Smart Cities, Smart USA: International Models

Carlo Ratti and Nashid Nabian

Introduction

As we write this paper, smart-cities are mushrooming all around the world, mostly in

Asia and Middle East. Smart cities are those where urban performance is measured against a

city's hard infrastructure and its attention to the environment;1 the accessibility to, and use of,

information and communication technologies (ICTs), both for the urban population and the

public administration; 2 3as well as its human and social capital. It is estimated that smart cities

offer a $13 billion dollar market opportunity over the next three to five years, compelling major

technology companies to compete against each other in the global market to work on high-tech

solutions to urban problems.4 While much of the technology is provided by American companies,

American cities have fallen behind in this global race for smarting up. We believe that this is a

missed opportunity and, in this article, we would like to speculate on ways in which American

cities can step up to the challenge and join the trend from overseas.

Smart Cities: Examples from Around the World

Governments at national, regional, and local levels are gearing up for various smart-city

initiatives and smart-city inspired projects. In Europe, for example, the European Commission

proposed a Smart Cities and Communities initiative to improve energy efficiency, including by

developing integrated solutions for the smart use of resources; reducing energy consumption; and

promoting the production of clean, secure, and affordable energy. The initiatives goals for the

energy-efficient cities of tomorrow are supported by an initial funding of EUR 80 million to

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support projects that promote the integrative management of urban energy flows, including

transport, water, and waste solutions. Further calls under the initiative address buildings, heating

and cooling systems, networks, and energy-supply technologies.5

In the Middle East, Knowledge Economic City (KEC), Saudi Arabia's first smart city, is

scheduled to be built in five years outside of the sacred precincts of Medina so that it is open to

non-Muslim visitors. Launched by King Abdullah and announced by the Saudi Arabian General

Investment Authority in 2006, the city is envisioned as having all of its buildings connected via

voice, data, and video links. CISCO was hired in 2008 to provide the network architecture of this

hyper-connected city.6

In Asia, CISCO has been involved in South Koreas USD 47 million project for wiring up

the city of Songdo's International Business Center as a part of its Smart+Connected Communities

initiative.7 A metropolis built from scratch, the city is slated for completion by 2018 and is

advertised as the greenest, most wired city in the world, with ubiquitous broadband Internet

connections. The ideal is for each and every building to be equipped with technologies that allow

for the manipulation of the interior ambiance, and customizable environmental control via easy-

to-use, embedded interfaces hooked up to video-conferencing technology that, in combination

with the fastest Internet connection in the world14 megabits per second download speedwill

allow its residents on-demand access to live services in multi-modal format and high resolution.

In the realm of public offerings, the city will benefit from an IP-based, open-information

platform, to be developed by CISCO, that combines real-time information from energy, telecom,

traffic monitoring, and security systems. This renders it accessible to the developer community,

who will make applications that can offer subscription-based or free services to citizens based on

access to real-time information about how the city operates.8

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 Going smart seems to be a national agenda for the Korean government. In 2011, as the

first phase of the South Korean City of Busan's development of smart-connected community

services, CISCO joined its technical capabilities with that of the country's leading service

provider, Korea Telecom, to launch the Mobile Application Development Center, which operates

as an app store for developers and hosts a variety of services for citizens. Furthermore, officials

in the South Korean City of Incheon plan to use CISCOs Smart+Connected Communities

program to create more technologically advanced and networked neighborhoods to transform the

city into a high-tech, globally competitive, and environmentally sustainable smart city with

improved housing and an overall better quality of life for its citizens. In this agreement, CISCO

will recommend changes in both the citys physical infrastructure and its services.9

In China, digital networks are viewed as facilitating the convergence of urbanization,

industrialization, and information. For the past five years, Digital Chinathe largest integrated

IT service providerhas focused research, development, and practice on smart-city strategies by

undertaking work in 47 cities throughout China. As Guo Wei, Chairman and CEO of Digital

China, puts it, the ultimate goal of the smart-city project is to develop a digital city for each

physical city in order to tackle the problems resulting from China's unprecedented, rapid

urbanization and industrialization.

Rapid urbanization and growth is not a condition unique to China. The global population

has been steadily concentrating in cities, and we are witnessing a substantial increase in the

average size of urban areas all around the world.10 Against the background of recent economic

and technological changes, the citys capacity for competitiveness and sustainable growth has

focused the attention of city officials and policy makers on securing a desired level of quality in

areas such as housing, economy, culture, and social and environmental conditions. This

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challenge fuels the worldwide obsession with making cities smart, and to this effect, the Smart

City as a label, concept, and agenda has been quite fashionable in policy-making discourse and

practice in recent years.

