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CADXXX10.1177/0011128714526499Crime & DelinquencyMiller and Morris
Article
Crime & Delinquency
2016, Vol. 62(12) 15431569
Virtual Peer Effects in The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/0011128714526499
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Abstract
The current study examines the differential influence of face-to-face and
virtual peers in predicting digital and traditional offending among college
students through the lens of social learning theory (SLT). SLT components
are explored to discern whether the theory holds for virtual peers, as it has
for face-to-face peers using a structural equation modeling framework, thus
making a substantial contribution to the social learning literature. Findings
provide some support for SLT for both virtual only peers and the face-to-
face peers model in relation to digital as well as traditional offending. In
addition, findings suggest that virtual peer associations may be as important
as traditional peer associations in explaining certain types of deviant behavior.
Keywords
social learning theory, virtual peers, traditional peers
In recent years, computers and the Internet have become an integral part of
daily life for many, if not most, individuals in terms of personal communica-
tion and information sharing. As a result, it is quite easy to keep in direct
contact with friends and relatives across city, state, and international borders,
whereas in the past, communication was limited to either telephone or land
correspondence. As we have progressed into the information age and have
become more dependent on computer technology as part of our everyday
Corresponding Author:
Brooke Miller, Program in Criminology, University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell
Rd., GR 31, Richardson, TX 75080, USA.
Email: ben062000@utdallas.edu
behaviors (e.g., playing video games), which calls attention to how peer
effects may be evolving as technology use increases (e.g., see Morris &
Johnson, 2014). That being said, the vast majority of extant literature has
explored the influence of deviant face-to-face peers on traditional deviance
as well as on computer-related deviance (e.g., digital piracy, password guess-
ing, accessing someone elses computer files, or creating and distributing
malicious computer programmingfor example, hackingetc.). Indeed,
traditional peers warrant continued focus as an influencing factor on tradi-
tional and digital offending yet the influence of online only (i.e., virtual)
peers should also be considered (Morris & Higgins, 2010; Morris & Johnson,
2014) as their influence on online and traditionally deviant behavior has not
been determined. From a social learning perspective, virtual peers should
influence individual behavior for those who communicate in an online only
capacity in a manner that is generally similar to traditional peers effects.
Evidence from qualitative research also supports the idea that virtual peer
interactions have a substantive impact on an individuals behavior. A variety
of studies of cyber crime and technology illustrate the importance of virtual
peers on offending behavior related to computer hacking (Bachmann, 2010;
Holt, 2007, 2009; Jordan & Taylor, 1998; Meyer, 1989; Taylor, 1999), digi-
tal piracy (Cooper & Harrison, 2001; Holt & Copes, 2010) and real world
offenses like sexual assault/abuse (Holt, Blevins, & Burkert, 2010; Mitchell,
Finkelhor, & Wolak, 2007), and prostitution (Holt, Blevins, & Kuhns, 2008,
2009; Sharpe & Earle, 2003). For example, Holt et al. (2009) use posts from
web forums frequented by customers of prostitutes, or johns, finding they
openly discuss and share various methods to decrease the risk of arrest as
well as informal threats. Holt, Blevins, and Burruss (2012) use web posts in
hacker discussion forums to assess the importance of virtual peer groups in
developing hacking behaviors. Their findings support the assertion that
hacker groups are generally well connected and that individuals may partici-
pate in multiple online communities to both gather information and develop
the density of their social networks (Holt, 2009; Holt, Soles, & Leslie, 2008;
Meyer, 1989). In addition, Holt and Copes (2010) interviews with persistent
digital pirates reveal that knowledge can be transmitted through online inter-
actions even when discussants do not perceive themselves as part of a pirat-
ing subculture. These findings have repeatedly demonstrated the learning of
virtual deviant behaviors in an online capacity, and lay the foundation for
further exploration of the learning process that occurs online as well as how
it relates to both virtual and traditional offending.
