. Table 1 is a list of standard photographic images
that may be taken of the dentition. Table 2 is a list of standard photographic images that may be
captured of the soft tissues of the oral cavity. Table 3 lists extraoral images that also may be
photographically captured. These tables include details of the structures expected to be contained within
the images in the primary view; the relationship (angles) of the camera to the structures; and the
occlusal relationship in the image so that images can be compared to subsequent images of the same
region, even if captured with different cameras by different clinicians. These tables will be expanded in
the future to include the appropriate DICOM descriptors. The establishment of consistent procedural
nomenclature for the image needs to be established to make images truly exportable from database to
database.
Digital dental photography requires the combined knowledge and understanding of the terminology of
dentistry, computer technology and photography. Appendix A is a comprehensive glossary of dental
digital photography terminology for use as a reference to help users obtain an understanding and
consistent use of some of the most common photography terms and definitions associated with digital
photography and camera use in dentistry. The definitions of most of the technical terms contained within
the text of this document can be located within this glossary. The glossarys terminology and definitions
are further intended to be consistent with a master glossary of terms developed for the overall field of
dental informatics.
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Digital photography means that the images are stored in a computerized file format often referred to as
a digital image file. A digital image file signifies any computer file format that contains a graphical image
instead of text or program data. Photographs and documents that have been scanned and digital
camera photographs end up as digital image files. There are basically two types of digital imagesa
bitmapped image and a vector based image.
A 'bitmapped' image contains information for placement of each and every pixel in the image. JPEG,
PNG, GIF, TIFF and BMP are probably the most common type bitmapped digital image. JPEG, GIF and
3 Proposed ADA Technical Report No. 1029
TIFF are readable in both PC and Mac format computers. All digital cameras and scanners produce
bitmapped digital images. Most 'paint' programs also produce bitmapped digital images. The other type
of digital image is called a vector-based image. This kind of image is produced in paint or draw' and
illustration programs. Such programs are not normally used in capturing photographic images but are
used in manipulating or enhancing images after they have been captured. Vector images map the
outlines of an image and fill in the areas inside the mapped areas with color. These file types are most
often proprietary to the program that creates them, as they are not usually displayable outside of the
program that created them until they are converted into a bitmapped image.
The term DICOM is an acronym for Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine and is a worldwide
standard that provides a common language for formatting and exchanging medical and dental images
and their associated information. A DICOM file (DCM) is a single compound file that contains both
image and text information about the image and allows for images to be captured and communicated in
a common format across the entire healthcare industry. The DICOM standard permits devices and files
from conforming vendors to talk to each other across an open system.
PHOTOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
A camera is only a part of a photographic system. With conventional film systems, film acts as the
capturing and storage medium for the image. Chemical processing and printing, or projecting the slide,
complete the system with a printed picture, negative and/or slide the permanent storage of the image.
With digital photographic systems, the camera and flash perform the same function, but place the image
on the digital sensor instead of film when capturing the light image. The digital camera, however, also
has software (sometimes referred to as firmware) that converts the image to a digital format. The picture
or digital image is digitized by the sensor within the camera and is converted into a computerized image
file (vs. the photochemical processing of film that is done in a photographic lab). The cameras software
then places the file in a temporary storage media (such as a flash card) normally contained within the
camera. At this point, the digital images can be transferred (downloaded) into a computer where they
can be displayed, edited, manipulated, e-mailed, printed or incorporated into any document almost
instantly.
Film photographic capture process consists of the following path:
1 Subject
2 Lens
3 Film
4 Sent to photographic lab
5 Chemical Processing (Developing)
6 Printed or mounted in slide
7 Returned from lab
8 View Image
Digital photographic capture process consists of the following path:
1 Subject
2 Lens
3 Sensor
4 Digitized to File
5 Transfer to computer or printer
6 View image
After the image file has been placed onto a computers hard drive, it can be retrieved and viewed almost
instantly at the viewers discretion. The image file can be duplicated or placed on a long-term storage
device such as a CD or DVD for its safekeeping without any loss or degradation in the images quality.
Once the digital image file has been created, the quality of the image is limited to the information that
has been stored and, more importantly, the limitations of the displaying mechanism (monitor, projector,
or printer). With all systems, the final quality of the viewed image is dependent on the weakest link in the
system, which with still digital photography is almost always the monitors resolution or the printer and
paper quality. The weakest link with intraoral video cameras is presently the throughput allowed by the
computer, usually limited by the video capture card resolution capabilities (commonly 640x480 or
approximately 0.3 megapixels).
DENTAL DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Presently, digital dental photography is captured or recorded in one or a combination of ways with
varying success and quality:
Captured with a traditional film camera and then digitized into a computer file using a scanner
Using an intraoral camera connected to a video capture card, USB or an IEEE 1394 Port
(firewire)
Using a standard video (VCR) camera or camcorder and digitized by being processed by a
video capture card or imported through an IEEE1394 port
Capturing the image with a still photographic style digital camera and downloading the
computerized files from the camera to a computer with various mechanisms
Using a web style camera that normally connects to the computer a USB port or IEEE 1394
Port
File transferring, where the images are being transferred from on computer to another
Direct digital photography, which converts the images almost immediately into a digital file, has many
beneficial advantages in dentistry, such as:
Can see images almost immediately
Allows for immediate retakes when needed
Can make 100% exact duplicates
Media can be reused meaning no additional cost of film or its chemical processing
Single media can hold many images
Ease of manipulation
Images can be easily stored and catalogued
Images can be instantly forwarded or transmitted to interested parties, such as: patients, labs,
colleagues, insurance carriers, and web pages among others
INTRAORAL CAMERAS
Intraoral video cameras have been used in dentistry since the 1980s. They were first designed to
display images on an analog (television) monitor. These images were saved initially only in printed form
using a dye-sublimation printer, or to a VCR-style tape to be replayed on the television monitor.
Beginning in the mid-1990s, the intraoral camera could be connected to a computer with a video capture
card, sometimes referred to as a frame grabber due to its ability to capture, or save the image
displayed on the monitor. The resolution for these captured images was limited to the capability of
capture card. At 640x480 pixels, they were (and still are, for the most part) greatly inferior to 35mm film
and the resolutions of handheld photographic-style digital cameras. Due to computer speed and storage
limitations at that time, the images were compressed further before they were saved on these
computers hard drives, causing even more degradation to the image.
Today some intraoral cameras can be connected directly to a computers CPU through its USB or
firewire (IEEE 1394) ports. Although these connections should allow for higher resolutions, intraoral
cameras still provide only 640x480 resolution, and most cameras still use video capture cards for
acquiring images. With hardware improvements that allow increased processing and networking
speeds, however, many of todays image management programs allow the operator to save images
without further compression.
Some advantages of intraoral cameras over handheld photographic-style digital cameras are a wand-
shaped handpiece that allows easier and better access to most regions of the oral cavity, and the
instantaneous image display on the monitor for immediate review.
STILL PHOTOGRAPHIC-STYLE DIGITAL CAMERA

Digital cameras have been the biggest innovation in photography in over 100 years. They give dentistry
a myriad of benefits that cannot be obtained with a film camera. Today more digital cameras are being
sold to consumers than film cameras. In 2003,the number of digital cameras sold has increased by
36%, while the number of film cameras purchased has decreased by 15%. This trend is expected to
continue at increasing rates.
When the still photographic camera is compared to other types of cameras, the resolution (clarity) of
almost all still digital cameras is superior to that of video and intraoral cameras. The newest high-end
professional digital still cameras for commercial photography have resolutions that even exceed film.
Depending on the speed (ASA) of the film to which it is compared, a still digital camera with a resolution
of 6 megapixels has the ability to capture an image that is an equivalent to that of 35 mm film.
Remember, however, that capturing is only part of the photographic process and the displaying of the
image is usually the limiting factor whether it is a film or digital image.
When selecting a digital photography system for a dental office, evaluation of the entire system, its
processes and the related workflow is extremely important. The following questions are only some of the
issues that need to be addressed in the selection and implementation process:
What images are to captured
How may images are to captured at one time
What is the image quality needed or required
What type of illumination will be needed
What lens or magnification is needed of each image
How and what the images will be use for
Who will take images and under what circumstances
How images will be transferred or downloaded from the camera
What computer hardware and software will be required
How and where will the images be displayed
How images are to be manipulated, such as will you be doing cosmetic enhancements or
shade matching
How and where images will be printed
How and when images will be printed and/or electronically transferred to third parties, such as
pathology labs, prosthetics labs or insurance carriers
Where the camera will be stored
How and when are the camera and batteries maintained

HOW DIGITAL CAMERAS WORK

A digital camera is very similar to a traditional film camera in the way photographs or images are taken
(captured). The major difference in the process is what occurs inside the camera rather than what the
operator does. When a digital camera is turned on in the capture mode, the sensor is charged and
prepared for a picture to be taken. When the shutter button is pushed, the shutter opens and light enters
the camera. The light image strikes the sensor instead of film. The light is measured electronically on
the sensor and this information is sent to the internal memory of the camera, called the buffer. The
image is then converted into the selected file format (such as JPEG, TIFF, BMP, or proprietary format).
The completed image is then transferred to the cameras memory storage media.
Some cameras require this process to be completed before the next picture can be taken, though some
higher end cameras have an internal buffer large enough to allow multiple pictures to be taken as the
previous images are processed. This capability is called burst shooting.
DIGITAL SENSORS AND SENSITIVITY

The image-capturing device in most digital cameras is either a Charged-Coupled-Device (referred to as
a CCD) or a Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (referred to as CMOS) sensor. CCD sensors
are the most commonly used sensors. They have more sensitivity to light and a better image quality
than CMOS sensors, but are more expensive to manufacture and use a process that consumes as
much as 100 times the power than the equivalent CMOS sensor. CMOS sensors have transistors
located next to each pixel, so the pixels have to be spaced farther apart, meaning there are less pixels
per inch. This causes more noise in the raw image. Due to the fact CMOS sensors are less expensive
and consume significantly less power, they are used in the very high-end professional cameras, where
these factors are critical. Such cameras may have sensor resolutions as high as 14 megapixels, which
far exceeds the present needs of the dental professional.
The digital sensor is made up of millions of tiny photosensitive diodes called photoelements; each of
which captures a single pixel that records the amount of light that hits it. Each pixel only records the
amount of light that hits it, not the color. To record color, a red, green or blue filter is placed over the
individual sensor. When filtered light hits the sensor, the individual pixels convert the amount of light
hitting them into an electronic signal by accumulating an electrical charge. The charge is measured and
converted to a digital number, which is originally stored as an analog signal that is converted into a
digital signal by a component called an analog to digital (A-D) converter.
Films sensitivity to light is measured by its film speed with an ISO or ASA rating, which normally ranges
from 25 (the least sensitive to light) to 400 (the most sensitive to light). As film speed increases, images
become grainier or appear fuzzy. The shutter speed can be increased, or aperture opening decreased
to possibly get an overall improved image in some situations. Increasing the ASA or ISO on a digital
camera increases sensitivity of the sensor, but this also increases noise, which decreases resolution.
To increase the sensitivity of the sensor the bite depth of each pixel is increased to record more
accurately the amount of light hitting it. An 8-bit image has 256 colors, a 16-bit image has 32,000 colors
and a 24-bit image has 16.7 million colors. The higher the number of colors the more information the
computer can use during the interpolation of the image.
The actual image and color is determined by averaging the pixels with the others in the area. The
information is read one line at time into the cameras internal memory. As the information is passed it
goes through internal filters to correct white balance, color and aliasing. The higher the bit depth the
more vibrant and possibly accurate the color in the image; however, higher bit depth images will create
larger files, requiring more storage space. The uncompressed image can then be compressed, if the
operator desires, through either lossy or lossless compression, or transferred uncompressed to the
cameras storage media or the computer.
RESOLUTION
Resolution is a measurement of the quantity of information captured by a digital camera or scanner.
Generally, the more pixels that capture the image; the better the resolution. Though number of pixels is
just one dimension of resolution and image quality, it is the most often used for image evaluation.
Dynamic range, or the difference between the highest and lowest light levels recorded, and bit depth
the number of tones captured are other very important factors in accurately recording images.
Printers usually measure resolution in terms of dots per inch (dpi). When printing images, the larger the
printed image, the higher the resolution requirements for the captured image. An image printed at a
resolution of 300 dpi that is 3-in. 5-in. requires an image resolution of 900 x1500, or 1.35 megapixels.
An 8-in. x 10-in. printed image at 300 dpi would require an image of 2400 x 3000, or 7.2 megapixels, to
achieve the same quality. Therefore, greater resolutions are necessary to print larger high quality
images.
The goal and desire of most clinicians is not to print images but to view and enhance them on computer
screens. Computer monitor and projector display resolutions are quite low in comparison to printers.
Most computer projectors and dental management programs have their display resolution set at 1024 x
768, which means the maximum image that could be displayed at full screen size at this setting is only
786k, or approximately of a megapixel. This means that in a 1-1 pixel relationship with no cropping or
digital zooming of the image, a monitor or projector set at 1024 x 768 would not be able to display all the
information captured by a simple one- (1) megapixel camera. A high-end monitor and display adapter
with a resolution of 1600 x1200 still has a maximum resolution of only 1.92 megapixels.
However, because most digital cameras have a digital zoom lens, and dental clinicians typically desire
to enlarge images, these guidelines recommend utilization of a digital camera with a minimum of 2
megapixels, or preferably 4 megapixels. This level of megapixels allows for the enhancements and still
produces a high quality image. It is best to capture and save all images at high resolution and remove or
crop the unwanted areas when viewing, as this will maintain a high quality image. When an image is
resized, pixels are removed or added throughout the entire image. When an image is cropped, pieces
(pixels) are removed only from the area removed (trimmed). Digital images consume a large amount of
hard disk space, however, the cost of storage is insignificant when looking at the overall system.
IMAGE ILLUMINATION AND FLASH