Smart Cities: Definition

In smart cities, urban performance is gauged against a city's hard infrastructure and its

attention to the environment; the accessibility to, and use of, information and communication

technologies (ICTs), both for the urban population and the public administration; as well as its

human and social capital, manifested in decisive factors such as the presence of a creative class;

the education-level of the urban population; and the generation of localized knowledge spillovers

(LKS). LKS originated from face-to-face contact between peers in an urban environment, and

refers to the extent to which a city and its virtual, physical, and social infrastructure

accommodate social networks and human interactions.11 12 13 Furthermore, according to The

European Smart Cities Initiative, the smartness of a city can be measured by its participatory

governance, its smart economy, its smart urban mobility, its smart environmental strategies and

management of natural resources, and the presence of its self-decisive, independent, and aware

citizens who lead a high-quality urban life.

In its current state, the vision of a smart city is very much fostered by a technologically

enhanced worldview of the urban condition, whereas traditional and modern communication

infrastructure, mainly the transport and ICT infrastructures, fuel sustainable urban growth and

the quality of urban life. Smart cities are envisioned as wired cities, with connectivity as the

source of their growth and the driver of their effective performance. This is inline with the

European Union's focus on achieving urban growth in a smart way for its metropolitan areas,

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featuring a wired, ICT-driven form of development. Furthermore, in smart cities, all social

classes should benefit from the technological integrations of their urban fabric.14

The reason for this is that over the past decade, digital technologies have begun to blanket

our cities, forming the backbone of a large, intelligent infrastructure. On one hand, broadband

fiber-optic and wireless telecommunications grids are supporting mobile phones, smartphones,

and tablets that are increasingly affordable. On the other hand, open urban databases that people

can read and add to are revealing all kinds of information, and hand-held personal devices, as

well as public kiosks and displays, are helping people access it. Add to this a relentlessly

growing network of sensors and digital-control technologies, all tied together by cheap, powerful

computers, and our cities are quickly transforming into computers in open air. The vast amount

of urban-related data that is emerging incidentally is the starting point for making this

technologically enhanced urban infrastructure programmable so that peoplewhether city

officials or the publiccan optimize a citys daily processes.15

Live Singapore!: An Example of ICT-Driven Smart Solutions for Urban Challenges

An example of applying ICT technologies to make a smart and wired city is the Live

Singapore! project, produced by MIT SENSEable City Lab. The project's starting point is the

simple fact that Singapore, much like many other contemporary cities, is pervaded by various

networks through which a plethora of day-to-day services are offered to the urban population.

These service-providing networks are constantly generating tera-bytes of digital information as

byproducts of their operation. This data is closely related to the urban population's actions, as

well as their impact on both the built environment and processes contained within it. For

example, every time you access the Internet from a public wireless hotspot anywhere in the city,

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the network locates you. Or, every time you use your public transport smartcard, records of the

origin and destination of your trip are generated by the system. Likewise, your cellphone

constantly registers at the nearest network antenna, leaving a digital trace of your activities that

include your location, your use of wireless services, and the people with whom you connect. The

same holds true for any Internet-based service such as online banking, user-generated content-

sharing platforms, email, and the commercial services offered by online mega-stores such as

Amazon and Ebay. Each and every time you use these services, an entry with the time, location,

and nature of the digital transaction is stored within a distant database. These digital footprints of

urban living are memorized by the systems that generate them incidentally, and can be explored

using sophisticated digital tools to decode the hidden dynamics of a city. This provides

invaluable information about the lives of its inhabitants, allowing us to make sense of how the

city operates on a day-to-day basis and in real time.

Similarly, in Singapore, digitally managed systems generate data that accurately describe

human activity in urban space, although these data streams are by default locked within each of

these specific domains, and not accessible by other urban systems or the public. The Live

Singapore! project, working within the ecosystem of the city-state of Singapore to test the

implementation of a flexible and scalable urban data platform, aims to develop an open platform

for the collection, combination, cross-association, and distribution of various real-time urban

informatic streams. Inspired by the data.gov initiatives, the goal is to democratize access to this

invaluable multi-faceted information, which is now in real-time (as opposed to the historical

blocks of data in the case of data.gov), and open both to the general public as well as developer

communities, who could join in creating applications that turn these data streams into meaningful

information for the public and city officials.

