Sculpture
Sculptor redirects here. For other uses, see Sculptor
(disambiguation) and Sculpture (disambiguation).
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates
The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul [1] a Roman marble
copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE Capitoline
Museums, Rome
Assyrian lamassu gate guardian from Khorsabad, c. 800-721
BCE
in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable
sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal
of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as
clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materi-
als but, since Modernism, there has been an almost com-
plete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety
of materials may be worked by removal such as carving,
assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast.
1
Michelangelo's Moses, (c. 15131515), San Pietro in Vincoli,
Rome, for the tomb of Pope Julius II.
Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art
in perishable materials, and often represents the major-
ity of the surviving works (other than pottery) from an-
cient cultures, though conversely traditions of sculpture in
wood may have vanished almost entirely. However, most
ancient sculpture was brightly painted, and this has been
lost.[2]
Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in many
cultures, and until recent centuries large sculptures, too
expensive for private individuals to create, were usually
an expression of religion or politics. Those cultures whose
sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures
of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, as well as
many in South America and Africa.
The Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient
Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great
masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle
Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and pas-
2 1 TYPES OF SCULPTURE

to accomplish in the round, and is the typical technique

used both for architectural sculpture, which is attached to
buildings, and for small-scale sculpture decorating other
objects, as in much pottery, metalwork and jewellery.
Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs,
usually of stone, often also containing inscriptions.
Another basic distinction is between subtractive carving
techniques, which remove material from an existing block
or lump, for example of stone or wood, and modelling
techniques which shape or build up the work from the ma-
terial. Techniques such as casting, stamping and mould-
ing use an intermediate matrix containing the design to
produce the work; many of these allow the production of
several copies.

Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivory

with shell inlay

Open air Buddhist rock reliefs at the Longmen Grottos, China

The term sculpture is often used mainly to describe

large works, which are sometimes called monumental
sculpture, meaning either or both of sculpture that is
large, or that is attached to a building. But the term prop-
The Angel of the North by Antony Gormley, 1998
erly covers many types of small works in three dimensions
using the same techniques, including coins and medals,
sions of the Christian faith. The revival of classical mod- hardstone carvings, a term for small carvings in stone that
els in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such can take detailed work.
as Michelangelo's David. Modernist sculpture moved The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring
away from traditional processes and the emphasis on appeal since antiquity; the largest on record at 128 m (420
the depiction of the human body, with the making of ft) is the 2002 Chinese Spring Temple Buddha. Another
constructed sculpture, and the presentation of found ob- grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of
jects as nished art works. a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades.
The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the
head, showing just that, or the bust, a representation
1 Types of sculpture of a person from the chest up. Small forms of sculpture
include the gurine, normally a statue that is no more than
A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round, 18 inches (46 cm) tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal
free-standing sculpture, such as statues, not attached (ex- or coin.
cept possibly at the base) to any other surface, and the Modern and contemporary art have added a number of
various types of relief, which are at least partly attached non-traditional forms of sculpture, including sound sculp-
to a background surface. Relief is often classied by ture, light sculpture, environmental art, environmental
the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas- sculpture, street art sculpture, kinetic sculpture (involv-
relief, high relief, and sometimes an intermediate mid- ing aspects of physical motion), land art, and site-specic
relief. Sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient art. Sculpture is an important form of public art. A col-
Egypt. Relief is the usual sculptural medium for large lection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a
gure groups and narrative subjects, which are dicult sculpture garden.

2 Purposes and subjects
Moai from Easter Island, where the concentration of resources
on large sculpture may have had serious political eects.
One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in some
form of association with religion. Cult images are com-
mon in many cultures, though they are often not the colos-
sal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek
art, like the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. The actual cult
images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples,
of which none have survived, were evidently rather small,
even in the largest temples. The same is often true in
Hinduism, where the very simple and ancient form of
the lingam is the most common. Buddhism brought the
sculpture of religious gures to East Asia, where there
seems to have been no earlier equivalent tradition, though
again simple shapes like the bi and cong probably had re-
ligious signicance.
Small sculptures as personal possessions go back to the
earliest prehistoric art, and the use of very large sculp-
ture as public art, especially to impress the viewer with
the power of a ruler, goes back at least to the Great Sphinx
of some 4,500 years ago. In archaeology and art history
the appearance, and sometimes disappearance, of large
or monumental sculpture in a culture is regarded as of
great signicance, though tracing the emergence is often
complicated by the presumed existence of sculpture in
wood and other perishable materials of which no record
remains;[3] the totem pole is an example of a tradition
of monumental sculpture in wood that would leave no
traces for archaeology. The ability to summon the re-
sources to create monumental sculpture, by transporting
usually very heavy materials and arranging for the pay-
ment of what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors,
is considered a mark of a relatively advanced culture in
terms of social organization. Recent unexpected discov-
eries of ancient Chinese bronze age gures at Sanxingdui,
some more than twice human size, have disturbed many
3
ideas held about early Chinese civilization, since only
much smaller bronzes were previously known.[4] Some
undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley
civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture
at all, though producing very sophisticated gurines and
seals. The Mississippian culture seems to have been pro-
gressing towards its use, with small stone gures, when it
collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the
Easter Island culture, seem to have devoted enormous re-
sources to very large-scale monumental sculpture from a
very early stage.
Medal of John VIII Palaeologus, c. 1435, by Pisanello, the rst
portrait medal, a medium essentially made for collecting.
The collecting of sculpture, including that of earlier peri-
ods, goes back some 2,000 years in Greece, China and
Mesoamerica, and many collections were available on
semi-public display long before the modern museum was
invented. From the 20th century the relatively restricted
range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded
greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or represen-
tation of any type of subject now common. Today much
sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and
museums, and the ability to transport and store the in-
creasingly large works is a factor in their construction.
Small decorative gurines, most often in ceramics, are
as popular today (though strangely neglected by modern
and Contemporary art) as they were in the Rococo, or in
ancient Greece when Tanagra gurines were a major in-
dustry, or in East Asian and Pre-Columbian art. Small
sculpted ttings for furniture and other objects go well
back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram
ivories and nds from the tomb of Tutankhamun.
Portrait sculpture began in Egypt, where the Narmer
Palette shows a ruler of the 32nd century BCE, and
Mesopotamia, where we have 27 surviving statues of
Gudea, who ruled Lagash c. 2144 2124 BCE. In an-
cient Greece and Rome, the erection of a portrait statue
in a public place was almost the highest mark of hon-
4 3 MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