The properties of the digital sensor and the coordination and relationship of the illumination techniques
are the most important issues in obtaining a quality image. There is wide variation in the quality,
consistency and accuracy of colors captured by all cameras; this is especially true with digital cameras.
As mentioned above, proper display of the image is extremely important, but if an image is not
accurately captured it cannot be consistently displayed or transferred. Color is captured in digital
photography with the use of red, green and blue (RGB) filters on the individual pixel. The pixel only
records the amount of light that stimulates it, making the coordination of consistent illumination and the
digital sensor paramount in obtaining accurate color image files.
Some of the basic factors that relate to the consistency in the illumination and color accuracy used in
dental photography are:
The intensity (brightness) of the light source
The color temperature of the light source
The distance of the light source to the subject
The angle of the light source to image and sensor
The distance of the camera (sensor) to the subject
The properties of the filters on the sensors
The software processing of the data
The amount (intensity and temperature) of natural/room light
The ability to control any or all of the factors
There are basically two types of flash units used routinely in dental photography. The on-board point
flash that is incorporated into and is an integral part of the camera, and an external flash that is often a
ring light that circles the lens, or a boot flash that slides into a bracket on the top of the camera. Each of
these types of flashes has its advantages and disadvantages. Due to the need for illumination in all
dental images, the use of a light meter that measures the natural light and recommends the aperture
and shutter speed has little value and the best images are with automatic or predetermined settings for
each type of exposure.
With a point flash, the light source is from a single point and most of the light is on the same vector.
This can create a "hot spot" or reflection caused by a direct bounce back effect of the flash off the
subject (teeth). A point flash is usually located above, or to the right, or left of the lens. This separation
of the light source from the lens also can create uneven light or shadow, especially with close up or
macro focus exposures.
This is a particular problem with the pop-up style of flash, which moves the light source even further
from the lens. The closer the flash is to the lens of the camera, the less shadowing occurs; the further
away the camera is from subject, the less uneven light and shadowing is a factor. The major benefit of
an on-board flash is that the camera manufacturer has the ability to calibrate the sensor, the acquisition
processing software and the flash for correct (auto) white balance at the desired distance, enabling the
user to obtain a consistent, correct and accurate image. Another benefit of the on-board flash is that it
uses power from the camera, meaning that there is only a single set of batteries that have to be charged
and maintained.
An external ring flash illuminates with a circle of light around the lens, creating even light from many
points (vectors), which reduces shadows and helps insure proper illumination. However, a disadvantage
of external flashes is that they are not calibrated by the manufacturer of the camera to match its filtering
system, sensor, white balance, or acquisition processing software. This often creates an image that is
not properly illuminated or that is not color accurate. Another concern with an external flash is that there
is a second set of batteries that has to be maintained and charged.
FLASH COMPENSATION & DEGRADATION

Flash output compensation allows the camera to be preset to adjust the value of flash power output.
Some digital cameras allow this value to be set using the EV range, while others simply have a high,
normal and low setting. Regardless of the type of flash used, it is extremely important that the same
settings and distances are used once the system has been calibrated, because light intensity and value
change with distance, affecting image quality. The use of a distance guide attached to the camera can
help insure proper distancing and correct illumination of the subject so that similar consistent images
can be captured at any time. A flashs output will gradually degrade as the batteries discharge. A flash
with weak batteries will give off inconsistent illumination and affect the quality of the captured image.
WHITE BALANCE
White balance is a term given to the color correction system that deals with differing ambient lighting
conditions. Most digital cameras feature automatic white balance, meaning that the camera looks at the
overall color of the image and calculates the white balance. Most digital cameras allow overriding the
automatic white balance. One can choose the white balance manually, or set a custom white balance,
which simply means calibrating from a known white reference and then using it to correct all images
until it is reset. Typically all dental images require additional illumination, thus, ambient lighting
conditions are somewhat irrelevant. Properly adjusting the cameras white balance with the on-board
flash for the desired distance will drastically affect the color of dental images and will often create a color
accurate image file.
APERTURE
The aperture is an adjustable diaphragm of overlapping blades that can be thought of like the iris of the
eye. Also referred to as the f-stop, it controls how much light enters the camera. The aperture setting
has a direct effect on depth of field and the required shutter speed of the exposure. The value of the f-
stop represents a ratio of the equivalent focal length of a lens to the diameter of its entrance opening.
The smaller the f-number, the larger the opening of the aperture. For example, f/2 means that the
opening is half the diameter of the lens, while an aperture of f/22 means that the aperture is 1/22 the
diameter off the lens.
DEPTH OF FIELD
Depth of field refers to how much of the image is in focus both in front and behind the main focus point
of the image. It is primarily affected by the subject, distance and aperture. In dental images, with the
closeness of the subject at fixed distances, the depth of field is relatively small and the only control is
the aperture, which is normally automatically set by the camera. A large aperture (smaller f-stop) will
have a shallow depth of field, meaning that anything behind or in front of the main focus point will be
blurred and out of focus. A smaller aperture (larger f-stop, e.g. f/22) will have an increased depth of field,
meaning that objects within a certain distance both in front or behind the main focus point will also
appear sharp and in focus (hopefully containing an entire arch or quadrant when needed).
LENS
Digital sensors are quite small in size in comparison to 35 mm film, which is why digital cameras
normally have lenses
that are specially designed for them and are not removable or interchangeable. Some of the more
expensive digital cameras have compensated for this, but at a considerable optical expense.
The focal length of a lens is measured in millimeters from the center of the lens to the film or digital
sensor; different lenses have different focal lengths. Some lenses have fixed focal lengths, however,
most digital lenses have zoom capabilities and can change focal length. Zooming in increases the focal
length and zooming out reduces the focal length. The shorter focal length, the wider the angle of view;
the longer focal length, the more magnification it produces and the narrower angle of view.
The ratio that relates the lenses that are used on film camera to most digital lenses is approximately a
1:1.6 ratio. This means that a 100 mm lens on a digital camera produces an image equivalent to that
produced by a 160 mm lens on a film camera, making close-up views larger with digital cameras. It also
makes wide-angle images more difficult. This means that a practitioners existing lenses might fit a
digital camera, but the framing and distancing of the subject may be unacceptable to acquire the desired
image. Remember, in dentistry a close-up view is usually more desirable than wide-angle views.
Most digital cameras with non-removable lens have a zoom capability that may be either an optical or
digital zoom or, more commonly, both. An optical zoom functions by changing the focal length of the
lens with no loss or decrease in resolution. When an optical zoom lens reaches maximum optical
magnification, many digital cameras will increase magnification with digital zoom. With digital zoom,
the camera enlarges the center of the image and crops away the edges, thus decreasing the image
resolution. An image manipulating software program can achieve the same effect as the digital zoom.
The clinician is best advised to make full use of the optical zoom and to use the digital zoom when
needed to help simplify the editing process. Having a zoom lens that increases magnification in
incremental levels allows the practitioner to record the amount of magnification used to capture an
image, making it easier to recreate the image capture in the future.
Most digital cameras have an autofocus feature that will automatically focus the lens on a specific area
within the subject area, simplifying the capturing process. Some, but not all, digital cameras permit the
focus to be set manually, giving the photographer complete control of the focusing process.
LCD VIEWER/TTL/VIEW FINDER

When viewing or framing the subject area before capturing the image, there are three basic
mechanisms the clinician
can use. The most accurate way to select the image is by viewing the subject through the lens (TTL)
that captures the image. This process is accomplished in one of two ways. The first employs mirrors,
which reflect the image through an eyepiece held to the eye. This technique is often referred to as single
lens reflex (SLR). Standard on most 35 mm film cameras, it also is found on some digital cameras. The
TTL technology used in most digital cameras is an LCD display, which is a small display screen usually
located on the back of the camera and shows in real time the image that is hitting the sensor. The LCD
screen also is used by the digital camera to display the captured images that have been stored in the
cameras on-board memory. An operator using the LCD display does not have to hold the camera to his
eye to properly align the subject, permitting him to properly capture the image without invading the
patients space. This screen is also valuable in showing the immediate playback of an image once it is
captured; allowing the operator to verify that the desired image was captured and properly framed. The
limitation of LCD screens is that they are usually too small to verify proper focusing and color accuracy,
and consume large amounts of battery power.
The other mechanism for viewing or framing the image before capturing is a viewfinder, which has the
operator looking through an eyepiece on the camera that has a separate lens that is parallel to the
primary capture lens. This technique can be very problematic with the close-up images that dental
photography requires, because the offset angle of the viewfinder is not viewing the exact area the
sensor is capturing. The primary benefits of viewfinders are that they are inexpensive and require no
battery power.
REMOVABLE MEMORY
High-resolution digital images are large files that can be difficult to manage. The storage card (media) in
a digital camera is its film that holds the images taken with the camera. Most digital cameras have
some form of removable media to store files temporarily within the camera before they are transferred
(downloaded) to a computer. While temporary storage is important, the advantages and differences in
the various formats are not very significant in dental digital photography. Almost every type (or format)
presently available has media available with enough capacity to hold a complete set of images from any
patient encounter. Some of the temporary storage media formats presently available are:
PCMCIA / PC card
Flash memory card Type I
Flash memory card Type II
High capacity removable hard drive
SSFDC (solid state floppy disk card)
Stick-type flash memory
SD (secure digital card)
For simplicity and convenience in file management, all the images should be downloaded into the
computers image management system after each patient encounter. If this is not possible, the clinician
should consider utilizing multiple removable cards for the camera to insure the camera has the
necessary storage space available when needed.
TRANSFER MECHANISM
After the images have been captured and stored within the digital camera, there are several
mechanisms for transferring the images to the computer or printer to be utilized. Some examples of
these transfer mechanisms are:
Auto-connect through USB or Firewire IEEE 1394 port
Docking station
Media card reader
PCMCIA /PC card adapter

Floppy disk adapter
Serial port connection
An auto-connect feature allows the camera to connect to the computers USB or Firewire (IEEE 1394)
ports and be recognized as if it were just another drive on the computer. It allows a drag and drop or a
cut and paste type of mechanism to move or transfer the images from the camera storage medium to
the computer without the need for any special software. The cabling used for these connections uses a
standard USB or IEEE 1394 connection on the computer end, but normally has a smaller device specific
connection on the camera end.
Some cameras include a docking station as a part of its system, with software that allows the user to
automatically (or semi-automatically) copy or transfer images from the cameras storage media to the
computer or printer with a
one-step procedure. The software usually allows the user to configure it to transfer images to a specified
location on the computer or network and to remove (erase) images from the cameras media after
transfer, making the camera immediately ready for use with the next patient. An advantage of most
docking stations is that they are always connected to the computer and ready for use without requiring
the user to attach any cables or manipulate the media card when transferring images. Another major
advantage of a docking station is that, when properly located, it provides an ideal location for storing the
camera when not in use; and most docking stations will automatically recharge the cameras batteries
while it is in place.
One of the most common image transfer mechanisms is the use of card readers or adapters, which read
(and can write to) the removable media of the cameras. While many adapters can only utilize one type
of media, many other card readers are configured to use multiple types of media that are presently
available, with each format or type appearing as a different device (or drive) on the computer. To use
these card readers or adapters, the clinician must physically remove the media from the camera and
place it in the device. While in the adapter and reader the computer recognizes the media as if it is a
drive on the computer. The media must be erased and replaced in the camera before it can be used
again.
A serial port connection is slower than the other transfer mechanisms and requires device specific
software. It is rarely used with modern computer operating systems and newer camera models.
IMAGE OR FILE COMPRESSION

Image or file compression utilizes mathematical techniques to reduce the amount of digital data (file
size) required to store individual digital images. There are numerous algorithms (formulas) that can be
used to achieve lossless (such as TIFF LZW) and lossy (such as JPEG) image compression. The
degree of compression, which can cause losses and distortion of the image quality, usually can be user-
specified depending on the ultimate quality needed. Some of the considerations of image file
compression are:
It can make large files smaller and more manageable
Lossless compression causes no image degradation

Lossy compression allows for image degradation:
--More compression results in poorer images
--Less compression results in better images
--JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group or JPG format) allows for variable compression
Lossless file compression schemes make a file smaller without degrading the image after
compression and decompression (restoring), an image is numerically identical to the original image
pixel-by-pixel. Thus, lossless compression is said to be non-destructive to image data when used. The
amount of lossless compression is dependent on image detail, noise, resolution, and bit depth. It is the
ideal type of compression to use in health care because of the integrity of the images.
With lossy file compression and decompression, the image will be degraded relative to the original
image. Lossy compression allows for much higher compression ratios. The resulting degradation, which
is dependent on the amount of compression and viewing conditions, may or may not be apparent to the
viewer. This compression scheme reduces the size of a file size by throwing away unneeded data, but
degrades it in the process; it cannot be restored to its original quality. The commonly used JPEG (JPG)
image format is a lossy compression method, therefore causing degradation in the image. However, the
JPEG format allows the operator to control the amount of compression, thus controlling the amount of
degradation of the image. Consideration needs to be made for the value of file size (speed and disk
space) versus the need for image quality.
BATTERIES AND POWER MANAGEMENT

In the selection of a digital photographic system, power consumption and management are areas of
major concern because all processes in the digital realm are dependent on electrical energy. Digital
cameras and their flash attachments require consistent dependable energy for the capture, display and
transfer processes to perform dependably and accurately. The LCD display, flash, and transfer
processes, particularly, require a significant amount of energy.
Most cameras have the capability to execute their various processes using power from batteries and/ or
AC adapter. Batteries have to be replaced or recharged regularly, making battery management a
potential problem that needs to be addressed as part of the office workflow. An AC adapter creates the
dilemma of needing to be plugged into an outlet, making cable or cord handling problematic in the
clinical environment. One of the best power management systems is a camera with a docking station,
which recharges the batteries whenever the camera is placed in the cradle and uses AC power to
transfer the images to the computer. Using a docking station may insure the cameras batteries are
always charged and the camera is ready to be used. A docking station will not recharge the batteries in
an external flash, so attention still needs to be focused in that area if an external flashed is used.
DIGITAL IMAGE MANAGEMENT

Digital image management can be divided into two separate areas, database management (cataloging
or storing and retrieving the images) and image manipulation. Most consumer-oriented digital camera
systems will contain image database and manipulation programs that work well for the home user for
downloading or transferring images from the camera to the computer, but are normally not sophisticated
enough for most dental applications. Many practice management software systems will also handle
basic image database management. Dental specific image manipulation software programs allow the
operator to simulate treatment options for patients, such as whitening, diastema closure, bonding, and
prosthetic procedures. Most dental image manipulation software programs perform both management
and manipulation.
Shade matching systems may be strictly software programs, or may require use of system specific
cameras or capturing devices. These programs analyze the information within a digital image and
compare it to known values to produce a map of the shades within the image. This information can be of
particular value to dental laboratories and technicians in prosthetic cases and to quantify changes in the
dentition for bleaching procedures.
SUMMARY
Digital photography, like many of the newer electronic technologies, offers significant benefits to dental
practices. The key to successful utilization is to incorporate the technology into the practice in a way that
makes efficient use of its capabilities without adding unnecessary administrative overhead. The inherent
efficiencies of digital photography make it extremely beneficial, however, the practitioner needs a basic
understanding of computer technology and standard photography for proper utilization. Proper selection
and implementation of the appropriate photography and computer equipment, combined with the
necessary training and correct workflow patterns, makes incorporating digital photography images into
the patients clinical record an easily obtainable goal. Training and utilizing the correct staff members to
acquire and manipulate the images can make the process cost effective and beneficial to both the
practice and the patient.
With increased standardization and use of the DICOM Standard, the ability to share images throughout
the healthcare industry will increase efficiency and quality of patient care. The improvement in the
standard of care is the goal of all dental procedures and modalities that are performed in dental health
care.
Table 1
Standard Dental Photography Views
Dentition Views*
Region Relationship to Dentition* Secondary References Tertiary References

Dentition View (by Tooth #, Quadrant, (Angle of Camera to Midline) (Occlusion / Arch Relationship
Sextant, or Arch) or Direct / Mirror View)
Smile ** Not B(Both)= Midline (0) At Rest or