The primary objective of the current study is to explore whether virtual
peer effects operate within the confines of SLT equivalently to that of tradi-
tional or face-to-face peers. Also explored is whether traditional correlates of
offending are mediated by SLT in a similar manner for virtual versus tradi-
tional peers, as posited by the theory. For example, can SLT explain the direct
and indirect influence of virtual peers as it has for traditional peers on partici-
pation in traditional deviant activities (theft and assault) as well as for digital
crimes? Relying on data culled from a sample of university students, we test
whether operational variation exists between specific constructs of Akers
(1985, 1998) SLT that are based on traditional versus online social learning
components. In other words, does SLT explain traditional and online crime
equivalently when traditional (i.e., face-to-face) peer effects are compared
with virtual (i.e., online only) peer effects?
SLT
SLT as a general theory of crime causation has been very successful in
explaining participation in a variety of deviant activities (Akers, 1998; Akers,
Krohn, Lanza-Kaduce, & Radosevich, 1979; Akers & Lee, 1996; Elliott,
Huizinga, & Menard, 1989; Hwang & Akers, 2003; Krohn, Skinner, Massey,
& Akers, 1985; Verrill, 2008; Warr, 2002). Modern day learning theories are
derived from Sutherlands (1947) differential association theory, which
describes the learning of deviant behavior and definitions favorable to crime
through differential association with deviant others. Burgess and Akers
(1966) further developed the theory to both explain the learning process and
incorporate the concept of differential reinforcement in their SLT. Over the
years, SLT has come to describe the learning process that occurs through the
interaction with deviant others in which individuals learn to define their atti-
tudes and behaviors as deviant, imitate the behavior of others, and have these
ideas reinforced through a balance between experienced or observed rewards
and punishments (Akers, 1985, 1998).
Differential association refers to individual involvement in deviant behav-
ior as the result of social interactions with deviant others. Social interactions
involve the time spent with others including friends, family, and acquain-
tances as well as the intensity of those interactions. The concept of differen-
tial association holds that the learning of deviant behavior occurs when the
number and frequency of exposure to definitions favorable to crime exceeds
definitions unfavorable to crime. The more often and more in-depth interac-
tion one has with individuals espousing favorable definitions toward crimi-
nality, the greater the exposure to and learning of criminal definitions. Akers
(1985) differential association extends Sutherlands original construct in that
it focuses not only on the definitions of close associates but also on their
behavior. Rather, the behavior of ones peers, family, and acquaintances are
as important to the learning process as the definitions described by Sutherland.
amount, and probability of past, present, and anticipated rewards and pun-
ishments perceived to be attached to the behavior (Akers, 2009, p. 66).
Differential reinforcement/punishment involves the balance between both
the anticipated and actual consequences associated with engaging in cer-
tain types of behavior. Behavior, whether an individual engages in an act
or refrains from offending, is determined by the balance of rewards and
punishments (Akers, 1985, 1998). Akers (1998) asserts that both positive
and negative reinforcers (i.e., experiences) increase the chances of event
occurrence, whereas punishers decrease the likelihood that an act or behav-
ior will occur. Positive reinforcement may display itself in the form of
approval of certain behaviors from friends, families, and other persons
within an individuals social environment. Negative reinforcement is gen-
erally thought of as the avoidance of unpleasant experiences. Punishments
can be either positive or negative including reprimands or removal/retrac-
tion of rewards, praise, or affection, respectively (Akers & Sellers, 2004).
Since both reinforcers and punishments tend to exist simultaneously for
any act, the balance of these concepts tends to predict behavior (Akers,
1998).
Method
Data
Data for the current study were obtained through self-administered surveys
completed by undergraduate students during the spring 2010 semester at a
midsize southern university.2 Email correspondence was sent to undergradu-
ate instructors of both required and elective courses for all university students.
Efforts were made to reach students in a variety of majors; however, respon-
dents were only obtained from classes with instructor agreement. Eleven
undergraduate classes were surveyed, of which 51.5% of students reported
non-technical majors (i.e., liberal arts, social science, fine arts, etc.) with the
rest being technical majors (e.g., engineering, math, hard sciences, etc.). Prior
to completing the survey, students were advised that their participation was
voluntary and their responses would be confidential.3 The result was a purpo-
sive sample of 454 undergraduate students. Descriptive statistics and bivariate
correlations are displayed in Table 1 and indicate moderate correlations
between reinforcement from online peers and differential association from
online peers as well as with reinforcement from traditional peers. Differential
association with traditional peers also appears to be moderately correlated
with learned definitions. Individual-level predictors suggest relatively low
correlations with SLT correlates and each of the outcome variables.