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 The Live Singapore! platform aims to become something of an ecosystem, with toolboxes

that enable all inspired developers to write applications for maximum interoperability and the

possibility of combining different data streams while ensuring easy access and programmability.

This would capture as large of an interested, capable, active developer audience as possible. To

this effect, Live Singapore! sees the value of data not in its centralized accumulation, but focuses

on keeping track of the connections made between real-time data streams and users creating

applications.

Where Do American Companies Stand in the Global Race for Smartening up the Cities? What

about American Cities?

The cases explored above vary in approach and potential success. But how is the United

States leveraging the potential that cyber platforms offer to improve its competitiveness by

focusing on sustainable growth, improved quality of life, and smart and efficient performance at

an urban scale? Looking at the private sector, U.S. companies that are historically frontiers of

technological innovation are very active in promoting the smart-city agenda. For example, in

India, CISCO has been assisting various governmental and private service-providing authorities

and entities in creating smart solutions through such initiatives as its involvement in Gujarat

International Finance Tec-City, the Karnataka government's roadmap for an intelligent

Bangalore, and Lavasa Corp. and Wipro India's first complete e-city.16 In 2011, the company

announced an agreement with Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd. to collaborate on go-to marketing

strategies in areas that include smart cities, virtual dealership, sports and entertainment, and

cloud services. The goal for both parties is to build smarter, connected communities and establish

new ways of offering cloud-based services within them using the network as a platform. The

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first project is the Mahindra Innovation Park envisioned by the parties as a benchmark for

smart innovation.17

Meanwhile, IBM has worked with the India National Center for Ocean Information

Services to develop an early warning system for tsunami-generated earthquakes. The company

has also implemented a biometrics-enabled Crew Management System for Indian Railways to

automate day-to-day management of staffing on trains. Furthermore, it has developed automated

hospital and claims management solutions for Star Health & Allied Insurance Co., in

collaboration with HealthSprint.18

A more decisive example of IBMs overseas, smart-city operations is the company's

Smarter Cities Technology Center, which, they announced in March 2011, will be located in

Dublin, Ireland. As part of an agreement with IDA Ireland, the goal of this project is to create a

cross-disciplinary team that focuses on smart solutions to help cities around the world "better

understand, interconnect and manage their core operational systems such as transport,

communication, water and energy."19 Ideally, this type of collaboration will enhance top-level

decision-making about the optimal use of resources, improve urban planning, and provide better

and more cost-effective services to citizens. To achieve this, the Center aims to utilize an IDA

Ireland-supported investment of up to EUR 66 million over the next three years.

In 2010, the Brazilian city of Sao Paulo's government and IBM signed an agreement to

build a public information management center for Rio de Janeiro. The Rio Operations Center

will be developed at IBM's research lab in Brazil. The plan is for the Center to integrate and

interconnect information from multiple government departments and public agencies to improve

the city's responsiveness to various types of incidents, functioning as a modern, urban-scale

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control room. The operators of this control mechanism will be provided "with a single, unified

view of all the information that they require for situational awareness." Since the Center will be

equipped with a platform for consolidating data from urban systems for visualization,

monitoring, and analysis, it will enable city leaders to make decisions in emergency situations

based on real-time information.

Apparent in the examples above, and many others not included here, these companies'

global strategies include developing technology-based solutions to help cities become smarter

about tackling serious urban issues, improving the quality of life of their citizens, and creating a

more globally competitive city for the future. However, surprisingly, most of these companies are

focusing their smart-city operations outside of the United States. The fact of the matter is that

these technology-based solutions are financed by city governments and municipalities all around

the world. Like any other urban infrastructure, technologically enhanced infrastructures require

considerable financial resources, both for research development and urban-scale implementation.

Yet, in the aftermath of the 2010 debt crisis that took down many financial institutions in U.S., it

seems that American cities are facing possible meltdown and are potentially incapable of

financially supporting smart-city projects and initiatives.

Smartening up American Cities: the Case of New York Cityi

New York City is hyper-connected both with its counterparts and within itself: ideas,

capital, and human and material resources are perpetually moving within and between its

physical urban infrastructures. The question at hand is, in what ways do its infrastructures of

mobility need to adapt to accommodate this accelerated rate of connectivity? One immediate

solution is that of physical infrastructural growth where more elements are added to the existing
i
Christian Outman's input into this section is gratefully acknowledged.