(Non-Retracted) Applicable R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Maximum Intercuspation
L=Left Oblique (45), or Left Profile (90)
Retracted Smile ** Not B(Both)= Midline (0) At Rest or
Applicable R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Maximum Intercuspation
Partial Arch Sextant B(Both)= Midline (0) Direct,
R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Mirrored Image,
L=Left Oblique (45), or Left Profile (90) Corrected Mirror Image ***
Full Arch Arch B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct
Mirrored Image,
Corrected Mirror Image ***
Partial Arch with Sextant B(Both)= Midline (0) Descriptor of Shade Reference
Shade Reference R=Right Oblique (45)
L=Left Oblique (45)
Single Tooth with Tooth # B(Both)= Midline (0) Descriptor of Shade Reference
Shade Reference R=Right Oblique (45)
L=Left Oblique (45)
Single Tooth, Tooth # B(Both)= Midline Direct
R=Right Mirrored Image,
L=Left Corrected Mirror Image ***
or Tooth Surfaces
*An additional notation referring to the dentition or the edentulous area where a tooth should exist as an
anatomical reference of what area of concern is captured in the image. The reference should refer to location
of the area with the mouth at rest, allowing the practitioner to know the approximate location and possible
orientation of an image that may not have any anatomical identifying structures contained within the image
especially at higher magnification. Examples: the buccal mucosa adjacent to tooth #3 or lateral border of the
tongue adjacent to tooth #30.
**This is the same image that is listed with the same name on the Extraoral View Table 3.
***This view means that the area of primary focus in the image has reoriented so that it would be the same as
a direct image (i.e. right is right and left is left)
It is also recommended to include a measurement referencing device within the image of a known size and
containing demarcations in millimeters be used to allow for calibration of distances and thus improving the
accuracy in measuring objects within an image. Examples: periodontal probe, a millimeter ruler, or a label
including a known reference.
Table 2

Intraoral (by Tooth #, Quadrant, Sextant) (Angle of Camera to Midline) (Occlusion / Arch Relationship
Soft Tissue View or Direct or Mirror Image)
Hard Palate Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
R=Right Oblique (45) Mirrored Image,
L=Left Oblique (45) Corrected Mirror Image ***
Soft Palate Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
Tongue Dorsal Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
Tongue Ventral Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
Tongue Lateral Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
Border R=Right Oblique (45) Mirrored Image,
Gingiva Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
Floor of Mouth Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
Buccal Mucosa Yes R=Right Oblique (45) Direct,
L=Left Oblique (45) Mirrored Image,
Vestibule Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
Retro Molar Pad Yes R=Right Oblique (45) Direct,
Ascending Ramus Yes R=Right Oblique (45) Direct,
Pharyngeal Region Yes B(Both)= Midline,(0) Direct,
Intraoral Soft Tissue Views*
*An additional notation referring to the dentition or the edentulous area where a tooth should exist as an anatomical reference of what
area of concern is captured in the image. The reference should refer to location of the area with the mouth at rest, allowing the
practitioner to know the approximate location and possible orientation of an image that may not have any anatomical identifying
structures contained within the image especially at higher magnification. Examples: the buccal mucosa adjacent to tooth #3 or lateral
border of the tongue adjacent to tooth #30.
***This view means that the area of primary focus in the image has reoriented so that it would be the same as a direct image (i.e. right
is right and left is left)
It is also recommended to include a measurement referencing device within the image of a known size and containing demarcations
in millimeters be used to allow for calibration of distances and thus improving the accuracy in measuring objects within an image.
Examples: periodontal probe, a millimeter ruler, or a label including a known reference.
Table 3
Extraoral Views

Extraoral View (By Tooth #, Quadrant, (Angle of Camera to Midline) (Occlusion / Arch Relationship)
Sextant, or Arch)
Full Face (Head) Not Applicable B (Both)= Midline, (0) At Rest,