Measures
Digital piracy. Digital piracy was measured by asking respondents to report
the number of times they had participated in digital piracy during the past 12
months (i.e., how many times did you illegally download full-version com-
mercial software, videos, or music instead of buying it). The respondents
were then asked to report the likelihood they would illegally download full-
version commercial software, videos, or music instead of buying it over the
next 12 months. The outcome measure for the model, participation in digital
piracy, is a weighted measure of self-reported counts of involvement in
piracy by anticipated future involvement in digital piracy. This approach
tapped into not only contemporaneous participation in the outcome behavior
but also into anticipated future behavior.
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 Gender (female) 1
2 Race (White) .11 1
3 Computer knowledge .39 .11 1
4 Age .05 .01 .03 1
5 Piracy .13 .06 .11 .09 1
6 Traditional deviance .04 .04 .08 .01 .00 1
7 Differential association with online peers .15 .06 .17 .07 .07 .02 1
8 Definitions .20 .01 .23 .11 .23 .03 .32 1
9 Imitation .07 .11 .20 .16 .07 .05 .29 .07 1
10 Reinforcement online peers .10 .04 .20 .03 .26 .04 .60 .27 .19 1
11 Differential association with traditional peers .11 .02 .12 .22 .07 .02 .48 .49 .29 .31 1
12 Reinforcement traditional peers .04 .05 .16 .11 .26 .02 .48 .30 .16 .86 .36 1
M .42 .54 3.21 21.80 4.33 .16 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00
SD .49 .49 1.00 4.76 2.22 .47 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
1551
1552 Crime & Delinquency 62(12)
Analytical Procedure
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the influence of
traditional, compared with virtual, peers on recent and anticipated future dig-
ital piracy. This was done by estimating models based on the virtual peer
indicators for the SLT component separately from models relying upon tradi-
tional peer indicators. We then compare the results across the two outcome
measures (traditional and online deviance). SEM was preferred as it accounts
for measurement error in each of the observed variables that make up the
latent variables included in the model. In addition, it allows for an explora-
tion of the direct and indirect relationships between variables and latent con-
structs, and it also provides the ability to test an entire theoretical model. The
current analysis uses a second-order latent SLT construct including defini-
tions, modeling (imitation), peer associations, and reinforcement in separate
SEMs examining virtual versus traditional peers on both outcome measures,
respectively (piracy and traditional offending).
There are several indicators of model fit to consider in SEM with the most
common measure of model fit represented by the chi-square test statistic, a direct
test of whether the hypothesized model differs from that generated by the data.
For SEM, evidence that no difference exists between the hypothesized model and
the model generated by the data is indicated by a non-statistically significant chi-
square value. In previous studies using SEM, the chi-square statistic rarely pro-
vides the desired outcome due to its sensitivity to sample size (Hu & Bentler,
1999). As a result, Raykov and Marcoulides (2006) argued the importance of
additional fit statistics to exploring and determining model fit. Several other fit
statistics for SEM are provided for the current models. The comparative fit index
(CFI) is used as an indicator of model fit; Hu and Bentler (1999) suggest that
values greater than .90 may indicate reasonably good model fit. The root mean
square error approximation (RMSEA) is another common fit measure for SEM;
RMSEA values of .06 or lower generally indicate good model fit when combined
with standardized root mean of the residual (SRMR) values of .08 and below.
The current study involved the presentation of four SEMs designed to test
study research questions surrounding both traditional and virtual peers. We
first examined the direct effects between each of the predictor variables as
well as the social learning construct in relation to digital piracy. In addition,
direct effects between each of the predictor variables on traditional deviance
as well as SLT are presented. Each SEM included, (a) four exogenous
observed predictor variables (age, gender, race, and computer knowledge),
(b) four exogenous latent components of social learning, (c) an endogenous
latent social learning construct as a potential mediator of the structural factors
(differential association for both traditional and virtual peers, definitions,
modeling, and reinforcement for both traditional and virtual peers), and (d)
an observed outcome (either digital piracy or traditional deviance). This
framework is considered a second-order SEM where measurement error is
captured from each component of SLT, as well as in the SLT factor itself. The
same fit statistics were used for both models to determine how well the tradi-
tional and virtual peer models fit the data. The path diagrams in Figure 1
depict the final structural model used for each analysis where items in the
ovals represent latent constructs and boxed items represent observed con-
structs. The first model (Table 2) examined peer effects on participation in
digital piracy and the second model (Table 3) examined the effects on
Base model Traditional peers SLT model Online peers SLT model
Note. SEM = structural equation modeling; SLT = social learning theory; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error
approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean of the residual.