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infrastructure: more roads are built, more units are added to public transportation fleets, etc. Yet,

in the case of New York, due to both physical limitations posed by urban density and its

unexpandable boundaries, expanding and adding to the existing infrastructure is not the optimum

response. Another set of closely related solutions looks at making existing infrastructure as

efficient as possible, by addressing concerns such as traffic congestion, environmental impact of

urban commute, incentives to the use of public transit, and environmentally low impact modes of

transport.

As a part of his 2009 campaign for reelection, Mayor Bloomberg presented a 33-point

proposal for the improvement of the public transit system in New York City. The proposal not

only included notes on transits physical expansions, but also incorporated a series of suggestions

in terms of how the existing infrastructure could become more efficient and transparent to the

riders: for example with the provision of countdown clocks in subway stations that indicate

when the next subway is arriving; the creation of an integrated New York transit Smart Card, and

increased police control with surveillance cameras in subway tunnels.20

Although many dismissed the proposal as political grandstanding since Bloomberg did

not provide a way to pay for the transit platform that he unveiled, it is worth noting the principal

goals of the plan symbolized an important shift in the way New York politicians focus on transit

improvements, notably because the list did not include any new subway extensions, which are

typically the mainstay of similar attempts to attract the public support, and are inevitably

forgotten as soon as the campaign ends.

New York is a perfect setting to implement a multi-modal system of urban transportation.

Traditional multi-modal citiescities where citizens switch transportation modes to get where

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they need to berequire fixed physical hubs: a taxi stand, a central train station, an airport, a

port, a shipping facility, etc. However, as a layer of networked digital elements is increasingly

blanketing our built environment and as we (mobile phones in hand) have greater ability to

extract and insert information about mobility in real-time, fixed transportation nodes may lose

their importance in urban mobility. Instead, with real-time location and route information, and

on-demand vehicles that do not require specific parking locations, ad-hoc transportation hubs can

form and dissolve as required, creating ephemeral nodes that support a new series of micro-

exchanges in the built environment and a truly ubiquitous multi-modal system.

A smart transportation solution for New York City will be comprised of many different

solutions including bicycles, buses, trains, and several types of individual vehicles. What will tie

it all together is a real-time information network that can be accessed from anywhere, anytime.

This rhizomatic, multi-modal, and ubiquitous system will change the way we view and use

public transportation by introducing a hybrid infrastructure of mobility consisting of a physical

network and the digital layer that augments it, optimizing its performance, and the seamless

multi-modal mobility that it provides. For such a vision to realize, we suggest that the triad of (1)

applying tested and successful models of venture capital to advance the multi-modal mobility

agenda from an entrepreneurial dimension, (2) targeted financial support for academic research

and development into smart solutions for the software support and virtual dimension of the

integrated system, and (3) the promotion of social activism, via crowdsourcing of production of

various applications that sits on top of this hybrid platform to enable commuters to access real-

time information and act upon it accordingly, will definitely help.

Concluding remarks: possible solutions to the financing problem

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 In 2010, Meredith Whitney, the U.S. research analyst, called city and state debt the

biggest problems facing the U.S. economy, predicting that American cities and states have debt

as high as two trillion dollars. In the face of budget deficits and such debts, and because of the

fact that they do not generate enough wealth to maintain services, cities are forced to cut services

like police officers, lighting, road repairs, and maintenance. State governments seem unable to

come to the rescue, since they are facing problems of their own.21 Hence, it may seem too

optimistic to assume that any financial resources can be dedicated to smart-city agendas.

Yet, following the European and Asian models discussed in the beginning of this article, a

nationwide support program is a proper response to enhancing cities in their quest for

technology-based smart solutions to help achieve global competitiveness, sustainable

development, and improved quality of life. A nationwide support program not only should cover

related industries and incentivize local and regional projects, but should invest in promoting a

smart-cities agenda at the university level.