R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Maximum Intercuspation, or
L=Left Oblique (45), or Left Profile (90) Fully Open
Close-up Face Not Applicable B (Both)= Midline, (0) At Rest,
R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Maximum Intercuspation, or
Smile ** Not Applicable B(Both)= Midline,(0) At Rest or
(Non-Retracted) R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Maximum Intercuspation
Retracted Smile** Not Applicable B(Both)= Midline,(0) At Rest or
R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Maximum Intercuspation
Mandible Arch B(Both)= Midline,(0) Horizontal or
R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Inferior View
Maxilla Arch B(Both)= Midline,(0) Horizontal View
R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90)
TMJ Region Not Applicable R=Right Profile (90) At Rest,
L= Left Profile (90) Maximum Intercuspation, or
Fully Open
Close Up of Area Appropriate Applicable B(Both)= Midline,(0) At Rest,
of Concern Reference R=Right Oblique (45), or Right Profile (90) Maximum Intercuspation, or
*An additional notation referring to the dentition or the edentulous area where a tooth should exist as an anatomical reference of what area of
concern is captured in the image. The reference should refer to location of the area with the mouth at rest, allowing the practitioner to know
the approximate location and possible orientation of an image that may not have any anatomical identifying structures contained within the
image especially at higher magnification.
**This is the same image that is listed with the same name on the Dentition View Table 1.
It is also recommended to include a measurement referencing device within the image of a known size and containing demarcations in
millimeters should be used to allow for calibration of distances and thus improving the accuracy in measuring objects within an image.
Examples: periodontal probe, a millimeter ruler, or a label including a known reference.
Appendix A
Digital Photography Glossary of Terms
The purpose of this glossary is to help develop consistent use of the most common terminology and definitions associated
with digital photography and camera use in dentistry. It is also intended to have the terminology and definitions consistent
with a master glossary of terms developed for all dental informatics as a whole.
Numeric Terms
1-bit color The lowest number of colors per pixel in which a graphics file can be stored. In 1-bit color,
each pixel is either black or white.
8-bit color/grayscale In 8-bit color, each pixel is has eight bits assigned to it, providing 256 colors or shades of gray,
as in a grayscale image.
24-bit color In 24-bit color, each pixel has 24 bits assigned to it, representing 16.7 million colors. 8 bits - or
one byte - is assigned to each of the red, green, and blue components of a pixel.
32-bit color A display resolution setting that is often referred to as true color and offers a color palette of
over 16 million colors.
35 mm A term commonly used to refer to 35 mm film that has a 24mm x 36mm frame image.
A
A/D Converter See Analog to Digital Converter.
Accelerator A device or software designed to speed up operations, such as refreshing a screen image.
Many PC SVGA graphics boards come furnished with accelerator chips. There are also
auxiliary boards (commonly called pass-through boards) that will boost the speed of regular
VGA boards.
Access Time The time it takes the drive to make the requested information available to be sent to the
computer. It includes the actual seek time, rotational latency, and command processing time.
Advanced Photo System It is a film cartridge system that magnetically records all picture data for each frame of film.
This data is then used by the photo finisher to provide new services that can not be found with
traditional film cameras
Additive Color System The color system used in most digital cameras where red, green, and blue light is captured
separately and then combined to create a full color image. Red, Green, and Blue are referred
to as additive colors. Red+Green+Blue=White.
AEB An acronym for Auto Exposure Bracketing, a mode that produces 3 different exposures (+1/0/-
1) from the same shot, to help insure the proper exposure.
Algorithm A step-by-step problem-solving procedure, especially an established, recursive computational
procedure for solving a problem. The specific process in a computer program used to solve a
particular problem.
Aliasing The appearance of jagged distortions in curves and diagonal lines in digital images because
the resolution is limited or diminished. The effect is caused by sampling an image (or signal) at
too low a rate. It makes rapid change (high texture) areas of an image appear as a slow
change in the sample image. Once aliasing occurs, there is no way to accurately reproduce
the original image from the sampled image.
Alpha Channel An image editor channel used to contain a mask or partial picture element or color.
Analog Data that varies on a continuous scale with no discreet steps between levels. Analog
transmitted data can be represented electronically by a continuous wave form signal.
Examples of analog items are traditional photographed images and phonograph albums.
Analog Signal Analog signal are continuous over a range of measurement and can be represented by wave
forms that can take on any value in a given range.
Analog to Digital A device that converts analog, or continuous, data into digital data or a series of discreet
Converter steps. The information coming in from the sensor in volts is converted as a bit stream to a
code value. The device converts analog information (a photograph or video frame) into a
series of numbers that a computer can store and manipulate.
Anti-aliasing The process of reducing stair-stepping by smoothing edges where individual pixels are visible.
Aperture The lens opening formed by the iris diaphragm inside the lens. The size of the hole can be
made larger or smaller and regulates the amount of light reaching the image plane by the
autofocus system or a manual control. The aperture setting is commonly referred to as the f-
stop.
Aperture Priority A mode in which a desired lens opening (f-stop) is manually selected and locked in; the
camera then chooses an appropriate shutter speed for proper exposure. Used primarily to
control depth of field (the range of sharpness) in front of or behind a subject or object.
Aperture, Maximum A measure of how much light can pass through a lens when its diaphragm is opened fully.
Lenses with maximum apertures of f-2 or f-2.8 are categorized as "fast" and can produce
correct exposures under lower light than "slow" lenses with maximum apertures of f-3.5 or
smaller.
Application A computer software program designed to meet a specific need.
APS An abbreviation for Advanced Photo System. (See Advanced Photo System)
Archive Long-term storage of data or images. Archiving is generally accomplished on some form of
magnetic media; such as disk or tape, or optical media; such as Writable CD or DVD.
A
Artifacts The unwanted effects in the image such as blotches (from over-compression), multi-colored
speckles from bright highlights, noise (granularity from underexposure) and other aberrations
that sometimes is noticeable in images.
ASA An acronym for American Standards Association (now ANSI), and was the exposure index or
speed rating of a film which denotes the film's sensitivity or speed, the higher the number the
faster the film. Today films refer to film speed as the ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) instead. (Also see ISO).
Aspect Ratio The ratio between the width and height (or horizontal to vertical) dimensions of an image or
image sensor used in the imaging industry to define applicability of an image to fit a page,
screen, monitor, or frame. Typically 35 mm film image is 36mm wide and 24mm high giving a
3:2 ratio, digital cameras typically have a 4:3 ratio ,TV have a 4:3 ratio, HDTV have a 16:9
ratio, 4X5 film have a 5:4 ratio. In dentistry the camera ratio is often reversed comparing
height to width.
Aspherical Lens A lens designed to reproduce images better by having its edges flattened so that it is not a
perfect sphere, hence: "a" (not) "spherical" (a sphere).
Asynchronous Transfer A network protocol that transfers data in cells or packets of a small fixed size. The small, fixed
Mode size of ATM allows data such as video, voice and data to be transferred over the same
network.
ATA A standard for storage devices that lets them be treated as if they were hard drives on the
system. Any ATA compatible media can be read by any ATA device.
ATM An acronym for Asynchronous Transfer Mode (See Asynchronous Transfer Mode).
Attachment A file such as a photograph or document that is sent along with an e-mail message so it can
be viewed or saved at the recipient's end.
Audio Recording Many digital cameras allow for the recording of a short sound bite with each image, allowing
notes to be made for future reference.
Auto Levels This is a very basic automatic correction technique employed by scanning and image
processing software. Usually, the process takes an integrated reading of the image and
attempts to adjust the image by targeting a neutral scale for all values. This only works on a
perfectly neutral image and often auto levels alone is insufficient to perform quality image
optimization.
Autofocus The camera automatically focuses on a subject or object at which it is pointed.
Automatic Exposure A mode of camera operation in which the camera automatically adjusts the aperture, shutter
speed, or both for proper exposure.
Automatic Flash An electronic flash unit with a light-sensitive cell that determines the length of the flash for
proper exposure by measuring the light reflected back from the subject.
B
b Common terminology or abbreviation for bits (See Bit).
B Common terminology or abbreviation for bytes (See Byte).
Background In photographic analysis, the term background is commonly used to define all the area of a
photo that is not the subject.
Background Processing A feature that enables the computer operator to continue working while the computer executes
another action, such as spooling data to a printer.
Backlight A light which is generally mounted behind a subject to light the subject's hair and shoulders
without illuminating a subject's front. It is not regularly used in clinical dental images.
Backlit Image In photography, this term describes a photograph in which most of the light comes from behind
the subject. An important part of the image is intentionally backlit. In other words, the
background is brighter than the subject and will be underexposed unless a fill flash or other
exposure compensation. This technique has little to no value in clinical dentistry.
Banding An artifact of color gradation in computer imaging, when graduated colors break into larger
blocks of a single color, reducing the "smooth" look of a proper gradation.
Bandwidth Defines the amount of information that can travel between two points in a specific time.
BBS An acronym for Bulletin Board Service (See Bulletin Board Service).
Binary The numbering system of digital computing, based on 1 and 0. A coding or counting system
with only two symbols or conditions (off/on, zero/one, mark/space, high/low). The binary
system is the basis for storing data in computers.
Bit An abbreviation for Binary digit, the smallest unit of digital information. A single bit can hold
only one of two values: 0 or 1 (on or off). More meaningful information is obtained by
combining consecutive bits into larger units. For example, a byte is composed of 8
consecutive bits.
Bit Depth In digital imaging, a number representing the quantity of the bits used to define a pixel
illumination level. Color / gray scale.
Bitmap An image made up of dots, or pixels. Refers to a raster image, in which the image consists of
rows or pixels rather than vector coordinates. The standard bit-mapped graphics format used
in the Windows environment. By convention, graphics files in the BMP format end with a .bmp
extension. BMP files store graphics in a format called device-independent bitmap (DIB). This
is the only graphics format where compression actually enlarges the file. The format is widely
used nonetheless.
Black Point The point that defines the darkest value in an image.
Brightness The value of a pixel in an electronic image, representing its lightness value from black to
white. Usually defined as brightness levels ranging in value from 0 (black) to 255 (white).
Buffer A temporary storage area, usually in RAM. The purpose of most buffers is to act as a
temporary holding area, enabling the CPU to manipulate data before transferring it to a device.
An electronic storage area where several already-exposed digital camera images can wait in
line to be processed. This speeds the interval between shots (burst rate) since each photo
does not have to be completely processed before the next one can be taken.
Bulletin Board Service A dial-up computer service accessible by modem, usually maintained by a manufacturer,
distributor, or private company. They're used for 2-way computer-to-computer
communications, to download patches and utilities, to allow users to ask questions and access
information, to receive company announcements, etc. Websites have often replaced BBS.
Burst Mode The ability of a camera to take one picture after another as long as you hold down the shutter
release button.
Burst Rate The time between the cameras ability to take the next picture. It is the recycling time of a
camera to write the image file after every exposure, usually 3-5 seconds of dead time between
shots. This can be reduced by the camera having RAM that acts as a buffer to temporarily
store or hold the image before writing the image to a file.
Byte An abbreviation for binary term, a computational unit of storage capable of holding a single
character. 1 Byte is equal to 8 Bits. An ensemble of eight bits of memory in a computer.
C
Calibration The act of adjusting the color of one device relative to another, such as a monitor to a printer,
or a scanner to a film recorder. Or, it may be the process of adjusting the color of one device
to some established standard.
Camera Angle The viewing angle chosen from which to photograph a subject. In dentistry it often references
the mid-sagittal plane and the horizontal plane.
Camera Position The various standard images used in dentistry require that the camera be moved closer or
further from the subject and this effects the magnification ratios of the images. The camera
position also relates to the vertical and horizontal relation to the midline, mid-sagittal,
horizontal, and vertical planes.
Camera Ratio The ratio of height to width of the camera image, 35mm film is 24mm x 36mm or a 2:3 ratio,
many digital cameras use a 3:4 ratio. This is used to help understand magnification as related
to the camera position.
Card A device that is a sealed package containing storage chips or other devices with electrical
connectors that make contact when inserted into a slot on a camera, printer, computer, or
other device..
Card Adapter A device used to insert a smaller storage device into a larger slot in a computer or other
device.
CCD An acronym for Charge-Coupled Device, a light sensitive solid-state instrument whose
semiconductors are connected so that the output of one serves as the input of the next. The
imaging surface of digital cameras, video cameras, and optical scanners often use CCD
arrays as an image sensor that reads the charges built up on the sensor's photosites a row at
a time to collect image data. The more sensors a CCD has, the higher the image resolution
will be. A CCD converts light into proportional (analog) electrical current. The two main types
of CCDs are linear arrays used in flatbed scanners, digital copiers, and graphic arts scanners,
and area arrays used in camcorders, still video cameras, digital cameras, and fast scanners.
CCD Raw Format The uninterpolated data collected directly from the image sensor before processing.
CD An acronym for Compact Disc, which is a polycarbonate optical storage media with one or
more metal layers capable of storing digital information. A variety of CD formats are available
for use by computers, video, and audio players.
CD Drive A drive mechanism for playing CDs.
CD-Burner A nickname for a Compact Disk-Recordable drive (CD-R drive).
CD-R Disc A type of compact disc media that can have data written to it by CD-R Drive. This is a Write
Once Read Many (WORM) media, meaning it can only be written to one time. This optical
media is becoming a popular alternative to tapes as a backup method
CD-R Drive Short for Compact Disk-Recordable drive, a type of disk drive that allows users to create a
CD-ROM or audio CD. This optical storage device is becoming a popular alternative to tape
systems as a backup method, especially for permanent (archive) storage.
CD-ROM Compact Disc, Read-Only Memory. A non-rewritable CD used by a computer as a storage
medium for data.
CD-RW CD-ReWritable Media a product on which users can record text, images and graphics for
permanent or temporary storage. A type of compact disc that can have their data erased and
overwritten by new data. This optical storage media is becoming a popular alternative to tape
systems as a backup method because it allows multiple recordings, users can erase and
rewrite as often as needed.
Channel One piece of information stored with an image. True color images, for instance, have three
channels-red, green and blue. A component of a digital image that carries the data for a color
component or a mask.
Charge-Coupled Device See CCD.
Chroma The color of an image element (pixel). Chroma is made up of saturation + hue values, but
separate from the luminance value.
Chromatic Adaption Adjustment to overall color shifts, like those produced by filters.
Clip Art Graphic files that can be inserted into documents, presentations, and projects. Often are
distributed on CDs or through the Internet.
C
Clipping The grouping (usually unwanted) of all tones or colors above or below a certain value into one
composite tone.
CMOS An acronym for Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. This is a type of semiconductor
that can be used as a sensor that capture images for digital radiography and photography, and
are sometimes used in instead of CCDs because they have low power requirements and are
less expensive. Usually they are found in high-end digital cameras with high megapixel
sensors.
CMS An acronym for Color Matching System or Color Management System. A software program
(or a software and hardware combination) designed to ensure color matching and calibration
between video or computer monitors and any form of hard copy output. A software database
containing characteristics that calibrate and normalize the components of an imaging system
to assure consistent results.
CMY Cyan, Magenta, Yellow The three subtractive primary colors.
CMYK One of several color encoding system used by printers for combining primary colors to
produce a full-color image. In CMYK, colors are expressed by the "subtractive primaries"
(cyan, magenta, yellow) and black. Black is called "K" or keyline since black, keylined text
appears on this layer. The colors that are mixed to print pictures on paper. Most ink-jet and
dye-sublimation printers use combinations of these colors to reproduce images.
Color Correction The process of correcting or enhancing the color of an image.
Code Value A pixels gray level value. An 8-bit (1-byte)/pixel image code value ranges from 0 to 255 (256
levels).
Coding Recording data (or image) in binary form (number).
Color Balance The overall accuracy with which the colors in a photograph match or are capable of matching
those in the original scene.
Color Depth The number of bits assigned to each pixel in the image and the number of colors that can be
created from those bits. True Color uses 24 bits per pixel to render 16 million colors.
Color Gamut The range of color that can be produced by a specific color reproduction system.
Color Management
See CMS.
System
Color Model A mathematical representation of color.
Color Separation The process of breaking a continuous tone image into individual (often but limited to primary)
color components for processing and printing.
Color Temperature A commonly used measurement of the "color" of a white light source describing the qualities of
warm (yellowish) or cool (bluish) light and measuring it in Degrees Kelvin (K). The method of
measurement is based on the predominant color (lambda max) emitted by a black box heated
to a specific temperature. Expressed in degrees KELVIN, daylight is equated to about
5000K, while a typical photoflood lamp emits light at a temperature of about 3200K.
Color Wheel This is an aid to be used when selecting colors for a harmonious color scheme. You can easily
identify and split complementary colors.
Colorimeter A device used to measure the color of light.
Compact Flash A flash memory format, the matchbook-sized memory card size is 36.4 x 42.8 x 3.3 mm thick.
It uses the same PC Card/ATA interface, but has 50 pins instead of 68, and cards support
both 3.3 and 5v operation. They can plug into a CompactFlash socket or into a standard Type
II PC Card slot with an adapter card. CompactFlash has become widely used for storage in
digital cameras and other handheld digital devices. The Compact Flash can then be erased
when the images have been transferred or are no longer needed.
Compact Flash II A new Compact Flash standard with increased capacity, the second-generation CompactFlash
Type II card (CF2) increases the thickness from 3 to 5mm allowing for the inclusion of more
electronics as well as a microminiaturized hard disk.
Compatible Memory The type of storage medium a camera uses to store images. Some cameras have the ability
Type(s) to use multiple types of storage media, but most cameras accept only one type, and none of
the types are interchangeable. Each format has its pros and cons, and the fact that none has
yet become dominant suggests that there's no "best" format yet.
C
Complimentary Metal
See CMOS.
Oxide Semiconductor
Compression The use of mathematical techniques to reduce the amount of digital data (file size) required
storing individual digital images. There are numerous algorithms (formulas) that can be
used to achieve lossless (such as TIFF LZW) and lossy (such as JPEG) image
compression. The degree of compression usually can be user-specified depending on the
ultimate quality needed and can cause losses and distortion.
Compression-Lossless A file compression scheme that makes a file smaller without degrading the image and after
Image compression and decompression (restoring) an image is numerically identical to the
original image pixel-by-pixel. Thus, it is said to be non-destructive to image data when
used. The amount of lossless compression is dependent on image detail, noise,
resolution, and bit depth.
Compression-Lossy A type of compression that after compression/decompression an image contains
Image degradation relative to the original image. Lossy compression allows for much higher
compression ratios, and the degradation may or may not be apparent to the viewer and
can be dependent on the amount of compression and the viewing conditions. This
compression scheme reduces the size of a file but degrades it in the process so it can't be
restored to its original quality. The method reduces image file size by throwing away
unneeded data, causing a slight degradation of image quality. JPEG is a lossy
compression method.
Compression-LZW Short for Lempel-Ziv-Welch. Compression scheme to reduce the size of image files.
Continuous Tone An image where brightness appears consistent and uninterrupted. Each pixel in a
continuous tone image file uses at least one byte each for its red, green, and blue values.
This permits 256 density levels per color or more than 16 million mixture colors. A type of
image, e.g. photograph, that can represent all tones and values in a continuous scale
without steps.
Contouring A visual effect in an image as a result of low brightness resolution which appears as bands
of sharp, distinct, brightness change. Very similar to banding.
Contrast The rate of change from white to black, which dictates the apparent separation between
tones.
-High contrast implies dark black and bright white content;
-Medium contrast implies a good spread from black to white;
-Low contrast implies a small spread of values from black to white
Contraster A screen or device used as a shield to block out distracting areas from an image to help
emphasize or improve contrast of the subject.
Corrected Mirror Image This view means that the area of primary focus in the image has reoriented so that it would
be the same as a direct image (i.e. right is right and left is left).
CPU An acronym for Central Processing Unit. The chip in a computer where virtually all
information is processed.
Crop / Cropping The removal of unwanted or needed portions of an image from its borders (edges). When
you execute the crop your remaining image only contains the isolated area.
Cropping Tool A computerized tool or applet that simulates the traditional method for cropping or,
trimming an image.
Crossed Curves A destructive phenomenon in image processing that causes different colors to increase in
density at different rates or gammas. The visual effect is a color difference from image
highlight to image shadow.
Curves The same basic adjustments as found in the levels/histogram tool. A curves tool starts
with a straight line graph and usually allows you to set an indefinite number of points on the
line. Using these points you can 'bend' the line to adjust the image's tonal range.
Cyan A blue-green color which is the complementary color to red. Cyan is a subtractive primary
color.
D
Default Setting A preset parameter in computer programs which will be used unless changed by the user.
Densitometer A tool used to measure the amount of light that is reflected or transmitted by an object; it
measures optical density of reflective and transparent materials.
Density A measurement of the light, usually of a specific color, absorbed by a part of an image.
Dentition Reference Using the dentition or the edentulous area where a tooth should exist as an anatomical