our, and the ambition of the elite, who might also be de-
picted on a coin.[5] In other cultures such as Egypt and
the Near East public statues were almost exclusively the
preserve of the ruler, with other wealthy people only be-
ing portrayed in their tombs. Rulers are typically the only
people given portraits in Pre-Columbian cultures, begin-
ning with the Olmec colossal heads of about 3,000 years
ago. East Asian portrait sculpture was entirely religious,
with leading clergy being commemorated with statues,
especially the founders of monasteries, but not rulers, or
ancestors. The Mediterranean tradition revived, initially
only for tomb egies and coins, in the Middle Ages, but
expanded greatly in the Renaissance, which invented new
forms such as the personal portrait medal.
Animals are, with the human gure, the earliest subject
for sculpture, and have always been popular, sometimes
realistic, but often imaginary monsters; in China animals
and monsters are almost the only traditional subjects for
stone sculpture outside tombs and temples. The king-
dom of plants is important only in jewellery and deco-
rative reliefs, but these form almost all the large sculp-
ture of Byzantine art and Islamic art, and are very im-
portant in most Eurasian traditions, where motifs such as
the palmette and vine scroll have passed east and west for
over two millennia. Sumerian male worshipper, alabaster with shell eyes,
27502600 B.C.E.
One form of sculpture found in many prehistoric cultures
around the world is specially enlarged versions of ordi-
nary tools, weapons or vessels created in impractical pre- techniques have been used in making sculpture, includ-
cious materials, for either some form of ceremonial use or ing tempera, oil painting, gilding, house paint, aerosol,
display or as oerings. Jade or other types of greenstone enamel and sandblasting.[2][6]
were used in China, Olmec Mexico, and Neolithic Eu-
Many sculptors seek new ways and materials to make art.
rope, and in early Mesopotamia large pottery shapes were
One of Pablo Picasso's most famous sculptures included
produced in stone. Bronze was used in Europe and China
bicycle parts. Alexander Calder and other modernists
for large axes and blades, like the Oxborough Dirk.
made spectacular use of painted steel. Since the 1960s,
acrylics and other plastics have been used as well. Andy
Goldsworthy makes his unusually ephemeral sculptures
3 Materials and techniques from almost entirely natural materials in natural settings.
Some sculpture, such as ice sculpture, sand sculpture, and
gas sculpture, is deliberately short-lived. Recent sculptors
The materials used in sculpture are diverse, changing have used stained glass, tools, machine parts, hardware
throughout history. The classic materials, with outstand- and consumer packaging to fashion their works. Sculp-
ing durability, are metal, especially bronze, stone and pot- tors sometimes use found objects, and Chinese scholars
tery, with wood, bone and antler less durable but cheaper rocks have been appreciated for many centuries.
options. Precious materials such as gold, silver, jade,
and ivory are often used for small luxury works, and
sometimes in larger ones, as in chryselephantine statues. 3.1 Stone
More common and less expensive materials were used for
sculpture for wider consumption, including hardwoods Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces of
(such as oak, box/boxwood, and lime/linden); terracotta rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal
and other ceramics, wax (a very common material for of stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, ev-
models for casting, and receiving the impressions of idence can be found that even the earliest societies in-
cylinder seals and engraved gems), and cast metals such dulged in some form of stone work, though not all ar-
as pewter and zinc (spelter). But a vast number of other eas of the world have such abundance of good stone for
materials have been used as part of sculptures, in ethno- carving as Egypt, Greece, India and most of Europe.
graphic and ancient works as much as modern ones. Petroglyphs (also called rock engravings) are perhaps the
Sculptures are often painted, but commonly lose their earliest form: images created by removing part of a rock
paint to time, or restorers. Many dierent painting surface which remains in situ, by incising, pecking, carv-
3.3 Glass 5

Modern reconstruction of the original painted appearance of a

Late Archaic Greek marble gure from the Temple of Aphaea,
based on analysis of pigment traces,[7] c. 500 BCE Ludwig Gies, cast iron plaquette, 8 x 9.8 cm, Refugees 1914
1915

ing, and abrading. Monumental sculpture covers large

works, and architectural sculpture, which is attached to
buildings. Hardstone carving is the carving for artis-
tic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate,
onyx, rock crystal, sard or carnelian, and a general term
for an object made in this way. Alabaster or mineral
gypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smaller
works and still relatively durable. Engraved gems are
small carved gems, including cameos, originally used as
seal rings.
The copying of an original statue in stone, which was
very important for ancient Greek statues, which are nearly
all known from copies, was traditionally achieved by
"pointing", along with more freehand methods. Pointing
involved setting up a grid of string squares on a wooden
frame surrounding the original, and then measuring the
position on the grid and the distance between grid and 3.3
statue of a series of individual points, and then using this
information to carve into the block from which the copy
is made.[8]
a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron)
is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete
the process,[9] although a nal stage of cold work may
follow on the nished cast. Casting may be used to form
hot liquid metals or various materials that cold set after
mixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plaster
and clay). Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise dicult or uneconomical
to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is
a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC.[10] Specic
techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting
and sand casting.
Glass

3.2 Metal

Bronze and related copper alloys are the oldest and still
the most popular metals for cast metal sculptures; a cast
bronze sculpture is often called simply a bronze. Com-
mon bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable prop-
erty of expanding slightly just before they set, thus lling
the nest details of a mold. Their strength and lack of
brittleness (ductility) is an advantage when gures in ac-
tion are to be created, especially when compared to var-
ious ceramic or stone materials (see marble sculpture for Dale Chihuly, 2006, (Blown glass)
several examples). Gold is the softest and most precious
metal, and very important in jewellery; with silver it is
Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of
soft enough to be worked with hammers and other tools working techniques, though the use of it for large works
as well as cast; repouss and chasing are among the tech-
is a recent development. It can be carved, with con-
niques used in gold and silversmithing. siderable diculty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but
Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which unique.[11] Hot casting can be done by ladling molten
6 4 SOCIAL STATUS OF SCULPTORS

glass into molds that have been created by pressing shapes

into sand, carved graphite or detailed plaster/silica molds.
Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in a
kiln until they are liquid and ow into a waiting mold be-
low it in the kiln. Glass can also be blown and/or hot
sculpted with hand tools either as a solid mass or as part
of a blown object.

Detail of Jesus just dead, Spanish, wood and polychrome, 1793.

Painted wood is often technically described as wood and

polychrome". Typically a layer of gesso or plaster is ap-
plied to the wood, and then the paint is applied to that.

A carved wooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty 9601279, 4 Social status of sculptors
Shanghai Museum

3.4 Pottery
Pottery is one of the oldest materials for sculpture, as well
as clay being the medium in which many sculptures cast
in metal are originally modelled for casting. Sculptors
often build small preliminary works called maquettes of
ephemeral materials such as plaster of Paris, wax, un-
red clay, or plasticine.[12] Many cultures have produced
pottery which combines a function as a vessel with a
sculptural form, and small gurines have often been as
popular as they are in modern Western culture. Stamps
and moulds were used by most ancient civilizations, from
ancient Rome and Mesopotamia to China.[13]

3.5 Wood carving

Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced, but
survives much less well than the other main materials, be-
ing vulnerable to decay, insect damage, and re. It there-
fore forms an important hidden element in the art his-
tory of many cultures.[3] Outdoor wood sculpture does
not last long in most parts of the world, so that we have
little idea how the totem pole tradition developed. Many
Nuremberg sculptor Adam Kraft, self-portrait from St Lorenz
of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in
Church, 1490s.
particular are in wood, and the great majority of African
sculpture and that of Oceania and other regions. Worldwide, sculptors have usually been tradesmen whose
Wood is light, so suitable for masks and other sculpture work is unsigned; in some traditions, for example China,
intended to be carried, and can take very ne detail. It where sculpture did not share the prestige of literati paint-
is also much easier to work than stone. It has been very ing, this has aected the status of sculpture itself.[14]
often painted after carving, but the paint wears less well Even in ancient Greece, where sculptors such as Phidias
than the wood, and is often missing in surviving pieces. became famous, they appear to have retained much the
6.1 Prehistoric periods 7