Numerous National Science Foundation (NSF) funding opportunities are tangentially or

partially applicable to research development projects focused on smart solutions to various

urban-related challenges. For example, the NSFs Environmental Engineering and Sustainability

Cluster supports engineering research geared towards minimizing the negative environmental

impact of human activities on natural resources. Research projects that address a balance

between society's need to protect the environment and to maintain stable economic conditions, as

well as a high quality of life for its members, can easily be framed as a quest for smart solutions

to urban challenges. Green buildings and infrastructure, improvements in distribution and

collection systems, and improved recycling and reuse systems such as those for sewage and

water-treatment, will all advance smart growth strategies.22

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 Another NSF cluster that is partially related to smart-city initiatives is the Resilient and

Sustainable Infrastructures Cluster, which also covers distributed infrastructure systems that

manage and respond to hazardous natural or technological events.23

Although these clusters and programs are implicitly applicable to the smart-city agenda,

it is possible to design a cluster that explicitly address smart urban solutions to the sub-categories

of health, safety and security, energy production and consumption, green architecture,

cybernetically-enhanced monitoring, control and command mechanisms, pollution, housing,

employment, education, the socio-economic divide and urban conflicts, quality of life, quality of

public spaces, mobility, growth, distribution and removal networks, and post-disaster or post-

conflict urban management.

Private-sector solutions are also available to address, at least in theory, the financing

problem faced by cities in their effort to smart up. Given the fact that smart cities have to be

heavily wired, the role that high-tech innovations will play is obvious. Venture capital has been a

driving force for high-tech sector for decades. Studies that examine the relationship connecting

venture capital, corporate research and development, and innovation suggests that venture

funding has a positive impact on innovation that far exceeds that of corporate research and

development funding: a dollar of venture capital appears to be about three times more potent

than a traditional research and development dollar in stimulating patenting.24 This success,

coupled with the venture capital communitys impact on the U.S. technological innovation

economy, is reflected in both the process by which projects are chosen ex ante, and in the process

of monitoring and control after an investment is made. This is due to the fact that many venture

capitalists come to the industry after successful careers as scientists and engineers, allowing them

to identify promising startup companies developing significant new products or services. Making

33
investments at the earliest stages of these companies developmentoften before a product or

service is more than just an ideainvolves significant entrepreneurial risk. Yet, in venture

capital's economic framework, the willingness to take on risk is what makes it uniquely suited to

drive the U.S. economy into the twenty-first century.

During recent years, venture capital has driven the high-tech sector effectively, creating

new industries in healthcare (biotechnology, medical devices, diagnostics, healthcare

services/IT), information technology (semiconductors and electronics, computer hardware,

computer software, the Internet), and clean energy (pollution filtering and control, alternative

energy, energy efficiency through the deployment of smart materials in sites of energy

consumption and the implementation of smart grids in sites of energy distribution, energy

storage). From biotechnology to information technology to clean energy, thousands of startups

have been brought to life, improving the way we live and work each day through various

technological innovations. Companies such as Apple, Amazon, Skype, CISCO, Intel, Twitter,

FedEx, Ebay, Zipcar, Google, and Microsoft are among many that have benefited from this

economic model. The same model must be supported at a national level to guarantee the

continuation of this trend, particularly for high-tech industries to contribute to the realization of a

smart-city agenda.25

Within the smart-city entrepreneurial framework, we also need to leverage the openness

of the crowdsourcing system that the innovation and development of ideas for smart urban

solutions has made possible, leveraging the culture, the contemporary practice, and the well-

established models of user-generated content-sharing and collaborative knowledge-production

platforms, such as subject-specific open forums and wikis. A very effective and successful model

of this type of crowdsourcing is OpenIDEO, an online social platform launched by IDEO, the

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internationally known technological design company that, since August 1st, 2010, has actively

solicited the involvement of a global community of designers and the public in some important

social projects.26 The open platform introduces several design challenges, each tackling a well-

defined problem area in the field of designing solutions that improve the quality of human life

and take into account the limitations of real-world conditions and concerns about environmental

impacts. For each design challenge, the platform offers room for all interested parties to directly

contribute ideas or relevant information that may inspire other designers. From finding ways to

promote healthier eating to smart solutions and low-cost educational tools for the developing

world; from technologically supported methods for connecting the parties involved in food

production, distribution and consumption at the local, regional, and global scales to improving

the health of low-income communities with mobile computing platforms; to improving sanitation

and waste management for low-income communities, the IDEO open platform allows a global

community of citizens to get technologically involved in shaping a better future for our urban

populations.

The underlying force in crowdsourcing or open platforms, such as that of IDEO or Sony's

Open Planet initiative,27 is the fact that the globally connected crowd of active participants can

outperform internal design teams of technology-based, innovation-promoting companies. The

goal is not to promote one model over the other, but to orchestrate a possible collaboration

amongst internal teams of technological experts and innovation companies, venture capital start-

ups, academic research and development institutions, and the members of a broader community

of well connected, socially pro-active, and technologically savvy individuals.