reference of what area is captured in the image. For soft tissue, the reference should refer to
location of the area with the mouth at rest. By using dentition references the practitioner knows
the approximate location and possible orientation of an image which may not have any
anatomical identifying structures contained within the image especially at higher magnification.
Examples: the buccal mucosa adjacent to tooth #3 or lateral border of the tongue adjacent to
tooth #30.
Depth Of Field The distance between the nearest and farthest points that appears in acceptably sharp focus
in a photograph. The depth of field varies with lens aperture, focal length, and camera-to-
subject distance.
Descreening In scanning, the method of applying a controlled blur to erase discreet components of a
halftone image and make it appear more like a continuous tone image. This process will
minimize effects of causing more patterns if the image is re-screened.
Desktop Publishing Describes the digital process of combining text with visuals and graphics to create brochures,
newsletters, logos, electronic slides and other published work with a computer.
Despeckle A digital algorithm that will find and adjust pixels whose values make them appear as speckles
or sparkles in the image.
Developing The chemical process, which converts a photographic film exposure into a visible image.
Dichroic Filter A glass plate coated with a number of thin layers of material that will reflect all but one very
specific color.
DICOM An acronym for Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine. This is a standard derived to
allow for the interoperability and exchange of digital images used in healthcare worldwide. A
DICOM file contains both an image and attached text descriptors that are relevant to that
particle image. The purpose of the standard is to promote communication of digital image
information, regardless of device manufacturer, and to facilitate the development and
expansion of picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) that can also interface
with other systems of information.
Diffusion Dithering A method of dithering that randomly distributes pixels instead of using a set pattern.
Digital A system or device in which information is stored or manipulated by on/off impulses, so that
each piece of information has an exact or repeatable value (code).
Digital Camera A device that captures an image on a sensor (usually a CCD or CMOS) so it can be
downloaded to and manipulated by a computer. It might also be called a film less camera.
Digital Darkroom A digital darkroom consists of three items: a true photographic quality printer and a scanner or
digital camera and a graphics program.
Digital Image An image composed of pixels.
Digital Projector A device that connects to a computer via cabling to enable the computer monitors display to
be enlarged and projected onto a screen.
Digital Scripts These are coding commands that turn complex digital imaging tasks into menu options that
can be executed with a few steps. Scripts can be written for capture, post-processing, and
application-related tasks.
Digital Signal A digital signal is discrete and can only take on levels at specific increments.
Digital Zoom Also known as simulated zoom. Allows the user to zoom in on a subject beyond the range
provided by the optical zoom lens. Digital zooming crops the center of the digital picture and
resizes the new cropped picture to the size of the selected resolution. With digital zoom, the
camera takes a small portion of an image and uses interpolation to artificially restore the file to
its original size. Unfortunately, digital zoom also reduces the resolution of an image. Any
image can be "digitally zoomed" by cropping and enlarging a picture with photo-editing
software.
Digitize (Digitization) The process of converting analog information or image into a computerized file in a digital
format for use by a computer.
D
Disc Term used to describe optical storage media (video disc, laser disc, compact disc), as
opposed to magnetic storage systems.
Disk Term used to describe magnetic storage media (floppy disk, diskette, hard disk), as opposed
to optical storage systems.
Dither (Dithering) A method for simulating many colors or shades of gray with only a few. A limited number of
same-colored pixels located close together is seen as a new color. To emulate a continuous
tone by distributing an array of discreet dots in a region of an image.
Dmax The maximum density in an image. The blackest black. This is usually determined as a
function of the imaging medium and process used.
Dmin The minimum density in an image. The brightest white - on a print it is the paper color, but
sometimes this is affected by the process as in photography.
Dot Gain The actual size of a dot placed upon paper as opposed to the calculated or anticipated value.
Dot gain is affected by every stage of the printing process, but the effect can be measured for
specific conditions and accounted for.
Dots-Per-Inch See DPI
Download The transfer of files or other information from one piece of computer equipment to another.
Sending a file from another device to your computer.
Downsampling See "Interpolation".
DPI An acronym for Dots Per Inch, a unit of measure describing printer, video monitor, or scanner
resolution based on dot density. DPI always represents dots per linear inch on media. It can
be used to denote how many dots are used to produce a printed page or DPI can be used to
scale a document for scanning to a required resolution or pixel size. Printers lay down
multiple dots of ink when printing to reproduce each pixel of the image. The higher the DPI
rating of the printer, the better it can define each pixel. Also a measurement of a scanners
resolution, although a more precise term would be SPI (samples-per-inch). Dots have a depth
of one single color value per location and should not be confused with pixels which contain a
range of values For example, most laser printers have a resolution of 300 DPI; most monitors
72 DPI, most PostScript image setters 1200 to 2450 DPI. The measurement can also relate to
pixels in an input file, or line screen dots (halftone screen) in a prepress output film. As an
example if you scan a 4X6 photograph at 150 DPI, the resulting digital image will be 600 pixels
wide by 900 pixels long. The math as follows: 4 inches times 150 = 600 and 6 inches times
150 DPI = 900. Using the math in reverse with our 600 by 900 pixel image and printing it at
150 DPI gets us back to our original 4X6 inch print size.
DPOF An acronym for Digital Print Order Feature. Allows pictures to be selected in the camera for
future direct-from-memory-card printing on photo-finishing machines.
Drag and Drop The process of moving text, graphics, or photos to different locations in a document.
Driver A software utility designed to tell a computer how to operate an external device. For instance,
to operate a printer or a scanner, a computer will need a specific driver.
Drum Scanner A method of scanning an image using a single sensor to acquire data from an image that is
rotating on a drum or cylinder.
DSF An acronym for Dental Slide Film.
Duotone A special printing effect that adds a single color to a grayscale.
DVD Digital Versatile Disc, compact disc storage media. Holds much more than a standard CD
with capacities of from 4.7GB to 17GB and access rates of 600KBps to 1.3 MBps. There are
several standards in DVD technology and the crucial difference among the standards is based
on which manufacturers adhere to which standards. Similar to the old VHS/Beta tape wars,
different manufacturers support different standards. The DVD+R and DVD+RW formats are
supported by Philips, Sony, Hewlett-Packard, Dell, Ricoh, Yamaha and others and are
supported by the DVD+Alliance. The DVD-R, DVD-RW and DVD-RAM formats are supported
by Panasonic, Toshiba, Apple Computer, Hitachi, NEC, Pioneer, Samsung and Sharp and are
supported by the DVD Forum.
D
DVD Drive A drive similar to a CD-Drive, that is capable of reading DVD media. One of the best features
of DVD drives is that they are backward-compatible with CD-ROMs
DVD Players A DVD player that is similar to a VCR or CD player in playback features. One of the best
features of DVD-ROM drives is that they are backward compatible with CD-ROMs. This
means that DVD-ROM players can play old CD-ROMs, CD-I disks, and video CDs, as well as
new DVD-ROMs. Newer DVD players can also read CD-R disks. DVD-ROMs use MPEG-2 to
compress video data.
DVD-R A recordable DVD format similar to CD-R and DVD+R. A DVD-R can only record data once
and then the data becomes permanent on the disc. The disc can not be recorded onto a
second time. DVDs created by a DVD-R device can be read by most commercial DVD-ROM
players. There also are two additional standards for DVD-R disks: DVD-RG for general use,
and DVD-RA for authoring, which is used for mastering DVD video or data and is not typically
available to the general public.
DVD+R The DVD+R/+RW format is capable of recording up to 4.7 gigabytes of digital video, images
or data. This equates to the storage capacity of seven CD-R/RW discs and the potential to
store thousands of digital photographs or approximately two hours of digital video. The
primary benefit of DVD+R/+RW is its two-way compatibility, meaning that DVD+R and
DVD+RW media can be played in most DVD video players and DVD-ROM drives in use
today. DVDs created by a DVD+R device can be read by most commercial DVD-ROM
players.
DVD-RAM A type of rewritable compact disc that provides much greater data storage than CD-RW
systems. The specifications for DVD-RAMs are still being hammered out by the DVD
Consortium. Meanwhile, a competing group of manufacturers led by Hewlett-Packard,
Philips and Sony, have come up with a competing standard called DVD+RW and the two
standards are incompatible.
DVD-ROM A read-only compact disc that holds a minimum of 4.7GB enough for a full-length movie. The
DVD-ROM specification supports disks with capacities of from 4.7GB to 17GB and access
rates of 600 KBps to 1.3 MBps.
DVD-RW A re-recordable format similar to CD-RW or DVD+RW. The data on a DVD-RW disc can be
erased and recorded over numerous times without damaging the medium. DVDs created by
a DVD-RW device can be read by most commercial DVD-ROM players.
DVD+RW A standard for rewritable DVD disks being promoted by Hewlett-Packard, Philips and Sony. It
is competing with another standard, called DVD-RAM, developed by the DVD Consortium.
The two standards are incompatible. DVD+RW disks have a slightly higher capacity 3 GB
per side, versus 2.6 GB per side for DVD-RAM disks DVDs created by a DVD+RW device can
be read by most commercial DVD-ROM players.
Dynamic Range The range of tones an imaging system can capture or reproduce. Usually expressed in the
difference between Dmax and Dmin. Dynamic range should always be considered together
with the level of Noise present in the low light areas. The useful range of a piece of
equipment may differ considerably from the published range.
E
E-Mail An abbreviation Electronic-Mail, the transmission of messages over communications networks
such as the internet. The messages can be notes entered from the keyboard or electronic
files stored on disk.
Effective Resolution The final resolution of a scan that has been enhanced to produce more data than it can "see."
This is done by interpolation.
EPS An acronym for Encapsulated PostScript, a graphic file format developed by Aldus, Adobe,
and Altsys to allow exchange of PostScript graphic files (image information) between
application programs.
Encapsulated See EPS
PostScript
Ethernet An inexpensive, widely used local area network developed by Xerox, DEC and Intel Corp. for
data transmission between interconnected computers. Ideally, it transmits data at 10 million
bits per second (about a megabyte per second). Ethernet can be used with nearly every type
of computer on the market today.
Exchangeable Image
See EXIF
File (or Format)
EXIF An acronym for Exchangeable Image File (or Format), a file format used in digital imaging.
The JPEG compression mode.
Exposure The act of allowing light to strike a light-sensitive surface. Also means the amount of light
reaching the image sensor, controlled by the combination of aperture and shutter speed.
Exposure A feature on most digital cameras that allows manual override of the cameras light meter to
Compensation achieve better exposure under difficult lighting conditions to lighten or darken the image.
Exposure/Focus Lock The ability to point at one part of the scene and hold the shutter button half-way down to lock
in exposure and focus settings when you point the camera elsewhere to compose the image.
Export The process of transporting data from one computer, program, type of file format, or device to
another.
External Flash Synch Allows connection to other flash units instead of (or in addition to) the cameras built-in flash.
Very useful for a ring flash and experimenting with off-camera lighting effects and for use with
studio strobes.
F
FITS An acronym for Functional Interpolating Transformation System A format that contains
all data used to design and assemble extremely large files in a small, efficient
mathematical structure.
Fixing The removal of unexposed silver halides from the film during chemical film processing.
Flash The light attachment that produces a burst of light for shooting pictures in low-light
conditions.
Flash Card A nickname used for a Compact Flash Card.
Flash Card Reader An accessory that attaches to the computer by a cable that a flash memory card is
inserted into to read and transfer files into the computer.
Flash Memory A form of memory using chips instead of magnetic media. The data in the device isn't
lost when the power is turned off. . Its advantage is that digital cameras with flash
memory can have batteries go "dead" and yet retain image data.
Flash Memory Card A card containing chips that store images and data.
Flash Options, This refers to the basic flash functions, where the flash is always off, always on (i.e. for
Off/On/Auto fill-ins), or set to fire automatically when needed.
Flash, Fill Flash used to fill shadows even when there is enough light to otherwise take the
photograph.
Flash, Hot Shoe This is a structure found on some digital cameras, to which an external flash unit is
attached and provides an electrical link to synchronize the flash with the camera shutter.
Some cameras offering hot shoe capability also offer the more traditional forms of flash,
such as automatic flash.
Flash, Red-Eye This refers to a mode of flash that helps prevent the appearance of people with red eyes
Reduction in the picture.
Flash, Ring A special circular flash that fits over a lens to take close-up pictures. This is especially
important in dentistry to obtain even lighting when photographing the various close-up
images of the smile, and various intraoral images. Ring flashes can be wired directly to
the camera (flash sync) or can be a slave flash.
Flash, Slave A flash that fires when it senses the light from another flash unit and is not wired directly
to the camera.
Flash, Sync Allows for the use of more powerful flashes, and/or place the flash strategically, by
attaching an external flash unit to the camera. Typically, a camera with flash sync will
also offer the more traditional forms of flash as well, such as auto flash.
Flashpath A floppy disk-sized shell into which a SmartMedia memory card is inserted so that
images may be transferred directly to the computer through its floppy drive. Despite its
convenience, it requires batteries and is slower than a PC (memory) card reader.
FlashPix Trade name for a new multi-resolution image file format jointly developed and introduced
in 1996 by Kodak, HP, Microsoft and Live Picture. The image format that contains a
number of resolutions, each of which is broken into tiles that can be edited and displayed
independently.
Flat Color A technique of imaging graphics from regions of solid color with no gradations at all.
Flatbed Scanner An optical scanner in which the original image remains stationary while the sensors
(usually a CCD linear array) passes over or under it. The scanned material is held flat
rather than being wrapped around a drum and acquires pixels by moving a light source
and a mirror along the surface of an image.
Floppy Disk Typically, a removable computer storage medium consisting of a thin flexible plastic disk,
coated with a magnetic material on both sides. The most common type, a 3.5-inch, is
protected by a hard plastic case.
Focal Length The distance from the optical center of the lens to the image sensor when the lens is
focused on infinity. The focal length is usually expressed in millimeters (mm) and
determines the angle of view (how much of the scene can be included in the picture) and
the size of objects in the image. The longer the focal length, the narrower the angle of
view and the more that objects are magnified.
F
Focal Length Since most users are familiar with 35mm camera lenses, digital cameras lens specs are
Equivalency frequently stated in those terms. For example, a digital camera lens that zooms from 9.2mm
to 28mm would be described as 36mm to 110mm (equiv).
Focus The process of bringing one plane of the scene into sharp focus on the image sensor
Focus Lock See Exposure/focus lock.
Focus, Automatic The camera automatically focuses on a subject or object at which it is pointed, often referred
to as autofocus.
Focus, Macro The ability of a lens to focus just inches away from an object or subject so as to produce big
close-ups, sometimes even larger-than-life size.
Focus, Manual The camera focus is set by the user at any point, from near to far or in steps such as 3 feet, 15
feet, infinity. A useful override feature on some autofocus cameras, which sometimes refuse
to fire when they cannot focus accurately in very low light or on fast-moving subjects or
objects.
Four Color Process Printing using Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black inks.
FPO For Position Only. A low quality image to be used in layout operations but not reproduced.
Frame Grabber Card A device that allows the user to capture individual frames out of a video camera or off of
videotape, a video capture card.
Frame Rate The number of pictures that can be taken in a given period of time.
Frequency Modulated FM, or Stochastic screening is a technique to produce screens that are or appear to be
Screening randomly distributed. This is the technique that makes photorealistic images possible in large
format ink-jet imaging.
Frontlit Image In Photography, the term frontlit is used to define an image in which most of the light comes
from the subject. In many cases this is the result of flash illumination against a dark or empty
background. A strongly frontlit image may fool an automatic correction system into responding
as if the image was underexposed.
f-stop A numerical designation (f/2, f 2.8, etc.) indicating the size of the aperture (lens opening).
FTP An acronym for File Transfer Protocol, a protocol used to provide file transfers across a wide
variety of systems, especially to and from the Internet.
Functional Interpolating See FITS
Transformation System
G
Gamma Gamma is a measure of the rate of progression from white to black in an image or imaging
system. (Also see Contrast.)
Gamma Curve The shape of a line connecting the input and output values responsible for generating an
image. In photography this is a curve of density vs. Log exposure. In digital graphics it is
output vs. input. When gamma values of imaging colors differ, the curves are said to be
crossed and the image quality becomes visually unpleasing.
Gamut The entire range of color that can be reproduced by a system.
GB An abbreviation for Gigabyte. See Gigabyte
GBps An abbreviation for Gigabytes per second.
GCR An acronym for Gray Color Removal. It is a technique that replaces neutral C, M, and Y values
with black. This function operates over the entire tonal range of the image
GIF An acronym for Graphics Interchange Format, a standard format for image, it is a commonly
used format on the internet. A raster oriented graphic file format developed by CompuServe
to allow exchange of image files across multiple platforms. The GIF file format is popular
because it uses a compression method to make files smaller. A new standard PNG has been
approved by the World Wide Web consortium to replace GIF because GIF uses a patented
data compression algorithm. (PNG is completely patent and license-free.)
Gig A slang term used for a gigabyte
Gigabyte A unit for measuring computer memory or disk space consisting of about one thousand million
bytes (a thousand megabytes). The actual value is 1,073,741,824 bytes (1024 megabytes).
Grain The smallest component of a photographic image. A cluster of silver particles or dye.
Graphic Interchange
See GIF
Format
Graphics Program Also known as an image manipulation program, imaging program etc. Any computer program
that can alter or create digital image files.
Gray Level The brightness of a pixel. The value associated with a pixel representing it's lightness from
black to white. Usually defined as a value from 0 to 255, with 0 being black and 255 being
white. The number of steps available to reproduce a color in an imaging system. Typically, in
an 8 bit system there are 256 gray levels per color component.
Grayscale Also known in photography as Black and White. A silver-based continuous tone image. A
grayscale image is an image made only of grays with no color. A series of 256 tones raging
from pure white to pure black
Guide Number A rating of a flash's power.
H
Halftone Image A method of reproducing an image with an array of fixed-color dots in a pattern. An image
reproduced through a special screen made up of dots of various sizes to simulate shades of
gray in a photograph. Typically used for newspaper or magazine reproduction of images
Halo A bright line tracing the edge of an image. This is usually an anomaly of excessive digital
processing to sharpen or compress an image.
Hardware The 'nuts and bolts' of the computer, that includes the monitor, CPU, printers, disc drives,
input devices, etc.
HDTV An acronym for High Definition TeleVision. New video "standard" that will resolve 1,125 lines
in the United States instead of the traditional 525 lines of the NTSC standard. In Europe and
the Far East, the number of scan lines varies.
HiFi Color A six color printing technique that usually uses the traditional Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and
Black inks and adds Orange and Green ink to broaden the gamut.
High Key Image An image that is mostly white.
Highlight The white and lightest gray areas of an image.
Histogram A graphical representation of the tonal levels from black to pure white that are contained in a
digital image, are found in most software programs that are used to manipulate digital images.
HLS An acronym for Hue, Saturation, and Lightness A color model based upon Hue, Saturation,
and Lightness.
Hue Color, a term used to describe the entire range of colors of the spectrum; hue is the
component that determines just what color you are using. In gradients, when you use a color
model in which hue is a component, you can create rainbow effects.
I
i.Link Sony's name for IEEE 1394 connection (See IEEE 1934).
IBM MicroDrive A high capacity (up to a Gigabyte) spinning storage device that can be used with digital
cameras and other devices accepting Compact Flash II memory cards.
ICB A file extension used for a Targa image file.
ICC An acronym for International Color Consortium. An organization established in 1993 by eight
industry vendors for the purpose of creating, promoting and encouraging the standardization
and evolution of an open, vendor-neutral, cross-platform color management system
architecture and components
Icon A small graphic symbol or picture on a computer screen that represents a file, folder, disk, or
command
IEEE An acronym for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. A membership
organization created in 1963 of engineers, scientists, and students. The organization sets
standards for computers and communications.
IEEE 1394 A port on the computer capable of transferring large amounts of data. Currently the fastest
available port. Commonly referred to as a firewire connection.
Illuminant Failure Failure of an image recording system (e.g. film, digital, video) to reproduce color accurately
because the light source is mismatched to the sensitivity of the recording medium. See also
Color Temperature.
Image Capacity-(at hi- This refers to the camera's memory capacity for images shot at high resolution, using the
res) amount of memory that comes shipped with the camera (some cameras allow you to add
memory, which in turn will increase the number of images which can be stored).
Image Editing Software Software that performs enhancements and other manipulations of an image.
Image Management Software that stores, catalog, and transfers images so they can be located, recalled, and
Software viewed.
Image Pac A proprietary file format designed specifically for storing photographic quality images on CD. It
is now used in numerous pre-press, scientific and commercial applications.
Image Processing Capturing and manipulating images in order to enhance or extract information
Image Resolution The number of pixels per unit length of image. For example, pixels per inch, pixels per
millimeter, or pixels wide.
Image Sensor A solid-state device containing a photosite for each pixel in the image. Each photosite records
the brightness of the light that strikes it during an exposure.
Imagesetter A device used to produce halftone films and separation negatives from digital files.
Import The process of bringing data into a document from another computer, program, type of file
format, or device.
Indexed Color A color system that defines a palate of colors to be used in a specific image. Often this makes
images small and manageable. A very valuable technique for internet imaging. See also GIF.
Info-Lithium A Lithium-Ion battery that indicates its remaining shooting time in minutes on the cameras
LCD Monitor screen.
Infrared See IrDA.
Ink-Jet Printer An inexpensive alternative to a laser printer, an ink-jet printer forms text and images out of