1555
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Table 3. SEM Results for Traditional and Virtual Peer Models on Traditional Offending.
1556
Base model Traditional peers SLT model Virtual peers SLT model
Note. SEM = structural equation modeling; SLT = social learning theory; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error
approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean of the residual.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Miller and Morris 1557
Results
Table 2 presents the standardized SEM results from the traditional peer and
virtual peer digital piracy models. While chi-square test statistics were sig-
nificant for each of the models, the alternative fit statistics were within
acceptable ranges indicating the models fit the data. For the traditional peers
model, the other fit statistics (CFI = .90, RMSEA = .058, SRMR = .066)
indicate reasonably good fit for this model given the current data set. The
other fit statistics for the virtual peers model also indicate good model fit
(CFI = .92, RMSEA = .054, SRMR = .64).9
The first column of Table 2 displays the results of the base model using
ordinary least squares (OLS) regression.10 The results of this model suggest
that both gender and age significantly predict involvement in digital piracy
prior to the introduction of the social learning constructs. When the SLT con-
struct is introduced into the model, in columns 2 and 3 (i.e., the SEM mod-
els), the strength of the base model is weakened in accordance with Akers
theory. For example, the impact of age remains significant in both the tradi-
tional and virtual peers models as indicated by a reduction in the age coeffi-
cient in both models. In addition, race and level of computer knowledge have
a significant indirect effect on digital piracy through the SLT construct indi-
cating that the SLT construct weakens the predictive power of the base model.
Looking at the direct effects of the individual predictors on digital piracy for
traditional peers, a lower level of computer knowledge is the only significant
predictor of digital piracy. None of the individual-level predictors were sig-
nificant predictors for the virtual peers model. However, the direct effects of
SLT predicting piracy were significant for both the traditional and virtual
peer models. The direct effects of each of the individual predictors, for the
traditional peers model, on SLT were significant with the exception of gen-
der. Non-Whites, younger individuals, and those with higher levels of com-
puter knowledge appear to have a significant influence on the social learning
process. All individual demographics for virtual peers display a significant
direct relationship with social learning.
For traditional peers, SLT significantly mediates the relationship between
age and digital piracy. The finding that gender is not a significant predictor of
digital piracy through SLT is contrary to previous studies and Akers asser-
tion that gender should have an indirect effect on offending through SLT. In
addition, while significant indirect effects appear to mediate the relationship
race. The social learning process appears to play a significant role for males,
younger individuals, and those with higher levels of computer knowledge.
Similar to the online offense models, the direction of the relationship
between each individual predictor and SLT was the same in both the tradi-
tional and virtual peer models in regard to the direct and indirect effects on
traditional offending. SLT significantly mediates the relationship between
gender and traditional deviance for both traditional and virtual peers in accor-
dance with Akers theory. Race remains non-significant for both models.
However, both the indirect effects of age and level of computer knowledge
through SLT on digital piracy are stronger in both the traditional and virtual
peer models suggesting that the operation of SLT is robust to context specific
influences on the learning process relative to the qualitative nature of the
outcome.
Discussion
The current study sought to examine the direct and indirect differences in the
social learning process through both traditional and virtual peers in relation
to both online and traditional offending. SEM was used to examine each
component of the SLT construct in relation to both traditional and virtual peer
relationships. The primary objective was to explore whether virtual peers
have the same predictive power as traditional peers for involvement in digital
piracy and traditional deviance consistent with SLT. Individual variables
were examined to determine their influence when interacting with traditional
and virtual peers on each of these types of offending.
Regarding the first research question (Do virtual peers matter to the social
learning process of engaging in digital piracy and traditional deviance?), it is
clear that virtual peers influence the SLT process regarding participation in
digital piracy as we might expect for traditional peers. However, the learning
process appears to operate somewhat differently when virtual, rather than
traditional peers are modeled in the social learning process of digital piracy.