same social status as other artisans, and perhaps not

much greater nancial rewards, although some signed
their works.[15] In the Middle Ages artists such as the 12th
century Gislebertus sometimes signed their work, and
were sought after by dierent cities, especially from the
Trecento onwards in Italy, with gures such as Arnolfo di
Cambio, and Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni. Gold-
smiths and jewellers, dealing with precious materials and
often doubling as bankers, belonged to powerful guilds
and had considerable status, often holding civic oce.
Many sculptors also practised in other arts; Andrea del
Verrocchio also painted, and Giovanni Pisano, Michelan-
gelo, and Jacopo Sansovino were architects. Some sculp-
tors maintained large workshops. Even in the Renais-
sance the physical nature of the work was perceived by Venus of Hohle Fels (also known as the Venus of Schelklingen;
Leonardo da Vinci and others as pulling down the sta- is an Upper Paleolithic Venus gurine hewn from ivory of a
tus of sculpture in the arts, though the reputation of mammoth tusk found in 2008 near Schelklingen, Germany. It is
dated to between 35,000 and 40,000 years ago, belonging to the
Michelangelo perhaps put this long-held idea to rest.
early Aurignacian, at the very beginning of the Upper Paleolithic,
From the High Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo, which is associated with the assumed earliest presence of Homo
Leone Leoni and Giambologna could become wealthy, sapiens in Europe (Cro-Magnon). Along with the Lwenmensch,
and ennobled, and enter the circle of princes, after a pe- it is the oldest undisputed example of Upper Paleolithic art and
riod of sharp argument over the relative status of sculp- gurative prehistoric art in general.
ture and painting.[16] Much decorative sculpture on build-
ings remained a trade, but sculptors producing individual
pieces were recognised on a level with painters. From the 6.1 Prehistoric periods
18th century or earlier sculpture also attracted middle-
class students, although it was slower to do so than paint- The earliest undisputed examples of sculpture belong to
ing. Women sculptors took longer to appear than women the Aurignacian culture, which was located in Europe
painters, and were less prominent until the 20th century. and southwest Asia and active at the beginning of the
Upper Paleolithic. As well as producing some of the
earliest known cave art, the people of this culture devel-
oped nely-crafted stone tools, manufacturing pendants,
bracelets, ivory beads, and bone-utes, as well as three-
5 Anti-sculpture movements dimensional gurines.[18][19]
The 30 cm tall Lwenmensch found in the Hohlenstein
Aniconism remained restricted to Judaism, which did not Stadel area of Germany is an anthropomorphic lion-man
accept gurative sculpture until the 19th century,[17] be- gure carved from woolly mammoth ivory. It has been
fore expanding to Early Buddhism and Early Christianity, dated to about 35-40,000 BP, making it, along with the
neither of which initially accepted large sculptures. In Venus of Hohle Fels, the oldest known uncontested ex-
both Christianity and Buddhism these early views were ample of gurative art.[20]
later reversed, and sculpture became very signicant, es-
Much surviving prehistoric art is small portable sculp-
pecially in Buddhism. Christian Eastern Orthodoxy has
tures, with a small group of female Venus gurines such
never accepted monumental sculpture, and Islam has con-
as the Venus of Willendorf (24-26,000 BP) found across
sistently rejected nearly all gurative sculpture, except for
central Europe.[21] The Swimming Reindeer of about
very small gures in reliefs and some animal gures that
13,000 years ago is one of the nest of a number of
fulll a useful function, like the famous lions supporting a
Magdalenian carvings in bone or antler of animals in the
fountain in the Alhambra. Many forms of Protestantism
art of the Upper Paleolithic, although they are outnum-
also do not approve of religious sculpture. There has
bered by engraved pieces, which are sometimes classi-
been much iconoclasm of sculpture from religious mo-
ed as sculpture.[22] Two of the largest prehistoric sculp-
tives, from the Early Christians, the Beeldenstorm of the
tures can be found at the Tuc d'Audobert caves in France,
Protestant Reformation to the 2001 destruction of the
where around 12-17,000 years ago a masterful sculptor
Buddhas of Bamyan by the Taliban.
used a spatula-like stone tool and ngers to model a pair
of large bison in clay against a limestone rock.[23]
With the beginning of the Mesolithic in Europe gurative
sculpture greatly reduced,[24] and remained a less com-
6 History of sculpture mon element in art than relief decoration of practical ob-
jects until the Roman period, despite some works such
8 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

as the Gundestrup cauldron from the European Iron Age Hyena, c. 12-17,000 BP, mammoth ivory, found in
and the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot.[25] La Madeleine, France

Lwenmensch, from Hohlenstein-

Stadel, now in Ulmer Museum, Ulm, Germany, Swimming
the oldest known anthropomorphic animal-human Reindeer c. 13,000 BP, female and male swimming
statuette, Aurignacian era, c. 35-40,000 BP reindeer - late Magdalenian period, found at Mon-
tastruc, Tarn et Garonne, France

Venus of Willendorf, c.
24,00026,000 BP
The
Trundholm sun chariot, perhaps 18001500
BCE; this side is gilded, the other is dark.

Magdalenian
Horse, c. 17,000 BP Muse d'Archologie Na-
tionale, France

Venus of Laussel c.
27,000 BP, an Upper Palaeolithic carving, Bor-
deaux museum, France
Creeping
6.2 Ancient Near East 9

orating victories and showing feasts, are also found from

temples, which unlike more ocial ones lack inscriptions
that would explain them;[31] the fragmentary Stele of the
Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type,[32] and
the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and
solid late one.[33]
The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much
surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger
and wealthier state than the region had known before,
and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no
doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of
A Jmon statue, Japan the neighbouring Egyptian empire. Unlike earlier states,
the Assyrians could use easily carved stone from north-
ern Iraq, and did so in great quantity. The Assyrians de-
veloped a style of extremely large schemes of very nely
6.2 Ancient Near East detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with
scenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an out-
Main articles: Art of Mesopotamia, Assyrian sculpture, standing collection, including the Lion Hunt of Ashurba-
and Persian art nipal and the Lachish reliefs showing a campaign. They
The Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia, dominated by produced very little sculpture in the round, except for
colossal guardian gures of the human-headed lamassu,
which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rect-
angular block, with the heads eectively in the round
(and also ve legs, so that both views seem complete).
Even before dominating the region they had continued
the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often
exceptionally energetic and rened.[34]

Cylinder seal with its impression on clay; serpopards and eagles,

Uruk Period, 41003000 BC

Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the

Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness
is an outstanding small limestone gure from Elam of
about 30002800 BC, part human and part lioness.[26]
A little later there are a number of gures of large-eyed
priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a
foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity,
but very few of these have survived.[27] Sculptures from
the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, The Guennol Lioness,
staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many master- 3rd millennium BCE, 3.25 inches (8.3 cm) high
pieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur
(c. 2650 BC), including the two gures of a Ram in a
Thicket, the Copper Bull and a bulls head on one of the
Lyres of Ur.[28]
From the many subsequent periods before the ascen-
dency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century
BCE Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms:
cylinder seals, relatively small gures in the round, and re-
liefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded
pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently
not.[29] The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and
relatively large (20 x 15 inches, 50 x 37 cm) terracotta
plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird
of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the One of 18 Statues of
18th or 19th centuries BCE, and may also be moulded.[30] Gudea, a ruler around 2090 BCE
Stone stelae, votive oerings, or ones probably commem-
10
The Burney Relief,
Old Babylonian, around 1800 BCE
Part of the
Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal, c. 640 BC, Nineveh
6.3 Ancient Egypt
See also: Art of ancient Egypt and Amarna art
The monumental sculpture of ancient Egypt is world-
famous, but rened and delicate small works exist in
much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinc-
tive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very
bright sunlight. The main gures in reliefs adhere to the
same gure convention as in painting, with parted legs
(where not seated) and head shown from the side, but
the torso from the front, and a standard set of propor-
tions making up the gure, using 18 sts to go from the
ground to the hair-line on the forehead.[35] This appears
as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I. However,
there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minor
gures shown engaged in some activity, such as the cap-
tives and corpses.[36] Other conventions make statues of
males darker than females ones. Very conventionalized
portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II, before
2,780 BCE,[37] and with the exception of the art of the
Amarna period of Ahkenaten,[38] and some other periods
such as Dynasty XII, the idealized features of rulers, like
other Egyptian artistic conventions, changed little until
after the Greek conquest.[39]
Egyptian pharaohs were always regarded as deities, but
other deities are much less common in large statues, ex-
cept when they represent the pharaoh as another deity;
however the other deities are frequently shown in paint-
ings and reliefs. The famous row of four colossal stat-
6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BC, Egyptian Museum of
Berlin
ues outside the main temple at Abu Simbel each show
Rameses II, a typical scheme, though here exceptionally
large.[40] Small gures of deities, or their animal person-
ications, are very common, and found in popular mate-
rials such as pottery. Most larger sculpture survives from
Egyptian temples or tombs; by Dynasty IV (26802565
BCE) at the latest the idea of the Ka statue was rmly es-
tablished. These were put in tombs as a resting place for
the ka portion of the soul, and so we have a good number
of less conventionalized statues of well-o administra-
tors and their wives, many in wood as Egypt is one of the
few places in the world where the climate allows wood
to survive over millennia. The so-called reserve heads,
plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic. Early
tombs also contained small models of the slaves, animals,
buildings and objects such as boats necessary for the de-
ceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterworld, and later
Ushabti gures.[41]
6.3 Ancient Egypt 11

Facsimile of the Tutankhamuns mask, c.

Narmer Palette, c. 3100 BC, which already shows late Eighteenth dynasty, Egyptian Museum
the canonical Egyptian prole view and proportions
of the gure.