In conclusion, we believe that nationwide support for the triad of (1) applying tested and

successful models of venture capital to advance the smart city agenda from an entrepreneurial

35
dimension, (2) targeted financial support for academic research and development into smart

solutions to urban challenges, and (3) the promotion of social activism via crowdsourcing and

this type of knowledge production will definitely help the United States claim its place as a

forerunner of techno-social innovation in this smart-city driven global economy, which will in

turn guarantee the global competitiveness of U.S. cities.

36
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42
Notes

43
1
Jan Gehl, Cities for People (Washington, Covelo, London: Island Press, 2011).
2
S. Graham and S. Marvin, Telecommunications and the City: Electronic Spaces, Urban Place

(London: Routledge, 1996).

3
Lars-Hendrik Roller and Leonard Waverman, "Telecommunications Infrastructure and Economic

Development: A Simultaneous Approach," American Economic Review 91, no. 4 (2001, September):

909-923.
4
Eliza Strickland, Cisco Bets on South Korean Smart City, IEEE Spectrum, August 2011.
5
Technology & Innovation: SET Plan, European Commission, 2010
6
Homepage, Knowledge Economic City, 2011, available at http://www.madinahkec.com/en.
7
Nicola Villa and Shane Mitchell, "Connecting Cities Achieving Sustainability Through Innovation,"

Cisco White Papers by Internet Business Solutions Group, 2010.

8
Strickland, Eliza. Cisco Bets on South Korean Smart City. IEEE Spectrum, August 2011.
9
"Incheon Nam-Gu Office Collaborates with Cisco to Realize Smart Nam-Gu' Vision," Cisco press

release 14 October, 2011.

10
Thoraya Ahmed Obaid, Peering into the Dawn of an Urban Millennium, in State of World

Population 2007 (New York: United Nations Population Fund, 2007).

11
S. Fu, Smart Cafe Cities: Testing Human Capital Externalities in the Boston Metropolitan Area,

Journal of Urban Economics 61, no. 1 (2007): 87111.

12
S. Breschi and F. Lissoni, Localized Knowledge Spillovers vs. Innovative Milieux: Knowledge

Tacitness Reconsidered, Papers in Regional Science 80, no .3 (2001): 255273.

13
R. Capello, Spatial Spillovers and Regional Growth: A Cognitive Approach, European Planning

Studies 17, no. 5 (2009): 639658.

14
Andrea Caragliu, Chiara Del Bo, and Peter Nijkamp, "Smart Cities in Europe," Journal of Urban

Technology 18, no. 2 (2011): 65-82.

15
Carlo Ratti and Anthony Townsend, "The Social Nexus," Scientific American, September 2011, 42-

48.
16
Seema Singh," Ciscos India Solution," Business India, February 15, 2011.
17
"Mahindra and Cisco to Collaborate in Areas Such as Smart Cities, Virtual Dealership, Sports and

Entertainment, and Cloud Services," Cisco press release, 8 March, 2011.

18
Seema Singh," Ciscos India Solution," Business India, February 15, 2011.
19
"IBM opens Smarter Cities Technology Centre in Ireland: Dublin City Collaborates on Smarter Cities

Projects with IBM," IBM press release, 24 March, 2011.

20
Michael Barbaro and Sewell Chan, Mayor Proposes Free Crosstown Buses, New York Times,

August 3, 2009, accessed April 21, 2011.

21
Elena Moya, "$2tn debt crisis threatens to bring down 100 US cities," The Guardian, 20 December,

2010, accessed October 6, 2011.

22
The Environmental Sustainability Program Homepage, National Science Foundation, 5 March,

2012.
23
The Resilient and Sustainable Infrastructures Cluster, National Science Foundation, 17 June 2008.
24
Samuel Kortum, and Josh Lerner, "Assessing the Contribution of Venture Capital to Innovation," The

RAND Journal of Economics 31, no. 4 (Winter 2000): 674-692.

25
"Venture Impact, the Economic Importance of Venture Capital-Backed Companies to the U.S.

Economy," National Venture Capital Association, 2011.

26
Open Ideo Homepage, OpenIDEO. Available at http://www.openideo.com.
27
Open Planet ideas, Open Planet ideas. Available at http://www.openplanetideas.com/.