For example, gender and age each appear to have a stronger impact on the
virtual version of the SLT construct in explaining participation in digital
piracy as well as traditional deviance, rather the effects on SLT are stronger
in these models. In addition, the direct effects in the virtual peer model of
gender and age on digital piracy indicate that correlates of crime will be
mediated by the learning process as suggested by SLT.
Regarding the second research question (Does SLT operate according to
the theory when virtual, rather than traditional, peers are modeled?), several
differences between the traditional and virtual peer models emerged, in terms
of the indirect effects of individual characteristics through SLT on digital
piracy. The findings suggest that differences in peer effects lie more with how
individual-level variables operate within SLT, rather than with the direct
effects of SLT.11
Specifically, gender operates via SLT in the virtual peer model, but not in
the traditional peer model. The effects of being male on digital piracy were
significantly mediated through SLT for virtual peers but not for traditional
peers. While there were no significant indirect effects of gender for tradi-
tional peers, the effect of being male on digital piracy in the virtual peer
model is in line with previous findings; being male is more predictive of
engagement in digital piracy than being female (Hinduja & Ingram, 2009;
Morris & Higgins, 2009, 2010; Skinner & Fream, 1997). This suggests that
males may be more likely to be influenced by their virtual peers than females.
In addition, gender predicted reported involvement in both online and tradi-
tional deviant behavior through the SLT construct for both traditional and
virtual peers.
A more noticeable difference is represented by the differential impact of
race between the two models. The effect of race via SLT on digital piracy was
much stronger for the virtual peers model. Race was not a significant predic-
tor of traditional deviance for either model. However, the finding that non-
Whites are significantly more likely to engage in digital piracy through the
social learning construct in the virtual peer model is consistent with previous
findings regarding the influence of race (Morris & Higgins, 2010) and may
be explained by the prospect that online social interaction is immune to many
of the cultural and racial distinctions found in traditional social settings.
Since the virtual environment lends itself toward individual anonymity, it
may be that race does not play the same role in the learning process of indi-
viduals participating in online activities as users may be less aware or uncon-
cerned with racial differences.
Results also indicated an increased likelihood for younger individuals to
report on- and offline deviant behaviors through the SLT construct. However,
the effect of age on digital piracy, through SLT differs between models with
the effect being stronger in the traditional peers model. Younger students may
be expected to spend more time online than older students, though it may also
be that younger students also spend more time with their traditional peers, as
they are generally earlier in their college years. The findings from the tradi-
tional deviance model support this conclusion; the effect of age with SLT was
found stronger in the traditional peer model.
It remains unclear whether the differential use of the Internet among indi-
viduals reaching college age is affecting this relationship. While current
undergraduate populations are blended with those who are computer savvy
having spent the majority of their lives online with those who are slightly
older but still comfortable using the computer, we might expect that future
undergraduate students will view their interactions online in an entirely dif-
ferent manner. As this population spends more time online developing differ-
ent types of relationships, future analyses may find that the additional hours
of online activity result in higher levels of digital piracy as a result of their
online relationships or levels may even out as online activity increases.
The results from the current study differ from the only previous study to
have examined the differential impact of traditional and virtual peers (Hinduja
& Ingram, 2009). Such findings suggest that traditional peers are the most
important predictor of involvement in digital piracy, followed by virtual
sources (peers and other media sources). The results from the current study
suggest that the social learning construct operates in a similar manner for
both traditional and virtual peers for both digital piracy and traditionally
deviant behaviors. In tandem, these findings suggest that virtual peers should
be examined further in relation to their influence on the learning process as
their influence operates in a similar manner as traditional peers.
In sum, the findings offer modest support for SLT via virtual peers; how-
ever, limitations within this study offer ample opportunity for future
research.12 The current data were based on a sample of undergraduate stu-
dents from a single university, future studies should consider extending the
sample to a diverse set of universities. Similarly, future studies should exam-
ine the differential influence of traditional and virtual peers on a more diverse
age group. College students comprise a unique social stratum that may differ
in peer influences from individuals of the same group in a non-university set-
ting. Rather, peer influences may operate differently between college stu-
dents and non-college students of similar ages. In addition, exploration of the
differential learning process at different age points, such as high school stu-
dents, may provide additional clarification of the mediating impact of SLT on
digital piracy.