The Younger Memnon

c. 1250 BC, British Museum
Menkaura (Mycerinus)
and queen, Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4, 24902472
BC. The formality of the pose is reduced by the
queens arm round her husband.

Wooden Osiris on a lapis lazuli

tomb models, Dynasty XI; a high administrator pillar in the middle, anked by Horus on the left,
counts his cattle. and Isis on the right, 22nd dynasty, Louvre
12 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

The rst distinctive style of ancient Greek sculpture de-

veloped in the Early Bronze Age Cycladic period (3rd
millennium BCE), where marble gures, usually female
and small, are represented in an elegantly simplied geo-
metrical style. Most typical is a standing pose with arms
crossed in front, but other gures are shown in dierent
poses, including a complicated gure of a harpist seated
on a chair.[42]
The subsequent Minoan and Mycenaean cultures devel-
oped sculpture further, under inuence from Syria and
elsewhere, but it is in the later Archaic period from
The ka statue provided around 650 BCE that the kouros developed. These are
a physical place for the ka to manifest. Egyptian large standing statues of naked youths, found in temples
Museum, Cairo and tombs, with the kore as the clothed female equiva-
lent, with elaborately dressed hair; both have the "archaic
smile". They seem to have served a number of functions,
perhaps sometimes representing deities and sometimes
the person buried in a grave, as with the Kroisos Kouros.
They are clearly inuenced by Egyptian and Syrian styles,
but the Greek artists were much more ready to experi-
ment within the style.
During the 6th century Greek sculpture developed
rapidly, becoming more naturalistic, and with much more
active and varied gure poses in narrative scenes, though
still within idealized conventions. Sculptured pediments
were added to temples, including the Parthenon in
Athens, where the remains of the pediment of around 520
using gures in the round were fortunately used as inll
Block statue of Pa-Ankh-
for new buildings after the Persian sack in 480 BCE, and
Ra, ship master, bearing a statue of Ptah. Late
recovered from the 1880s on in fresh unweathered con-
Period, ca. 650633 BC, Cabinet des Mdailles.
dition. Other signicant remains of architectural sculp-
ture come from Paestum in Italy, Corfu, Delphi and the
Temple of Aphaea in Aegina (much now in Munich).[43]

6.4 Europe

6.4.1 Ancient Greece

Charioteer of Delphi, ancient Greek bronze sculpture, 5th century

BCE, close up head detail Cycladic statue 2700
2300 BC. Head from the gure of a woman, H. 27
Main article: Ancient Greek sculpture centimetres (11 in)
6.4 Europe 13

Cycladic Female Figurine, c. The "Naxian Sphinx"

25002400 BCE, 41.5 cm (16.3 in) high from Delphi, 570560 BC, the gure 222 cm (87
in) high

Peplos Kore, c. 530 BC, Athens,

Acropolis Museum

Mycenae, 16001500
BC. Silver rhyton with gold horns and rosette on
the forehead

Late Archaic
warrior from the east pediment of the Temple of
Aphaea, c. 500

The Am-
athus sarcophagus, from Amathus, Cyprus, 2nd
Lifesize kouros, c. 590 quarter of the 5th century BC Archaic period,
580 BCE, Metropolitan Museum of Art Metropolitan Museum of Art
14
High Classical high relief from the Elgin Marbles, which origi-
nally decorated the Parthenon, c. 447433 BCE
Classical There are fewer original remains from the
rst phase of the Classical period, often called the Severe
style; free-standing statues were now mostly made in
bronze, which always had value as scrap. The Severe style
lasted from around 500 in reliefs, and soon after 480 in
statues, to about 450. The relatively rigid poses of gures
relaxed, and asymmetrical turning positions and oblique
views became common, and deliberately sought. This
was combined with a better understanding of anatomy
and the harmonious structure of sculpted gures, and the
pursuit of naturalistic representation as an aim, which had
not been present before. Excavations at the Temple of
Zeus, Olympia since 1829 have revealed the largest group
of remains, from about 460, of which many are in the
Louvre.[44]
The High Classical period lasted only a few decades
from about 450 to 400, but has had a momentous in-
uence on art, and retains a special prestige, despite a
very restricted number of original survivals. The best
known works are the Parthenon Marbles, traditionally
(since Plutarch) executed by a team led by the most fa-
mous ancient Greek sculptor Phidias, active from about
465425, who was in his own day more famous for his
colossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus at Olympia (c.
432), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, his
Athena Parthenos (438), the cult image of the Parthenon,
and Athena Promachos, a colossal bronze gure that stood
next to the Parthenon; all of these are lost but are known
from many representations. He is also credited as the
creator of some life-size bronze statues known only from
later copies whose identication is controversial, includ-
ing the Ludovisi Hermes.[45]
The High Classical style continued to develop realism and
sophistication in the human gure, and improved the de-
piction of drapery (clothes), using it to add to the im-
pact of active poses. Facial expressions were usually very
6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
restrained, even in combat scenes. The composition of
groups of gures in reliefs and on pediments combined
complexity and harmony in a way that had a permanent
inuence on Western art. Relief could be very high in-
deed, as in the Parthenon illustration below, where most
of the leg of the warrior is completely detached from the
background, as were the missing parts; relief this high
made sculptures more subject to damage.[46] The Late
Classical style developed the free-standing female nude
statue, supposedly an innovation of Praxiteles, and de-
veloped increasingly complex and subtle poses that were
interesting when viewed from a number of angles, as well
as more expressive faces; both trends were to be taken
much further in the Hellenistic period.[47]
The Pergamene style of the Hellenistic period, from the Pergamon
Altar, early 2nd century
Hellenistic The Hellenistic period is conventionally
dated from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC,
and ending either with the nal conquest of the Greek
heartlands by Rome in 146 BC or with the nal defeat of
the last remaining successor-state to Alexanders empire
after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, which also marks
the end of Republican Rome.[48] It is thus much longer
than the previous periods, and includes at least two ma-
jor phases: a Pergamene style of experimentation, ex-
uberance and some sentimentality and vulgarity, and in
the 2nd century BC a classicising return to a more aus-
tere simplicity and elegance; beyond such generalizations
dating is typically very uncertain, especially when only
later copies are known, as is usually the case. The ini-
tial Pergamene style was not especially associated with
Pergamon, from which it takes its name, but the very
wealthy kings of that state were among the rst to collect
and also copy Classical sculpture, and also commissioned
much new work, including the famous Pergamon Altar
whose sculpture is now mostly in Berlin and which exem-
plies the new style, as do the Mausoleum at Halicarnas-
sus (another of the Seven Wonders), the famous Laocon
and his Sons in the Vatican Museums, a late example,
and the bronze original of The Dying Gaul (illustrated at
top), which we know was part of a group actually com-
missioned for Pergamon in about 228 BC, from which
6.4 Europe 15

the Ludovisi Gaul was also a copy. The group called the After the conquests of Alexander Hellenistic culture was
Farnese Bull, possibly a 2nd-century marble original, is dominant in the courts of most of the Near East, and some
still larger and more complex,[49] of Central Asia, and increasingly being adopted by Euro-
pean elites, especially in Italy, where Greek colonies ini-
tially controlled most of the South. Hellenistic art, and
artists, spread very widely, and was especially inuential
in the expanding Roman Republic and when it encoun-
tered Buddhism in the easternmost extensions of the Hel-
lenistic area. The massive so-called Alexander Sarcoph-
agus found in Sidon in modern Lebanon, was probably
made there at the start of the period by expatriate Greek
artists for a Hellenized Persian governor.[51] The wealth
of the period led to a greatly increased production of lux-
ury forms of small sculpture, including engraved gems
and cameos, jewellery, and gold and silverware.