dots created by jets of ink. Color ink-jets support many different media sizes and output
resolutions.
Integration Integration in photographic analysis is defined as the method of averaging all density
(illumination) values either in R, G, and B, or as neutral density and saving this aggregate
value to determine exposure in the camera or in the darkroom.
International Color
See ICC
Consortium
International See ISO.
Organization for
Standardization.
I
Internet The interconnection of computers and computer servers through phone and cable lines
enabling computers to share information and images; often referred to as the web or World
Wide Web.
Interpolation Most commonly associated with sizing or resizing a digital image. When you resize a digital
image the imaging program resamples the digital data and interpolates the data in order to
determine how and where to add or subtract pixels to make the image smaller or larger. In
simpler words interpolation means that the imaging or scanning program looks at the existing
pixel map of the image and adds or subtracts pixels in an orderly fashion to increase or
decrease the resolution (pixel size) of your digital image. (Also see Resizing).
Inverse Square Law The physical law that causes light from a flash to fall off in such a way that as flash to subject
distance doubles, the light falls off by a factor of four.
IrDA An abbreviation for the Infrared Data Association, which sets standards for using infrared
transmission to transfer data between electronic devices through the air, with no cables or
wires. A TV wireless remote often uses infrared transmission. An agreed upon standard that
allows data to be transferred between devices using infrared light instead of cables.
ISO An acronym for International Standards Organization equivalent. It is a number rating
indicating the relative sensitivity to light of an image sensor or photographic film. The higher
the ISO the more sensitive it is to light and requires less exposure time, than a lower ISO. The
higher the ISO the more grainy the image becomes, in a digital camera this is due to noise
when shooting in high ISO modes.
ISO Equivalency A measure of the digital cameras sensitivity to light using conventional film speeds as a
yardstick. Many Digital cameras have fixed ISO equivalent rating around 100, but others can
be set to sensitivities to achieve adequate exposure under different lighting conditions.
IT8 A color calibration chart used in many systems to create profiles.
IVUE A file format associated with FITS technology that enables images to be opened and displayed
in seconds by showing only as much data on the screen as is implied by the screen size and
zoom factor.
J-K
J
Jaggies The stair-stepping effects that can be seen in curves and diagonal lines when a pictures
resolution is too low and individual pixels are visible and begin to show in the image.
Jaz Drive A computer disk drive made by Iomega that enables users to save about 1000 megabytes or 1
Gigabyte of information on their special disks.
JFIF An acronym for JPEG File Interchange Format, A minimal file format which enables JPEG
bitstreams to be exchanged between a wide variety of platforms and applications.
JPE A file extension use for JPEG format image file, not as commonly used as the JPG extension.
JPEG An acronym for Joint Photographic Expert Group. A very common image file format that has
the ability to compress the image file size, the operator has the ability to control the amount of
compression and can be dramatic if they so desire. It uses lossy compression which will
degrade the quality of the image depending on the amount of compression.
JPEG Compression A file compression standard established by the Joint Photographic Experts Group that uses a
combination of encoding processes to compress images. JPEG is a "lossy" compression
algorithm, meaning that it degrades image quality.
JPEG File Interchange See JFIF
Format
JPG The most commonly used file extension use for JPEG format image file.
K
K An abbreviation for Kilobyte (See Kilobyte)
Kb or KB An abbreviation for Kilobit (Kb) and Kilobyte(.KB). The upper case "B" means kilobytes, and
the lower case "b" for kilobit. The "B" and b for byte are not always followed and often
misprinted. (See Kilobyte)
Kbps or KBps An abbreviation for Kilobits per second (Kbps)or one thousand bits per second and Kilobytes
per second (KBps) or one thousand bytes per second. The upper case "B" in KBps means
kilobytes per second, and the lower case b for Kilobits per second but "b" for bit and "B" for
byte are not always followed and often misprinted One thousand bits per second. Kbps is used
as a rating of relatively slow transmission speed compared to the common MBps or GBps
ratings
Kelvin The name of the absolute temperature scale. Used in imaging to define the quality of a light
source by referring to the absolute temperature of a black body that would radiate equivalent
energy. See also Color Temperature.
Kilobyte An amount of computer memory, disk space, or document size consisting of approximately
one thousand bytes. Actual value is 1024 bytes.
L
LAN An acronym for Local Area Network. (See Local Area Network.)
Landscape Mode Holding the camera in its normal orientation to take a horizontally oriented photograph.
Laser Printer LAN A printer using laser copier technology to produce high-quality printed material from computer
data. The laser charges an electrostatically sensitive drum to accept carbon based toners. The
toner is then transferred and fused to paper or transparency material.
LATD Large Area Transmission Density. This is a nearly archaic but still useful term used in
photofinishing automation to define the integrated density of a negative. This value is often
compared to the subject density to determine proper photographic (or other imaging)
conditions.
LCD An acronym for Liquid Crystal Display.
LCD Monitor (Display) The Liquid Crystal Display color screen on most digital cameras, usually 1.8 to 2.5 inches
measured diagonally and used to check images after they are shot. The LCD monitor can also
be used to frame pictures before they are taken and usually is more accurate than the optical
viewfinder, though not as convenient to use.
LCD Panel A device that is connected to a computer via cabling to project a computer monitor display
through an overhead projector.
Lempel-Ziv-Welch See Compression-LZW.
Lens The optical device on a camera that the light from an image passes through and focuses this
light on the images sensor or film. A lens may be permanently fixed or detachable from the
camera. A lens is often described and compared by the focal length and maximum aperture
opening (f-stop).
Lens Distortion An abnormal rendering of lines in an image; most commonly they may appear to be bending
inward (pincushion distortion) or outward (barrel distortion). Correctable by using a plug-in in
an imaging program.
Levels Usually refers to an imaging tool that usually combines a histogram graph and 3 sliders that
allows the user to adjust the tonal ranges of your image. The three adjustable areas are
blacks, mid tones (gamma) and whites.
Lines-Per-Inch See LPI
LiOn Short for Lithium ion battery.
Lithium-ion Battery A long-lasting rechargeable battery using a lithium-ion as storage medium and is used in many
portable electronic devices. Lithium is the lightest metal and the metal that has the highest
electrochemical potential and because of its lightness and high energy density, Lithium-Ion
batteries are ideal for portable devices. Lithium-Ion batteries have no memory effect and do
not use poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury or cadmium. The only disadvantage to
Lithium-Ion batteries is that they are currently more expensive than NiCAD and NiMH
batteries.
Local Area Network A communications network that's physically connected by cables and confined to a single
office or a single building. It enables a group of computers to exchange files and share
peripherals. Often referred to as a LAN.
Long-Focal-Length Lens Another name for telephoto lens. A lens that provides a narrow angle of view of a scene,
including less of a scene than a lens of normal focal length and therefore magnifying objects in
the image.
Lossless Compression See Compression-Lossless Image
Lossy Compression See Compression- Lossy image
Low Key A photograph or other image whose tonal range is mostly in the shadow regions.
LPI An acronym for Lines Per Inch. The frequency of horizontal and vertical lines in a halftone
screen a definition of screen ruling. The higher the ruling, the finer the screen..
LZW See Compression-LZW
M
Macro Focus The ability of a lens to focus just inches away from an object or subject so as to produce big
close-ups, sometimes even larger-than-life size
Macro Mode A separate setting for extreme close-up (or macro) shots so they appear greatly enlarged in
the picture. Without a macro setting, cameras may not be able to focus on objects that are
close to the lens, this is very important mode used dental photography.
Magenta A red-purple color which is the complementary color of green.
Magnification Ratio Each standard dental photographic image has a recommended magnification ratio, which is
determined by distance from the subject at a set focal length. These ratios range from a 1:1 to
a 1:10 ratio.
Marquee The outline of dots created by the selection tool on an image when an operator is performing a
task such as cropping, cutting, drawing a mask, etc.
Mask A defined area used to limit the effect of image-editing operations to certain regions of the
image. In an electronic imaging system, masks are drawn manually (with a stylus or mouse) or
created automatically--keyed to specific density levels or hue, saturation and luminance values
in the image. It is similar to photographic lith masking in an enlarger.
Matrix The array of CCD elements especially in the receptor of a digital camera.
Matrix Metering An exposure system that breaks the scene up into a grid and evaluates each section to
determine the exposure.
Maximum Aperture A measure of how much light can pass through a lens when its diaphragm is opened fully.
Lenses with maximum apertures of f-2 or f-2.8 are categorized as "fast" and can produce
correct exposures under lower light than "slow" lenses with maximum apertures of f-3.5 or
smaller.
Maximum CCD The maximum CCD resolution is the total number of pixels in a camera's sensor, so the higher
Resolution the resolution the greater the detail in a picture.
MB An abbreviation for megabytes the equivalent of 1 million (106) bytes. The actual value is
1,048,576 bytes
MBps An abbreviation for megabytes per second
Measurement Reference A referencing device contained within an images of a known size and often containing
demarcations in millimeters to be used to allow for calibration of distances and thus improving
the accuracy in measuring objects within an image. Examples: periodontal probe, endodontic
file, and millimeter ruler.
Meg A slang term used for megabyte.
Megabyte 1 million (106) bytes, which is a measure of storage capability. The actual value is 1,048,576
bytes.
Megapixel A million pixels, a sensor with 1152 across and 864 down means it has 995,328 pixels and this
is often referred to as a megapixel. A 2-megapixel camera will usually have sensor with 1600 x
1200 or 1,920,000 pixels and so on. The more pixels that exist in an image the higher the
resolution and therefore the greater the quality of the image.
Memory Card Reader Allows rapid transfer of images, or data recorded with a digital camera, or other devices
memory cards to a computer. The memory card shows up as an external drive in the
computer and the entire folder can be copied over to the hard drive in seconds
Memory Stick A flash memory storage device developed by Sony
MicoDrive A removable storage media developed by IBM that has a high capacity (up to a Gigabyte).
The spinning storage device can be used with digital cameras and other almost all devices
with compatible Type II CompactFlash slots.
Midtone The middle range of an image and the area that carries most of the image characteristics.
Mirror Image This a description of a view means that the area of primary focus in the image is oriented so
that it reversed or mirrored (i.e. right is left and right is left). Also see Corrected Mirror Image
Modem An abbreviation for MOdulator DEModulator, a device used by computers to converts digital
computer data into signals for transmission over analog telephone lines.
M
Moire Pattern A visible pattern that occurs when one or more halftone screens are misregistered in a color
image, the effect, usually undesirable, that occurs when two screened images are added or
when a screened image is re-screened.
Monochrome An image made of a range of only one color.
Moore's Law Gordon Moore's law that predicted that the number of transistors on a chip would double every
18 months
Morphing A special effect used in motion pictures and video to produce a smooth transformation from
one object or shape to another
Motion Pictures Expert See MPEG.
Group
Mottling A texturing seen in the smooth or monotone areas of an image. This can be due to faulty
processing, dirty lenses and optics, and a number of improperly used digital processes e.g.
excessive unsharp masking.
Movie Mode The ability to record motion video similar to a video recorder in a digital format. The resolutions
are usually quite low with a maximum resolution being about equivalent to an intra oral camera
(presently 640x480), and the frame per second rates ranging from 10-30 fps.
MP An abbreviation for megapixel. (See Megapixel)
MPEG A digital video format developed by the Motion Pictures Expert Group.
Multi-megapixel An image or image sensor with over two million pixels.
Multimedia This involves the combination of two or more media into a single presentation. For example,
combining video, audio, photos, graphics and/or animations into a presentation.
Multiple Exposure An image made up of two or more images superimposed in the camera.
Multiple Exposure Mode A mode that lets the user superimpose one image on top of another.
N
Negative For a black-and-white image those tonal values which are the opposite of those in the original
subject. For a color image, those color values that are the complement of those in the original
subject. (Film Editing).
Network A group of computers connected to communicate with each other, share resources and
peripherals
Newton's Rings or A destructive interference process in which light is reflected between two surfaces that appear
Newton Rings to be in firm contact but are actually some distance apart. When the space between the
seemingly parallel surfaces is equal to one quarter wavelength of a specific color, that color
light is reflected between the surfaces and some of it is removed from the image due to phase
reversal of the wave reflected from the second surface. This appears as a dark or colored
circular fringe in the reproduced image.
NiCad An abbreviation for Nickel Cadmium battery.
NiMH An abbreviation for Nickel Metal Hydride battery.
Nickel Metal Hydride A type of rechargeable battery that provides very consistent voltage, very efficient and is
Battery environmentally safe. Recommended for digital cameras, these batteries have high energy
density (50% more than Ni-Cd) and can be charged over 500 times in their life cycle. They
charge very fast and hold their energy longer than other batteries. When they are disposed of
they have a low environmental impact
Noise Unwanted data that appears near the lowest operating levels of a sensor. In CCD scanning,
noise appears as speckles in the shadow areas. The electronic equivalent of excessive grain
in a film image. Usually found in images shot at high ISO settings.
Noise Floor The lowest value a sensor can detect within an acceptable tolerance for noise.
Normal-Focal-Length A lens that provides about the same angle of view of a scene as the human eye and that does
Lens not seem to magnify or diminish the size of objects in the image unduly.
NTSC An acronym for National Television Standards Committee. The organization that sets the
American broadcast and videotape format standards for the FCC. A 60 field video format
standard to display images on a television screen used primarily in the United States. The
color television is currently set at 525 lines per frame, 29.97 frames per second.
O
Object Linking and See OLE
Embedding
OCR Optical Character Recognition is a technique that re-creates vector type from scanned
documents.
Offset Lithography or A printing process in which the ink bearing the type or image is transferred to a drum (blanket)
Offset Printing before it is transferred to the paper.
OLE An acronym for Object Linking and Embedding. A standard for combining data from different
application that updates automatically.
On-Board Memory Some digital cameras have built-in memory in lieu of (or in addition to) removable media to
store their images. On-board memory is less expensive (and less flexible) than removable
memory, and it's usually seen only in entry-level cameras.
Open Up To increase the size of the lens aperture. The opposite of stop down.
Optical Resolution In scanning this is the highest resolution in terms of Pixels per unit measure (e.g. PPI) that a
system can see and record.
Optical Viewfinder An optical glass device on the camera which, when looked through, shows the intended image
to be photographed. Most digital cameras have optical viewfinders in addition to LCD
monitors because the LCD can "wash out" in bright light, making it virtually impossible to see
the image. See Viewfinder
Optical Zoom A zoom lens that uses movement of lens elements to achieve various fields of view.
Regardless of whether the zoom is set for taking pictures at wide-angle or telephoto settings,
the resolution of the image remains the same. Sometimes known as "telephoto" or "true
zoom," optical zoom works like the zoom on a traditional film camera. Elements within the lens
move, reducing the field of view and making the object appear closer.
Orientation Sensor A sensor that knows when you turn the camera to take a vertical shot and rotates the picture
so it won't be displayed on it's side when you view it.
Original An original unaltered image or file from the camera.
Overexposure Exposing the image sensor to more light than is needed to render the scene as the eye sees
it. Results in a too light photograph.
P
PAL An acronym for Phase Alternating Line, A European 50 field video out format standard to
display images on a TV screen. The European color television standard that specifies a 25Hz
frame rate and 625 lines per frame.
Palette A thumbnail of all available colors to a computer or devices. The palette allows the user to
chose which colors are available for the computer to display. The more colors the larger the
data and the more processing time required to display the images. If the system uses 24-bit
color, then over 16.7 million colors are included in the palette.
Panorama A photograph with much wider horizontal coverage that a normal photograph, up to 360-
degrees and more.
Panoramic Mode A digital camera mode that uses just the center band on the image sensor to capture an image
that is much wider than it is tall.
Pantone Color Matching
A system that defines colors for printing.
System
Parallax An effect seen in close-up photography when the viewfinder is offset by some distance from
the lens. The scene through the viewfinder is offset from the scene through the lens
Parallel Port A port on the computer that is faster than a serial port but slower than SCSI, USB, or IEEE
1394 ports. Often used by printers and flash card readers.
PC An acronym for Personal Computer
PC Card A card that plugs into a slot in a notebook or hand-held computer. Originally called PCMCIA
card. In the case of cameras it is usually a storage device an can eliminate the need to have
the camera connect to the PC to transfer images.
PCMCIA Card An acronym for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association, now called a PC
card. See PC Card.
PCT A file extension use for a PICT image file.
PCX A file extension use for an image file.
PDF A file extension use for an Adobe image file.
PDP A file extension use for an Adobe image file.
Peripheral A term used to collectively describe computer hardware accessories such as printers,
modems, scanners, etc.
Phase Alternating Line See PAL
Photo CD A CD-ROM holding about 100 images, each scanned from slides or negatives at five different
resolutions. The photographer can then choose the best resolution to achieve the size of a
desired photo. The Photo CD combines the best of 35-mm film imaging and digital technology,
so images can be shown on a television or computer monitor. Images can be transferred to a
photo CD disc from new or existing developed 35-mm film, 35 mm slides, and other formats
PhotoNet An on-line service through photo retailers that enables viewing film based pictures on the
Web. From there, images can be shared, reprinted, and image quality can be improved.
Photosite A small area on the surface of an image sensor that captures the brightness for a single pixel
in the image. There is one photosite for every pixel in the image.
Photo YCC A color encoding scheme developed by Kodak for its Image PAC file format.
PIC A standard file format for animation files. A file extension use for a PICT image file.
PICT A graphics file format used primarily on Macintosh computers. PICT files can contain both
object-oriented and bit-mapped graphics. There are two types: PICT I and PICT II. PICT II is
the current standard and supports color up to 24-bit.
Picture CD Similar to Photo CD but with only one medium resolution scan for each image.
Picture Cost The total picture cost has at least these components: hardware, storage media, and the time
associated with writing/reading data from the recording media.
Picture Disk Picture Disks are provided as an additional output of traditional photofinishing. In addition to
negatives and prints, images can be placed on a diskette that holds up to 28 pictures.
P
Picture Disk Plus Picture Disk Plus provides a high-resolution digital copy of photographs. The copy is made
from photographic prints at a photographic center. Photographs are scanned and copied onto
a floppy disk in either the JPEG or FLASHPIX format. Each Picture Disk Plus holds one
picture. Picture Disk Plus does not have the viewer software like the KODAK Picture Disk to
maximize image quality, but the images can be used with other photography and graphics
software as well as serve as a source for images that are added to word processing,
presentation, and other software that can receive picture files.
Picture Element. See Pixels.
Pipelining This process is used by computer processors to speed up the processing of data. A processor
begins executing the next command before the first command has been completed.
Pixar An image file format used for PIXAR's rendering and animation programs.
Pixel A contraction of the words Picture Element. The microscopic sensor element, or basic element
of resolution. Each pixel represents one DOT in a continuous matrix of dots. This matrix of
dots, when viewed on a computer screen, makes up the content of your digital image. Each
pixel contains digital information (in bits) on color and tonal range. Actual pixel size is relative
to the resolution being used by the computer screen. Also, one of the tiny points of light that
make up a picture on a computer screen.
Pixel Depth The number of bits of tonal range capability assigned to the pixels in an image. For example
RGB 24 bit color means a pixel depth of 24 bits, 8 bits or 256 levels per color.
Pixelation An effect seen when you enlarge a digital image too much and the pixels become obvious.
(See Jaggies).
Plug-In A small application that can be added (plugged-in) to a program to give it more functionality.
For example, a distortion-removal plug-in.
Plug and Play An automated installation process used to connect peripherals to a computer. When new
devices are plugged into the computer the computer recognizes the device and prompts the
user to choose setup options and finish installation.
PMT Photo Multiplier Tube is the single image receiver in a drum scanner. PMT's are significantly
more sensitive to low light levels than CCD's therefore PMT scanners yield better shadow
detail.
PNG An acronym for Portable Network Graphics (pronounced ping). A new standard that has been
approved by the World Wide Web consortium to replace GIF because GIF uses a patented
data compression algorithm. PNG is completely patent and license-free
Port An electrical connection on the computer into which a cable can be plugged so the computer
can communicate with another device such as a printer or modem.
Portrait Mode Turning the camera to take a vertically oriented photograph.
Posterization The grouping of a continuous range of tones into a small number of fixed values.
PostScript A page description language developed by Adobe Systems, Inc. to control precisely how and
where shapes and type will appear on a page. Software and hardware may be described as
being PostScript compatible. The most commonly used portable file type for printing.
POTS An acronym for Plain Old Telephone Service and is used to connect computers to on-line
services through a telephone modem.
Pp-Q
P
PPI An acronym for Pixels-Per-Inch. A measurement used to describe the size of the final printed
image. An image that has a higher number of pixels-per-inch will show more detail than one
which has fewer pixels-per-inch. Unlike dots, pixels have the potential to contain a range of
color or grayness.
PQIX An acronym for Picture Quality Image Exchange. Records information about the scene being
photographed on a thin magnetic layer on the back of the film and optically on the emulsion.
PQIX also allows photo finishers to include information such as date, time, and titles on the
back of your photographs.
Pre-Flash Some cameras fire two flashes, the first adjusts the white balance (see below) and the second
exposes the picture. This is different from a red-eye reduction mode in which multiple weak
flashes are fired to close down the subjects iris prior to the actual exposure.
Preview Screen A small LCD display screen on the back of the camera used to compose or look at