Results from the current analysis should also be considered in terms of the
implications for SLT. While findings indicate modest support for SLT for the
influence of virtual peers on digital piracy and traditional deviance, the cur-
rent models do not allow for any conclusions regarding the influence of indi-
vidual characteristics through SLT on other cyber-related deviance (such as
computer hacking) or other acts of traditional deviance (such as drug use).
Further exploration of the influence of various individual predictors both on
and through social learning constructs including relationships with both tra-
ditional and virtual peers will further define the importance of peer relation-
ships in offending. Further exploration of the influence of these two types of
peers could define the importance of each of the constructs of SLT. The cur-
rent study is an important first step in an attempt to explore whether there is
Appendix
Social Learning Measures
Differential association with traditional peers (10 items).To the best of your
knowledge, about how many of your FACE-TO-FACE friends have engaged
in the following activities within the last year? (none) 1----2----3----4----5 (all)
8. used illicit drugs other than marijuana? (e.g., cocaine, LSD, Ecstasy,
etc.)
9. used prescription drugs that were not prescribed to them?
10. stolen someone elses property?
Differential association with virtual peers (10 items). Think of all of your friends
with whom you only have an ONLINE relationship. To the best of your
knowledge, how many of them have done the following in the past year or so:
(none) 1----2----3----4----5 (all)
Imitation (four items). Please rate how much you have learned about any or all
of the above listed computer activities from the following people: (nothing)
1----2----3----4----5----6----7----8----9----10 (everything)
1. Family
2. Friends
3. Internet searches
4. Internet message boards/chat rooms
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
Notes
1. http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm
2. See Higgins, Fell, and Wilson (2006) for complete discussion of the appropriate-
ness of a sample of college students for studies of computer-related deviance and
Wiecko (2010) for discussion of the appropriateness of using college students for
studies in criminology and criminal justice.
3. Students were asked to refrain from completing the survey if they had already
taken it in another class. Also, six cases included missing data and were excluded
from analysis. The final sample was 454.
4. Traditional offending measures were adapted from National Youth Survey mea-
sures of deviance and anti-social behavior (see Elliott, Huizinga, & Menard,
1989). The current study did not specifically measure alternative types of tra-
ditional deviance; however, future studies should consider alternative measures
that may be more appropriate for college samples.
5. Survey questions and response categories used to measure each construct can be
found in the appendix.
6. A limitation to the measurement of peer influence is that the current data does not
allow for comparison of the proportion of an individuals traditional to virtual
peers.
7. Survey questions addressed imitation of online deviance and did not include
measures of traditional deviance.
8. A limitation to the imitation measurement is that it deviates from Akers, Krohn,
Lanza-Kaduce, and Radosevich (1979) intended measures. However, the scale
derived from Skinner and Freams (1997) study allow for the inclusion of addi-
tional online modeling sources in addition to traditional models.
9. Modification indices were used to correlate specified error terms improving the
fit of each model; however, overall results were not changed.
10. In the base model in Table 2, the digital piracy outcome is log transformed to
adjust for positive skew.
11. Differential association with traditional and virtual peers was tested for both the
digital piracy and traditional offending model using the Z test for equality of
coefficients (Paternoster, Brame, Mazerolle, & Piquero, 1998) and reflected no
significant difference in the social learning process with either peer type.
12. We also ran models for each outcome that incorporated both the traditional and
virtual social learning theory (SLT) indicators simultaneously as part of SLT
measurement. As expected, the explanatory power of the SLT construct increased
using this approach.
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Author Biographies
Brooke Miller is a doctoral student in the Criminology Program at The University of
Texas at Dallas. Her research interests include criminological theory testing, cyber-
related offending, and violent offending.
Robert G. Morris is an associate professor of criminology and director of the Center
for Crime and Justice Studies at the University of Texas at Dallas. His research sur-
rounds contemporary issues in criminology and criminal justice and quantitative
methods and has been published in journals such as Justice Quarterly, Crime &
Delinquency, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Intelligence, among others.