Small Greek terracotta gurines were very popular as ornaments

in the home The Riace Bronzes, very rare
bronze gures recovered from the sea, c. 460430
Hellenistic sculpture greatly expanded the range of sub-
jects represented, partly as a result of greater general
prosperity, and the emergence of a very wealthy class
who had large houses decorated with sculpture, although
we know that some examples of subjects that seem best
suited to the home, such as children with animals, were
in fact placed in temples or other public places. For a
much more popular home decoration market there were
Tanagra gurines, and those from other centres where
small pottery gures were produced on an industrial scale,
some religious but others showing animals and elegantly
dressed ladies. Sculptors became more technically skilled
in representing facial expressions conveying a wide va-
riety of emotions and the portraiture of individuals, as
well representing dierent ages and races. The reliefs
from the Mausoleum are rather atypical in that respect;
most work was free-standing, and group compositions
with several gures to be seen in the round, like the Lao-
coon and the Pergamon group celebrating victory over
the Gauls became popular, having been rare before. The
Barberini Faun, showing a satyr sprawled asleep, presum- Hermes and the Infant
ably after drink, is an example of the moral relaxation of Dionysos, possibly an original by Praxiteles, 4th
the period, and the readiness to create large and expensive century
sculptures of subjects that fall short of the heroic.[50]
16 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Laocon
Two elegant
and his Sons, Greek, (Late Hellenistic), perhaps a
ladies, pottery gurines, 350300
copy, between 200 BC and 20 AD, White marble,
Vatican Museum

Bronze
Statuette of a Horse, late 2nd 1st century B.C.
Metropolitan Museum of Art

Leochares, Apollo
Belvedere, c. 130 140 AD. Roman copy after
a Greek bronze original of 330320 BC. Vatican
Museums

6.4.2 Europe after the Greeks

Roman sculpture Main article: Roman sculpture

Early Roman art was inuenced by the art of Greece and

The Winged Victory of

Samothrace, c. 190 BC, Louvre

Section of Trajans Column, CE 113, with scenes from the Dacian

Wars
Venus de Milo, c. 130 100
BC, Greek, the Louvre that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly in-
uenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan
6.4 Europe 17

speciality was near life size tomb egies in terracotta, works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal
usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around
one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the them, of which those commemorating Trajan (CE 113)
expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek ter- and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where
ritory, at rst in Southern Italy and then the entire Hel- the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace, 13 BCE) represents the
lenistic world except for the Parthian far east, ocial ocial Greco-Roman style at its most classical and re-
and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of ned. Among other major examples are the earlier re-
the Hellenistic style, from which specically Roman el- used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of
ements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much the Column of Antoninus Pius (161),[57] Campana reliefs
Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the
period.[52] By the 2nd century BCE, most of the sculp- taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to
tors working at Rome were Greek,[53] often enslaved in the sarcophagus. All forms of luxury small sculpture con-
conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BCE), and sculp- tinued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely
tors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup,
names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga
statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France".[58] For a much
result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often wider section of the population, moulded relief decora-
decorated with re-used Greek works.[54] tion of pottery vessels and small gurines were produced
[59]
A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monu- in great quantity and often considerable quality.
ments, which very often featured portrait busts, of pros- After moving through a late 2nd-century baroque
perous middle-class Romans, and portraiture is arguably phase,[60] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely aban-
the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no sur- doned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture
vivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain
worn in processions at the funerals of the great families much discussed. Even the most important imperial mon-
and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the uments now showed stumpy, large-eyed gures in a harsh
busts that survive must represent ancestral gures, per- frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power
haps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously il-
Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The fa- lustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome,
mous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is which combines sections in the new style with roundels in
very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere,
Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of
of bronze.[55] Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in
on coins of the Late Republic, and in the Imperial pe- both monuments the same stubby proportions, angular
riod coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and
placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds
visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark
a near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic
30 metre high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost.[56] hardness, heaviness and angularity in short, an almost
complete rejection of the classical tradition.[61]
This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in
which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and
the great majority of the people, leading to the end of
large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used
for emperors. However, rich Christians continued to
commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus
of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in
ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style
of the consular diptych.[62]

Augustan state Greco-Roman style on the Ara Pacis, 13 BCE

The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with

free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from his-
tory or mythology, but from early on produced historical
18 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Etruscan
sarcophagus, 3rd century BCE

Bust of Emperor
Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworked from a bust of
emperor Caligula), It was found in the so-called
Otricoli basilica in Lanuvium, Italy, Vatican Muse-
ums

The "Capitoline Brutus",

dated to the 3rd or 1st century BCE

Commodus dressed as
Hercules, c. 191 CE, in the late imperial baroque
style

Augustus of Prima Porta,

statue of the emperor Augustus, 1st century CE.
Vatican Museums

The Four Tetrarchs,

Tomb relief c. 305, showing the new anti-classical style, in
of the Decii, 98117 CE porphyry, now San Marco, Venice
6.4 Europe 19

The cameo gem

known as the "Great Cameo of France", c. 23 CE,
with an allegory of Augustus and his family

Silver monster on a chape, Scottish or Anglo-Saxon, St Ninians

Isle Treasure, c. 800?
The Gero Cross, c. 965970, Cologne, Germany
Early Medieval and Byzantine The Early Chris-
tians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture,
though continuing Roman traditions in portrait busts and
sarcophagus reliefs, as well as smaller objects such as the
consular diptych. Such objects, often in valuable materi- one up in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen around 800.
als, were also the main sculptural traditions (as far as is These continued to grow in popularity, especially in Ger-
known) of the barbaric civilizations of the Migration pe- many and Italy. The rune stones of the Nordic world, the
riod, as seen in the objects found in the 6th-century burial Pictish stones of Scotland and possibly the high cross re-
treasure at Sutton Hoo, and the jewellery of Scythian art liefs of Christian Great Britain, were northern sculptural
and the hybrid Christian and animal style productions of traditions that bridged the period of Christianization.
Insular art. Following the continuing Byzantine tradition,
Carolingian art revived ivory carving, often in panels for
the treasure bindings of grand illuminated manuscripts,
as well as crozier heads and other small ttings.
Byzantine art, though producing superb ivory reliefs and
architectural decorative carving, never returned to mon-
umental sculpture, or even much small sculpture in the
round.[63] However, in the West during the Carolingian
and Ottonian periods there was the beginnings of a pro-
duction of monumental statues, in courts and major
churches. This gradually spread; by the late 10th and 11th
century there are records of several apparently life-size
sculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches, probably of precious
metal around a wooden frame, like the Golden Madonna
of Essen. No Anglo-Saxon example has survived,[64] and
survivals of large non-architectural sculpture from before
1,000 are exceptionally rare. Much the nest is the Gero Archangel Ivory, 525
Cross, of 96570, which is a crucix, which was evidently 550, Constantinople
the commonest type of sculpture; Charlemagne had set
20 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Late Carolingian ivory

panel, probably meant for a book-cover

The Brunswick Lion, 1166, the rst large hollow casting of a

gure since antiquity, 1.78 metres tall and 2.79 metres long

style in both sculpture and painting. The capitals of

columns were never more exciting than in this period,
The when they were often carved with complete scenes with
Harbaville Triptych, Byzantine ivory, mid-10th several gures.[66] The large wooden crucix was a Ger-
century man innovation right at the start of the period, as were
free-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the
high relief was above all the sculptural mode of the pe-
riod. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to
be exible to squeeze themselves into the shapes of cap-
itals, and church typanums; the tension between a tightly
enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes
escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures
still often varied in size in relation to their importance
portraiture hardly existed.
Objects in precious materials such as ivory and metal
Detail of
had a very high status in the period, much more so than
Christ on the Gero Cross, Cologne 965970, the
monumental sculpture we know the names of more
rst great example of the revival of large sculpture
makers of these than painters, illuminators or architect-
masons. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel, be-
came very sophisticated, and many spectacular shrines
Romanesque Main article: Romanesque art made to hold relics have survived, of which the best
known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathe-
dral by Nicholas of Verdun. The bronze Gloucester can-
From about 1000 there was a general rebirth of artis- dlestick and the brass font of 110817 now in Lige are
tic production in all Europe, led by general economic superb examples, very dierent in style, of metal cast-
growth in production and commerce, and the new style ing, the former highly intricate and energetic, drawing on
of Romanesque art was the rst medieval style to be used manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style
in the whole of Western Europe. The new cathedrals and at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a
pilgrims churches were increasingly decorated with ar- triumphal column and other ttings at Hildesheim Cathe-
chitectural stone reliefs, and new focuses for sculpture dral, the Gniezno Doors, and the doors of the Basilica di
developed, such as the tympanum over church doors in San Zeno in Verona are other substantial survivals. The
the 12th century, and the inhabited capital with gures aquamanile, a container for water to wash with, appears
and often narrative scenes. Outstanding abbey churches to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century,
with sculpture include in France Vzelay and Moissac and and often took fantastic zoomorphic forms; surviving ex-
in Spain Silos.[65] amples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from
Romanesque art was characterised by a very vigorous impressive seals survive on charters and documents, al-
6.4 Europe 21

though Romanesque coins are generally not of great aes- Galicia, Spain, c. 12th13th centuries
thetic interest.[67]
The Cloisters Cross is an unusually large ivory crucix,
with complex carving including many gures of prophets
Gothic Main article: Gothic art
and others, which has been attributed to one of the rel-
The Gothic period is essentially dened by Gothic ar-
atively few artists whose name is known, Master Hugo,
who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces
it was originally partly coloured. The Lewis chessmen
are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which
many pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques,
pectoral crosses and similar objects.