photographs.
Primary Additive Colors Red, Green, Blue are the primary additive colors.
Primary Color One color of a set of related colors that can be used to create a full range of color.
Printer- Inkjet A type of printing in which dots of ink are sprayed onto paper to create the image. Some inkjet
printers can lay down 1440 dots of ink per inch, resulting in photo-quality prints (provided that
the image has adequate resolution in pixels to begin with).
Printer-Dye Sublimation A type of printing process in which a dye ribbon is heated by the print head creating a gas that
hardens onto special paper. This creates soft-edged spots of color that melt into each other
and give the appearance of a continuous tone photograph.
Printer-Thermal (Wax) Printing by transferring small dots of wax from a ribbon or other carrier to a paper substrate.
Process Color The process colors Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black are used in traditional color printing to
reproduce a full color range.
Profile A file or list of values that are applied to an imager to make its color capability equivalent to
other imagers in the same process. For example, a monitor profile should make the monitor
look like the output image.
Proprietary A format that is unique to a particular program or system, and can usually only be used within
that program and has no value or functionality being exported in that form to another program.
PXR A file extension use for a Pixar image file.
Q
Quality Factor Q is a measure of the ratio of pixels per halftone screen ruling. A factor of 2 would require a
scanning 2 pixels per screen line.
Quantizing The Sample Allocating a numerical value (code value) to the sample.
Quarter Tone On both ends of the image, those tones that lie between shadow and midtone and also
between highlight and midtone.
R
RAM An acronym for Random Access Memory. The most common type of computer memory;
where the CPU stores software, programs, and data currently being used. RAM is usually
volatile memory, meaning that when the computer is turned off, crashes, or loses power, the
contents of the memory are lost. A large amount of RAM usually offers faster manipulation or
faster background processing.
Rangefinder A camera design that has a viewfinder separate from the lens.
Rapid-Fire Shots This feature allows for multiple rapid-fire shots with one touch of the exposure button. This can
be a very useful feature when shooting subjects in motion, such as during a sporting event.
Raster Raster images are made up of individual dots; each of which have a defined value that
precisely identifies its specific color, size and place within the image. In imaging raster
denotes an image that is a bitmap.
RAW The format when the raw data is read directly from the image sensor, with no in camera
processing of the data. The RAW file is smaller file sized than a TIFF file, and it gives a more
accurate representation of the image data and this data is covered over a wider range for
deeper color.
Read / Write Capability Media is either read only, or is capable of writing , reading, or re-re-writing.
Read Out Register The part of a CCD image sensor that reads the charges built up during an exposure.
Read-Only Capable of being displayed, but not modified or deleted. All operating systems allow you to
protect objects (disks, files, directories) with a read-only attribute that prevents other users
from modifying the object.
Real Time Image A data processing system that responds immediately to the user. Image processing that
Processing executes each function immediately and displays it at a high enough resolution to be viewed
Rectangular Pixels- Point and shoot digital cameras utilize camcorder technology. Camcorders use rectangular
Square Pixels - pixels because TV displays are rectangular. For computers square is better because computer
monitors display square pixels. When starting with a rectangular pixel it has to be "lob" off part
of the pixel to display it. Essentially there is a loss image data and introduce artifacts with
rectangular pixels.
Recycle Time The time it takes to process and store a captured image.
Red-Eye A phenomenon that occurs when the flash is fired directly into the subjects eyes in a dimly lit
or dark environment. Blood vessels in the back of the eye reflect their color back through the
iris of the eye that is usually opened wide in dim light. Many cameras have a flash mode to
reduce or eliminate this condition.
Red-Eye Reduction A mode that fires a preliminary flash to close the iris of the eye before firing the main flash to
Mode take the picture.
Reflex Viewing The intended image is viewed directly by your eye through the taking lens giving you as close
to what you see as youre apt to find. Also called TTL (through the lens) and SLR (single lens
reflex) viewing.
Reflex Viewing The intended image is viewed directly by your eye through the taking lens giving you as close
to what you see as youre apt to find. Also called TTL (through the lens) and SLR (single lens
reflex) viewing.
Refresh Rate The time it takes the camera to capture the image after you press the shutter release.
Removable Media Storage media that can be removed from the camera.
Render The final step of an image transformation or three-dimensional scene through which a new
image is refreshed on the screen.
Res Abbreviation for resolution.
Resampling Changing the resolution of a bitmap file without altering its physical size.
Resizing A process in which the size of the image is changed by squeezing pixels together (to make
them smaller) or spreading them apart (to make them bigger) without adding or subtracting
any. Thus, the images file size remains the same. See also: "Interpolation."
R
Resolution An indication of the sharpness of images on a printout or the display screen. It is based on the
number and density of the pixels used. The more pixels used in an image, the more detail can
be seen and the higher the image's resolution. The actual pixel dimensions of your digital
image in length and width. As an example, an image that is 200 pixels tall by 300 pixels wide
would have a resolution of 200X300 pixels. The term resolution is also used to denote the
available number of viewable pixels on your computer screen. In digital imaging the density or
closeness of pixels measured in pixels per unit area. PPI.
Resolution Range 640 x 480 Pixels = Minimum Computer Resolution
1280 x 960 Pixels = Film Resolution of 4"x6" print
1600 x 1200 Pixels = Film Resolution of 8"x10" print
1920 x 1600 Pixels = Very High Resolution
Resolution, Interpolated A process that enlarges an image by adding extra pixels without actually. capturing light from
those pixels in the initial exposure.
Resolution, Optical The true resolution of an image based on the number of photosites on the surface of the
image sensor.
Reversal Film Another name for slide film.
RGB An acronym for Red, Green, and Blue; the primary colors used to simulate natural color on
computer monitors and television sets. The color model used in monitors, scanners, and
photography.
Ring Flash A special circular flash that fits over a lens to take close-up pictures. This is especially
important in dentistry to obtain even lighting when photographing the various close-up images
of the smile, and various intraoral images. Ring flashes can wired directly to the camera (flash
sync) or can be a slave flash.
RIP An acronym for Raster Image Processing. A piece of hardware or software that converts
object-oriented graphics and fonts into the bit maps required for output on a printer.
ROM An acronym for Read Only Memory. ROM can be read and not updated or changed by the
computer. Usually ROM refers to specific electronics in a computer; however nonalterable
disks like CDs or CD ROMs are another type of read only memory. Read Only Memory is non-
volatile, and does not disappear when power is shut off.
Rosette The pattern created in a standard color halftone.
S
Sample In imaging, to gather the value of a color. To select an image color to be used in a drawing or
painting tool.
Samples-Per-Inch See SPI
Sampling The analog signal at a moment in time.
Saturated Field or In Photographic image analysis, this terms is defined as the presence of a predominant color
Saturated Image in the background that is different than that of the subject. Because it distorts the values
determined in an integrated reading, the presence of saturation in an image can have a
destructive effect on automatic analysis and correction systems that are based on Integration
alone. See also Auto Levels.
Saturation A measure of purity of color. The degree to which a color is undiluted by white light. Saturated
colors contain pure color only, colors desaturate to gray. Saturation is a measure of the
degree of pureness or movement away from gray.. If a color is 100 percent saturated, it
contains no white light. If a color has no saturation, it is a shade of gray.
Scaling This term refers to changing the printed size of your digital image or setting the resolution for a
digital image you are about to scan or create. Print size (DPI) and image resolution (in pixels)
are totally independent from each other. However, as shown in the previous heading, the ratio
between pixel resolution and assigned DPI is what determines the printed size of your
photograph. Some digital image file formats can save print size information. This is done by
embedding a user selected DPI setting in the digital file. See the DPI heading above for more
information.
Scanner An optical device that converts images, such as photographs, into digital form so they can be
stored and manipulated on computers. Different methods of illumination transmit light through
red, green and blue filters and digitize the image into a stream of pixels. The input device uses
light to read printed information including text, graphics, and bar codes, and transfers it into
the computer in a digital format.
Scitex CT A image file format that ends in a SCT extension.
Screen Angle The angles screens are offset to produce a quality halftone.
Screen Frequency The measure of lines on a screen given in lines per unit measure as in LPI.
Screen Resolution Computer screens are capable of displaying different amounts of pixels across their length
and height. As an example a low resolution screen setting may show a maximum of 640 pixels
in the width of the screen by 480 pixels in the height of the screen for a total of 307200 pixels.
A higher resolution setting may allow you to show 1280 by 1024 pixels or more on your
screen. Using a little math you can see that when computer screens of the same size are
running different resolutions, the pixels on the screen that is running low resolution will be
larger than when that same size screen is running high resolution. High resolution settings on
computer screens contain more graphical information but that information is in a smaller
viewable format.
Screen Ruling The resolution of a screen measured in lines per unit measure.
Screening The process of producing halftone screens at the appropriate angles for proper reproduction.
SCSI An acronym for Small Computer System Interface. A computer connection that is often
preferred because of its high speed and standard interface.
SCSI port A port that's faster than the serial and parallel ports but slower and harder to configure than
the newer USB port. Also know as the Small Computer System Interface.
SCT A file extension use for a Scitex CT image file.
Secondary Color The subtractive primaries. Cyan, Magenta, and Yellow.
Separations A set of registered films each of which contains the printing information for one color (or other,
e.g. varnish), component of an image.
Serial A data transfer method used to connect a peripheral, such as a digital camera, to a computer.
The serial connection will allow the peripheral to transfer data to the computer and vise versa.
Serial Output An outgoing connector compatible with virtually all PCs, making serial connections the most
universal of transfer formats. However, it's much slower than USB.
S
Serial Port A very slow port on the computer used mainly by modems. Many digital cameras come
equipped with cable to download images through this port but it's slow! Both parallel and USB
ports are faster connections.
Shade Matching A program that analyzes the information within a digital image and compares it to known
Software values and produces a map of the shades within the image. This information can be of
particular value to dental labs and quantifying changes in the dentition for bleaching
procedures.
Shadow The darkest regions of an image that still contain data.
Sharpen In imaging, the art, science, and sometimes magic of making a softly focused image appear
sharp. Traditionally done with line film masks and over printing most sharpening is now done
digitally. See also Unsharp Masking.
Sharpen Edges An image editor technique to enhance the edges of an object.
Sharpening Filters A series of digital processes or algorithms that will enhance the sharpness of an image. Each
operates slightly differently and is more or less desirable to produce a different effect.
Short-Focal-Length A lens that provides a wide angle of view of a scene, including more of the subject area than
Lens does a lens of normal focal length. A wide angle lens.
Shutter The device used in the camera that opens and closes to let light from the scene strike the
image sensor and expose the image.
Shutter Speed The length of time the shutter is open and light strikes the image sensor
Shutter-Priority Mode A mode in which a desired shutter speed is manually selected and locked in; the camera then
chooses an appropriate lens opening (f-stop) for proper exposure. Used primarily to prevent
motion-blur in fast-moving subjects or objects.
Signal to Noise Ratio This is the ratio of the desired signal to the unwanted noise in an audio or video
record/playback system.
Single-Lens Reflex See SLR.
Slave Flash A flash that fires when it senses the light from another flash unit and is not wired directly to the
camera.
Slow Synch A flash mode in which the image is given some exposure before or after the flash is fired so as
to bring out details in the background that would normally be underexposed or not recorded at
all
SLR An acronym for A type of camera with one lens which is used both for viewing and taking the
picture
SmartMedia A popular form of flash memory card., also known as SSFDC (Solid State Floppy Disk Card).
A postage stamp-sized memory card used by some digital cameras, and other devices as an
alternative to Compact Flash cards.
Smoothing Averaging pixels with their neighbors. It reduces contrast and simulates an out-of focus image.
Software Written coded commands that tell the computer what tasks to perform. For example, Word,
PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and PhotoDeluxe are software programs.
Speckle A pixel that is abnormally lighter than the surrounding area. This is usually the result of CCD
noise in shadow areas. See also Noise.
Spectrophotometer A device than can split light into specific wavelengths and measure the intensity of each thus
providing a precise measure of color.
Specular Highlight The brightest white possible on a film or substrate. This area contains no image data at all.
SPI An acronym for Samples-Per-Inch a measurement of a scanners resolution. The sample (dot)
have a depth of one single color value per location and should not be confused with pixels
which contain a range of values
Split Screen An optical or special effects shot in which two separate images are combined on each frame.
Spot Metering Autoexposure is based on a meter reading of a small circle in the center of the viewfinder.
S
Square Pixels - Point and shoot digital cameras utilize camcorder technology. Camcorders use rectangular
Rectangular Pixels pixels because TV displays are rectangular. For computers square is better because computer
monitors display square pixels. When starting with a rectangular pixel it has to be "lob" off part
of the pixel to display it. Essentially there is a loss image data and introduce artifacts with
rectangular pixels.
Stitch Mode A feature that helps in shooting multiple images for building a panorama (wide angle) type of
image later.
Stochastic Screening FM, or Stochastic screening is a technique to produce screens that are or appear to be
randomly distributed. This is the technique that makes photorealistic images possible in large
format ink-jet imaging.
Stop An aperture setting that indicates the size of the lens opening. A change in exposure by a
factor of two. Changing the aperture from one setting to the next doubles or halves the amount
of light reaching the image sensor. Changing the shutter speed from one setting to the next
does the same thing. Either changes the exposure one stop.
Stop Down To decrease the size of the lens aperture. The opposite of open up.
Storage Capacity The number of bytes of data that can be stored on a recording medium.
Storage Data Integrity How durable the data storage media is once data is recorded.
Subject In Photography this term is used to define that part of a photograph that is the item to be
illustrated.
Subtractive Color A color system using Cyan, Magenta and Yellow dyes to control light by removing their
complements: Red, Green, and Blue from the incident white light source.
Subtractive Colors Cyan, Magenta, Yellow are the subtractive colors.
T
Tagged Image File See TIFF.
Format.
Targa An image file format used for image files that end in an TGA, VDA, ICB, or VST file extension.
Telephoto Lens A lens that provides a narrow angle of view of a scene, including less of a scene than a lens of
normal focal length and therefore magnifying objects in the image. A long-focal-length lens.
TFT Thin Film Transistor. A type of digital camera monitor display that allows a wider, brighter
viewing angle than a standard LCD monitor.
TGA A file extension use for a Targa image file.
Thru-The-Lens See TTL.
Tiff Tagged Image Format. A common and portable bitmap file type used in most imaging
applications. A popular lossless image format used in digital photography.
TIFF An acronym for Tagged Image File Format, a common image format, which stores the image
information as a full sized, uncompressed file. Many digital camera images are recorded as
TIFFs and then JPEG-compressed in the camera. Some now offer an uncompressed TIFF
option so an image can be retrieved in its original state, eliminating the possibility of
compression artifacts.
Time-Lapse Taking a series of pictures at preset intervals to show such things as flower blossoms opening.
Photography
Tone Curves See Gamma curves. A representation of the tonal range of an image showing the progress
from black to white. Some image editors allow these to be adjusted for very fine-tuning of the
image.
Transfer Rate How fast data can be transferred from the disk drive or storage media to a computer. Transfer
rates for reading and writing are not necessarily the same. The transfer rate may be
dependent on the CPU, the media and the connection.
Tru Match A color matching system similar to Pantone.
TTL . A camera design that let's you compose an image while looking at the scene through the
lens that will take the picture. Also called thru-the-lens.
U
UCR Under Color Removal: A separation method that removes a portion of neutral shadow areas -
where C, M, and Y are equal - and replaces that value with an equivalent portion of black.
Unbundling When a dealer removes normally included items from a camera package and then sells them
to you separately.
Underexposed Image In Photography this term is used to describe an image in which the quantity of light available
was insufficient to cause the medium to reproduce the full range of tones available. Exposing
the film to less light than is needed to render the scene as the eye sees it. Results in a too
dark photograph.
Unsharp Masking A process by which the apparent detail of an image is increased; generally accomplished by
the input scanner or through computer manipulation. The sharpening process first blurs the
edges then subtracts the image from the blurred areas to yield a image of enhanced
sharpness.
Upload Sending a file from your computer to another device.
Upsampling See "Interpolation.
USB An acronym for Universal Serial Bus. A computer port to which peripherals can be connected
and, when used by a USB-equipped digital camera, allows rapid transfer of the camera
images to the computer. The USB offers a simplified way to attach peripherals and have them
be recognized by the computer..
USB Port. A high-speed port compatible with virtually all PCs made since 1998 and all "colorful" Macs
that lets you daisy-chain devices (connect one device to another). USB-1 ports are about 10
times faster than a typical serial connection and USB-2 ports are 4?? times faster than USB-1
port. These USB ports are usually located in easy to access locations on the computer
USM An acronym for UnSharp Masking.
V-W
V
Value A measure from white to black, the higher the value, the darker the image.
VDA A file extension use for a Targa image file.
VGA An acronym for Video Graphics Adapter more commonly referred to graphics card or adapter.
VGA is also an acronym for Video Graphics Array- a resolution type that uses analog signals
and is only capable of 16 colors with a resolution of 640x480 pixels and 256 colors with a
resolution of 320x200 pixels respectively. VGA resolution usually refers to a resolution of 640
x 480 pixels. VGA is considered to be the lowest common denominator in graphics display.
Video Board The interface in the computer that produces the working RGB image on the monitor.
Video Capture Card Special hardware used for converting analog video signals, such as those generated by a
intraoral or video camera, into a digital format (file) that then can be stored and recalled from
the computers data base.
Video Card A card the fits into a computer's expansion slot so you can edit digital video.
Video Output Allows you to view your digital pictures on your TV or record them on a video cassette.
View Finder A separate window on the camera through which you look to compose images.
Virtual Memory A portion of a hard disk that is used to extend and behave as computer's Random Access
Memory through the operating system, or other software. Since hard drive memory is often
less expensive than additional RAM, it is an inexpensive way to get more memory and
increase the operating speed of applications.
VST A file extension use for a Targa image file.
W
Watermark A feature that can add date, time, specific text, graphics, or logo images within an image for
identification of the image.
WAV The file extension used on some types of audio files.
White Balance An automatic or manual control that adjusts the brightest part of the scene so it looks white.
White Point Used in monitor calibration to determine the color when R, G, and B are at their maximum
values.
Wide-Angle Lens See Short-focal-length lens.
Win Zip A windows software tool used to compress and decompress files in an archive. Zip allows file
sizes to be compressed in order to allow faster transfer of data on line. Other common terms
are 'zip', 'pack', or 'unzip' and 'unpack'.
WORM An acronym for Write Once Read Many (WORM) media, meaning it can only be written to one
time. Most common to optical disks
WWW An acronym for World Wide Web, often referred to as the Internet.
WYSIWYG An acronym for What You See Is What You Get. Refers to the ability to output data from the
computer exactly as it appears on the screen.
X-Y-Z
X
XGA An acronym for Extended Graphics Array supports resolutions up to 1024 x 768 @256 colors.
XML An acronym for eXtensible Mark-up Language. XML is a standard to create electronic
documents on the Internet. The first application of XML is to create Web pages, similar to
existing ones but more dynamic. XML is not limited to only Web pages; potential documents
include forms, EDI messages, channel definition (for push technology), application
descriptions, etc.
XML Parser A parser is a library that reads and interprets XML documents for applications.
Z
Z-Buffer A method used by high end computers to depict depth of objects on a computer screen. The
Z-buffer is implemented within the hardware rendering engine of a computer, typically used on
3D modeling computers.
Zip Compression A type of file compression that decreases the total size of a file, and allows larger amounts of
data to be transferred in fewer bytes. The compressed file is often referred to as a Zip file and
typically ends with a .zip extension. (See WinZip for windows zip compression)
Zip Drive A computer disk drive made by Iomega that enables users to save about one hundred
megabytes of information on their special disks.
Zoom Lens An optical effect in which the image rapidly grows larger or smaller as though the camera is
moving closer or away from its subject and lets you change focal lengths on the fly.
Zoom Lens Apertures Designated as two maximum apertures on the lens ring as: 1:2.84.0. The first number after
the "1" (f-2.8) applies if the lens is in full wide angle position. The second (f-4), if it is at full
telephoto. Similarly, minimum apertures will also vary by a full f-stop. If the zoom is set
between wide and telephoto, the maximum aperture will fall in the middle, in this case, f-3.5.
Zoom-Digital Also known as simulated zoom. With digital zoom, the camera takes a small portion of an
image and uses interpolation to artificially restore the file to its original size. Unlike optical
zoom, digital zoom does not require any moving parts, so it's much cheaper to manufacture.
Unfortunately, digital zoom also reduces the resolution of an image. Any image can be
"digitally zoom" by cropping and enlarging a picture with photo-editing software.
Zoom-Optical A zoom lens that uses movement of lens elements to achieve various fields of view.
Regardless of whether the zoom is set for taking pictures at wide-angle or telephoto settings,
the resolution of the image remains the same. Sometimes known as "telephoto" or "true
zoom," optical zoom works like the zoom on a traditional film camera. Elements within the lens
move, reducing the field of view and making the object appear closer.