Baptismal
font at St Bartholomews Church, Lige, Baptism of
Christ, 11071118

The tympa-
num of Vzelay Abbey, Burgundy, France, 1130s

French ivory Virgin and Child, end of 13th century, 25 cm high,

curving to t the shape of the ivory tusk

Facade,
chitecture, and does not entirely t with the development
Cathedral of Ourense 1160, Spain of style in sculpture in either its start or nish. The fa-
cades of large churches, especially around doors, contin-
ued to have large typanums, but also rows of sculpted g-
ures spreading around them. The statues on the Western
(Royal) Portal at Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145) show an
elegant but exaggerated columnar elongation, but those
on the south transept portal, from 1215 to 1220, show
a more naturalistic style and increasing detachment from
the wall behind, and some awareness of the classical tra-
dition. These trends were continued in the west portal at
Rheims Cathedral of a few years later, where the gures
Prtico da are almost in the round, as became usual as Gothic spread
Gloria, Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, across Europe.[68]
22 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

In Italy Nicola Pisano (125878) and his son Giovanni

developed a style that is often called Proto-Renaissance,
with unmistakable inuence from Roman sarcophagi
and sophisticated and crowded compositions, including
a sympathetic handling of nudity, in relief panels on
their pulpit of Siena Cathedral (126568), the Fontana
Maggiore in Perugia, and Giovannis pulpit in Pistoia of
1301.[69] Another revival of classical style is seen in the
International Gothic work of Claus Sluter and his fol-
lowers in Burgundy and Flanders around 1400.[70] Late
Gothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashion
for very large wooden sculpted altarpieces with increas-
ingly virtuoso carving and large numbers agitated expres- South portal of
sive gures; most surviving examples are in Germany, af- Chartres Cathedral (c. 121520)
ter much iconoclasm elsewhere. Tilman Riemenschnei-
der, Veit Stoss and others continued the style well into
the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissance
inuences.[71]
Life-size tomb egies in stone or alabaster became pop-
ular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved,
with the Scaliger Tombs of Verona so large they had to
be moved outside the church. By the 15th century there
was an industry exporting Nottingham alabaster altar re-
liefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for eco-
nomical parishes who could not aord stone retables.[72]
West portal
Small carvings, for a mainly lay and often female mar-
at Rheims Cathedral, Annunciation group
ket, became a considerable industry in Paris and some
other centres. Types of ivories included small devo-
tional polyptychs, single gures, especially of the Virgin,
mirror-cases, combs, and elaborate caskets with scenes
from Romances, used as engagement presents.[73] The
very wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate jewelled
and enamelled metalwork, both secular and religious, like
the Duc de Berry's Holy Thorn Reliquary, until they ran
short of money, when they were melted down again for
cash.[74]

Nicola
Pisano, Nativity and Adoration of the Magi from the
pulpit of the Pisa Baptistery

The Bamberg Horse-

West portal of man 1237, near life-size stone equestrian statue, the
Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145) rst of this kind since antiquity.
6.4 Europe 23

Lid of the
Walters Casket, with the Siege of the Castle of Love
at left, and jousting. Paris, 13301350
Base of the
Holy Thorn Reliquary, a Resurrection of the Dead
in gold, enamel and gems

Siege of the
Castle of Love on a mirror-case in the Louvre,
Section of a panelled altar-
13501370; the ladies are losing.
piece with Resurrection of Christ, English, 145090,
Nottingham alabaster with remains of colour

Detail of the
Last Supper from Tilman Riemenschneider's Altar
of the Holy Blood, 150105, Rothenburg ob der
Tauber, Bavaria
Central German
Piet, 133040

6.4.3 Renaissance

Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin with

Claus Sluter, lowing extensive backgrounds.[75] The intervening years
David and a prophet from the Well of Moses
the famous competition for the doors of the Florence
Baptistry in 1403, from which the trial models sub-
mitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Filippo
Brunelleschi survive. Ghibertis doors are still in place,
but were undoubtedly eclipsed by his second pair for the
other entrance, the so-called Gates of Paradise, which
took him from 1425 to 1452, and are dazzlingly condent
classicizing compositions with varied depths of relief al-
had seen Ghibertis early assistant Donatello develop with
seminal statues including his Davids in marble (140809)
24 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

The period was marked by a great increase in patron-

age of sculpture by the state for public art and by the
wealthy for their homes; especially in Italy, public sculp-
ture remains a crucial element in the appearance of his-
toric city centres. Church sculpture mostly moved in-
side just as outside public monuments became common.
Portrait sculpture, usually in busts, became popular in
Italy around 1450, with the Neapolitan Francesco Lau-
rana specializing in young women in meditative poses,
while Antonio Rossellino and others more often depicted
knobbly-faced men of aairs, but also young children.[79]
The portrait medal invented by Pisanello also often de-
picted women; relief plaquettes were another new small
form of sculpture in cast metal.
Michelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to
1520, and his great masterpieces including his David,
Piet, Moses, and pieces for the Tomb of Pope Julius II
and Medici Chapel could not be ignored by subsequent
sculptors. His iconic David (1504) has a contrapposto
Michelangelo, Piet, 1499. pose, borrowed from classical sculpture. It diers from
previous representations of the subject in that David is
depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after the
giants defeat. Instead of being shown victorious, as Do-
natello and Verocchio had done, David looks tense and
battle ready.[80]

Lorenzo
Ghiberti, panel of the Sacrice of Isaac from the
Florence Baptistry doors; oblique view here

Michelangelo, The Tomb of Pope Julius II, c. 1545, with statues

of Rachel and Leah on the left and the right of his Moses.

and bronze (1440s), and his Equestrian statue of Gat-

tamelata, as well as reliefs.[76] A leading gure in the later
period was Andrea del Verrocchio, best known for his
equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice;[77]
his pupil Leonardo da Vinci designed an equine sculp-
ture in 1482 The Horse for Milan-but only succeeded in Luca della
making a 24-foot (7.3 m) clay model which was destroyed Robbia, detail of Cantoria, c. 1438, Museo
by French archers in 1499, and his other ambitious sculp- dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence
tural plans were never completed.[78]
6.4 Europe 25

Florence

Donatello, David c.
1440s, Bargello Museum, Florence
Michelangelo, David,
c. 1504, Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence

Donatello, Judith and

Holofernes, c. 1460, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
Michelangelo, Dying Slave, c.
15131516

6.4.4 Mannerist

Main article: Mannerism

As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was very

largely an attempt to nd an original style that would top
the achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculp-
ture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the
Francesco struggle to achieve this was played out in commissions
Laurana, female bust (cast) to ll other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Flo-
rence, next to Michelangelos David. Baccio Bandinelli
took over the project of Hercules and Cacus from the
master himself, but it was little more popular than it is
now, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to
a sack of melons, though it had a long-lasting eect
in apparently introducing relief panels on the pedestal of
statues. Like other works of his and other Mannerists it
removes far more of the original block than Michelan-
gelo would have done.[81] Cellinis bronze Perseus with
the head of Medusa is certainly a masterpiece, designed
with eight angles of view, another Mannerist character-
istic, but is indeed mannered compared to the Davids of
Verrocchio, Michelangelo and Donatello.[82] Originally a goldsmith,
Doubting Thomas, 146783, Orsanmichele, his famous gold and enamel Salt Cellar (1543) was his
26 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Stucco
overdoor at Fontainebleau, probably designed by
Primaticcio, who painted the oval inset, 1530s or
1540s

Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus with

the head of Medusa, 15451554

Adriaen de Vries, Mercury and Psyche Northern Mannerist life-

size bronze, made in 1593 for Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor.