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Proposed ADA Technical Report No.

Proposed American Dental Association

PROPOSED AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 1029 FOR

Film photographic capture process consists of the following path:

4 Sent to photographic lab

5 Chemical Processing (Developing)

6 Printed or mounted in slide

7 Returned from lab

Digital photographic capture process consists of the following path:

5 Transfer to computer or printer

DENTAL DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Can see images almost immediately

Allows for immediate retakes when needed

Can make 100% exact duplicates

Single media can hold many images

Images can be easily stored and catalogued

STILL PHOTOGRAPHIC-STYLE DIGITAL CAMERA

What images are to captured

How may images are to captured at one time

What is the image quality needed or required

What type of illumination will be needed

What lens or magnification is needed of each image

How and what the images will be use for

Who will take images and under what circumstances

How images will be transferred or downloaded from the camera

What computer hardware and software will be required

How and where will the images be displayed

How and where images will be printed

Where the camera will be stored

How and when are the camera and batteries maintained

HOW DIGITAL CAMERAS WORK

DIGITAL SENSORS AND SENSITIVITY

IMAGE ILLUMINATION AND FLASH

The intensity (brightness) of the light source

The color temperature of the light source

The distance of the light source to the subject

The angle of the light source to image and sensor

The distance of the camera (sensor) to the subject

The properties of the filters on the sensors

The software processing of the data

The amount (intensity and temperature) of natural/room light

The ability to control any or all of the factors

FLASH COMPENSATION & DEGRADATION

LCD VIEWER/TTL/VIEW FINDER

Flash memory card Type I

Flash memory card Type II

High capacity removable hard drive

SSFDC (solid state floppy disk card)

Stick-type flash memory

SD (secure digital card)

Media card reader

PCMCIA /PC card adapter

Floppy disk adapter

Serial port connection

IMAGE OR FILE COMPRESSION

It can make large files smaller and more manageable

Lossless compression causes no image degradation

Lossy compression allows for image degradation:

--More compression results in poorer images

--Less compression results in better images

BATTERIES AND POWER MANAGEMENT

DIGITAL IMAGE MANAGEMENT

Region Relationship to Dentition* Secondary References Tertiary References