Giambologna, Samson
Slaying a Philistine, about 1562

rst sculpture, and shows his talent at its best.[83] As these

examples show, the period extended the range of secular
subjects for large works beyond portraits, with mytho-
logical gures especially favoured; previously these had
mostly been found in small works.
Small bronze gures for collectors cabinets, often mytho-
logical subjects with nudes, were a popular Renaissance
form at which Giambologna, originally Flemish but based
in Florence, excelled in the later part of the century, also
creating life-size sculptures, of which two joined the col-
lection in the Piazza della Signoria. He and his followers
devised elegant elongated examples of the gura serpenti-
nata, often of two intertwined gures, that were interest- Giambologna, The Rape of
ing from all angles.[84] the Sabine Women, 1583, Florence, Italy, 13' 6
6.4 Europe 27

(4.1 m) high, marble 16221625

6.4.5 Baroque and Rococo

Main article: Baroque sculpture

In Baroque sculpture, groups of gures assumed new im-

portance, and there was a dynamic movement and en-
ergy of human forms they spiralled around an empty
central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding
space. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal view-
ing angles, and reected a general continuation of the Re- Bust of Louis XIV, 1686,
naissance move away from the relief to sculpture created by Antoine Coysevox
in the round, and designed to be placed in the middle
of a large space elaborate fountains such as Berninis
Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Rome, 1651), or those in
the Gardens of Versailles were a Baroque speciality. The
Baroque style was perfectly suited to sculpture, with Gian
Lorenzo Bernini the dominating gure of the age in works
such as The Ecstasy of St Theresa (16471652).[85] Much
Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for
example, concealed lighting, or water fountains, or fused
sculpture and architecture to create a transformative ex-
perience for the viewer. Artists saw themselves as in the
classical tradition, but admired Hellenistic and later Ro-
man sculpture, rather than that of the more Classical Pierre Paul Puget, Perseus and
periods as they are seen today.[86] Andromeda, 1715, Muse du Louvre
The Protestant Reformation brought an almost total stop
to religious sculpture in much of Northern Europe, and
though secular sculpture, especially for portrait busts
and tomb monuments, continued, the Dutch Golden
Age has no signicant sculptural component outside
goldsmithing.[87] Partly in direct reaction, sculpture was
as prominent in Catholicism as in the late Middle Ages.
Statues of rulers and the nobility became increasingly
popular. In the 18th century much sculpture continued
on Baroque lines the Trevi Fountain was only completed
in 1762. Rococo style was better suited to smaller works,
and arguably found its ideal sculptural form in early Euro-
pean porcelain, and interior decorative schemes in wood Franz Anton Bustelli,
or plaster such as those in French domestic interiors and Rococo Nymphenburg Porcelain group
Austrian and Bavarian pilgrimage churches.[88]

6.4.6 Neo-Classical

Main article: Neoclassical sculpture

The Neoclassical style that arrived in the late 18th cen-
tury gave great emphasis to sculpture. Jean-Antoine
Houdon exemplies the penetrating portrait sculpture the
style could produce, and Antonio Canova's nudes the ide-
alist aspect of the movement. The Neoclassical period
was one of the great ages of public sculpture, though
its classical prototypes were more likely to be Roman
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, copies of Hellenistic sculptures. In sculpture, the most fa-
Apollo and Daphne in the Galleria Borghese, miliar representatives are the Italian Antonio Canova, the
28 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Bertel Thorvaldsen: Jason and

the Golden Fleece (1803)

Antonio Canova: Psyche Revived by Loves Kiss, 1787 John Flaxman, Memorial in
the church at Badger, Shropshire, c. 1780s

Englishman John Flaxman and the Dane Bertel Thorvald-

sen. The European neoclassical manner also took hold in
the United States, where its pinnacle occurred somewhat
later and is exemplied in the sculptures of Hiram Pow-
ers.

Hiram Powers, 1851, The Greek

Slave, Yale University Art Gallery

6.5 Asia
6.5.1 Greco-Buddhist sculpture and Asia

Main article: Greco-Buddhist art

Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-

Jean-Antoine Houdon, Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical
Bust of Benjamin Franklin, 1778, Metropolitan Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a
Museum of Art period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between
the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century
6.5 Asia 29

Pakistan, before spreading further into India, inuencing

the art of Mathura, and then the Hindu art of the Gupta
empire, which was to extend to the rest of South-East
Asia. The inuence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread
northward towards Central Asia, strongly aecting the
art of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves, and ulti-
mately the sculpted gure in China, Korea, and Japan.[90]

Gandhara
frieze with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in
purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns,
1st2nd century CE. Buner, Swat, Pakistan.
Victoria and Albert Museum

One of the rst representations of the Buddha, 1st2nd century

CE, Gandhara

BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE.

Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealis-
tic realism of Hellenistic art and the rst representations Fragment of the
of the Buddha in human form, which have helped dene wind god Boreas, Hadda, Afghanistan.
the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Bud-
dhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present.
Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hel-
lenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries
after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late
as the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were
adopted while others did not spread beyond the Greco-
Buddhist area; in particular the standing gure, often with
a relaxed pose and one leg exed, and the ying cupids
or victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras.
Greek foliage decoration was also inuential, with Indian
versions of the Corinthian capital appearing.[89]
The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in
the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE
130 BCE), located in todays Afghanistan, from which
Hellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinent
with the establishment of the small Indo-Greek kingdom Coin of
(180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then the Demetrius I of Bactria, who reigned circa 200180
Kushans, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture BC and invaded Northern India
ourished in the area of Gandhara, in todays northern
30 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

after they were dynamited and destroyed in March

2001 by the Taliban

Buddha head from Hadda,

Afghanistan, 3rd4th centuries

Statue from a Buddhist

monastery 700 AD, Afghanistan

6.5.2 China

Main articles: Chinese art, Chinese ceramics,

Lacquerware, and Chinese jade
Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Western

Gandhara Poseidon
(Ancient Orient Museum)

Seated Bodhisattva Guanyin, wood and pigment, 11th century,

Northern Song dynasty.

The Buddhist Zhou Dynasties come from a period of over a thousand

gods Pancika (left) and Hariti (right), 3rd century, years from c. 1500 BC, and have exerted a continuing
Gandhara inuence over Chinese art. They are cast with complex
patterned and zoomorphic decoration, but avoid the
human gure, unlike the huge gures only recently
discovered at Sanxingdui.[91] The spectacular Terracotta
Army was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang,
the rst emperor of a unied China from 221210
BCE, as a grand imperial version of the gures long
placed in tombs to enable the deceased to enjoy the
same lifestyle in the afterlife as when alive, replacing
actual sacrices of very early periods. Smaller gures in
pottery or wood were placed in tombs for many centuries
afterwards, reaching a peak of quality in Tang dynasty
Taller Bud- tomb gures.[92] The tradition of unusually large pottery
dha of Bamiyan, c. 547 AD., in 1963 and in 2008 gures persisted in China, through Tang sancai tomb
6.5 Asia 31

gures to later Buddhist statues such as the near life-size protect or guide the soul, Warring States period, ca.
set of Yixian glazed pottery luohans and later gures 3rd century BCE
for temples and tombs. These came to replace earlier
equivalents in wood.
Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images of
deities, or even represent them, and large religious sculp-
ture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th
to the 14th century, and initially using Greco-Buddhist
models arriving via the Silk Road. Buddhism is also the
context of all large portrait sculpture; in total contrast to
some other areas, in medieval China even painted im-
ages of the emperor were regarded as private. Imperial
tombs have spectacular avenues of approach lined with
real and mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt,
and smaller versions decorate temples and palaces.[93]
Small Buddhist gures and groups were produced to a
very high quality in a range of media,[94] as was relief
decoration of all sorts of objects, especially in metal- Lifesize calvalryman
work and jade.[95] In the earlier periods, large quantities from the Terracotta Army, Qin dynasty, ca. 3rd
of sculpture were cut from the living rock in pilgrimage century BC
cave-complexes, and as outside rock reliefs. These were
mostly originally painted. Sculptors of all sorts were re-
garded as artisans and very few names are recorded.[96]
From the Ming dynasty onwards, statuettes of religious
and secular gures were produced in Chinese porcelain
and other media, which became an important export.

Gold stag with

eagles head, Xiongnu tomb on the Mongolian
frontier, 4th-3rd century BC
A bronze
ding from late Shang dynasty (13th century BC-
10th century BC)

Tomb gure of dancing girl, Han

A tomb guardian Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD)
usually placed inside the doors of the tomb to
32 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Bronze cowrie container Seated Buddha, Tang

with yaks, from the Dian Kingdom (4th century BC dynasty ca. 650.
- 109 BC) tradition of the Western Han

The Leshan Giant

Buddha, Tang dynasty, completed in 803.

Northern Wei dynasty

Maitreya (386534)

A wooden Bodhisattva
from the Song dynasty (9601279)

Tang dy-
nasty tomb gure in sancai glaze pottery, horse and
groom (618-907)
Chinese jade Cup
6.5 Asia 33

with Dragon Handles, Song dynasty, 12th century

The giant
wooden bodhisattva of Puning Temple, Chengde,
Hebei province, built in 1755 under the Qianlong
Emperor

6.5.3 Japan
Guanyin Bodhisattva in
See also: Japanese art, Japanese sculpture, and List of
Blanc de Chine (Dehua porcelain), by He Chaozong,
National Treasures of Japan (sculptures)
Ming dynasty, early 17th century
Towards the end of the long Neolithic Jmon period,

Blue underglaze statue

of a man with his pipe, from Jingdezhen, Ming
Wanli period (1573-1620)

Nara Daibutsu, c. 752, Nara, Japan

some pottery vessels were ame-rimmed with extrav-

agant extensions to the rim that can only be called
sculptural,[97] and very stylized pottery dog gures were
produced, many with the characteristic snow-goggle
A Chinese guardian eyes. During the Kofun period of the 3rd to 6th century
lion outside Yonghe Temple, Beijing, Qing dynasty, CE, haniwa terracotta gures of humans and animals in
ca. 1694 a simplistic style were erected outside important tombs.
The arrival of Buddhism in the 6th century brought with it
34 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

sophisticated traditions in sculpture, Chinese styles medi-

ated via Korea. The 7th century Hry-ji and its contents
have survived more intact than any East Asian Buddhist
temple of its date, with works including a Shaka Trinity
of 623 in bronze, showing the historical Buddha anked
by two bodhisattvas and also the Guardian Kings of the
Four Directions.[98]
The wooden image (9th century) of Shakyamuni, the
historic Buddha, enshrined in a secondary building at
the Mur-ji, is typical of the early Heian sculpture, with
its ponderous body, covered by thick drapery folds carved
in the hompa-shiki (rolling-wave) style, and its austere,
withdrawn facial expression. The Kei school of sculptors,
particularly Unkei, created a new, more realistic style of
sculpture.
Almost all subsequent signicant large sculpture in Japan
was Buddhist, with some Shinto equivalents, and after Kongo Rishiki (Guardian
Buddhism declined in Japan in the 15th century, mon- Deity) at the Central Gate of Hry-ji
umental sculpture became largely architectural decora-
tion and less signicant.[99] However sculptural work in
the decorative arts was developed to a remarkable level
of technical achievement and renement in small objects
such as inro and netsuke in many materials, and metal
tosogu or Japanese sword mountings. In the 19th century
there were export industries of small bronze sculptures
of extreme virtuosity, ivory and porcelain gurines, and
other types of small sculpture, increasingly emphasizing
technical accomplishment.

Priest Ganjin
(Jianzhen), Nara period, 8th century

Dog with snow-goggle

eyes, 1000400 BC.

Jch, Amida Bud-

dha, Heian Period, 1053, Byd-in, Kyoto
6th century haniwa gure
6.5 Asia 35

6.5.4 India

See also: Sculpture in South Asia, List of rock-cut tem-

ples in India, and Sculpture of Bangladesh
The rst known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent

Unkei, Seitaka Doji,

Kamakura Period, 1197, Kongbu-ji

Tsuba sword
tting with a Rabbit Viewing the Autumn Moon,
bronze, gold and silver, between 1670 and 1744
Hindu Gupta terracotta relief, 5th century CE, of Krishna Killing
the Horse Demon Keshi

is from the Indus Valley civilization (33001700 BC),

found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-
day Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze fe-
male dancer. However, such gures in bronze and stone
are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery gurines and
stone seals, often of animals or deities very nely de-
Izumiya picted. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization
Tomotada, netsuke in the form of a dog, late 18th there is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era,
century apart from a hoard of copper gures of (somewhat con-
troversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad.[100] Thus the
great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone
appears to begin, relative to other cultures, and the de-
velopment of Indian civilization, relatively late, with the
reign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of
Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and
topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of
which six survive.[101] Large amounts of gurative sculp-
ture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pil-
grimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably devel-
oped out of a tradition using wood that also embraced
Hinduism.[102]
The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures
Yamada Chzabur, of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reected
Wind God in repouss iron, c. 1915 both native Indian traditions and the Western inuences
received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,
36 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

and eectively established the basis for subsequent Indian way at Sanchi, c. 100 CE or perhaps earlier, with
religious sculpture.[102] The style was developed and dif- densely packed reliefs
fused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c.
320-550) which remains a classical period for Indian
sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,[103] though
the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later.[104] Later
large-scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious,
and generally rather conservative, often reverting to sim-
ple frontal standing poses for deities, though the at-
tendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have
sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly de-
tailed, with an intricate backing behind the main gure
in high relief. The celebrated bronzes of the Chola dy-
nasty (c. 8501250) from south India, many designed
to be carried in processions, include the iconic form
of Shiva as Nataraja,[105] with the massive granite carv- Buddha from Sarnath,
ings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava 56th century CE
dynasty.[106]

The dancing girl of Mohenjo The Colossal trimurti

Daro", 3rd millennium BCE (replica) at the Elephanta Caves

Rock-cut
temples at Ellora

Ashoka Pillar,
Vaishali, Bihar, c. 250 BCE

Hindu,
Chola period, 1000
Stupa gate-
6.5 Asia 37

Typical medieval frontal Sculpture of Guardian

standing statue of Vishnu, 9501150 at the entrance of the Mandapam of Sri Jalagan-
deeswarar Temple, Vellore, Tamil Nadu

6.5.5 South-East Asia

Khajuraho
Temple

9th century Khmer lintel

The sculpture of the region tends to be characterised

by a high degree of ornamentation, as seen in the great
Marble Sculpture of monuments of Hindu and Buddhist Khmer sculpture (9th
female yakshi in typical curving pose, c. 1450, to 13th centuries) at Angkor Wat and elsewhere, the
Rajasthan enormous 9th-century Buddhist complex at Borobudur
in Java, and the Hindu monuments of Bali.[107] Both
of these include many reliefs as well as gures in the
round; Borobudur has 2,672 relief panels, 504 Buddha
statues, many semi-concealed in openwork stupas, and
many large guardian gures.
In Thailand and Laos, sculpture was mainly of Buddha
images, often gilded, both large for temples and monas-
teries, and small gurines for private homes. Traditional
sculpture in Myanmar emerged before the Bagan period.
As elsewhere in the region, most of the wood sculptures
Gopuram of of the Bagan and Ava periods have been lost. In later pe-
the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, Tamil riods Chinese inuence predominated in Vietnam, Laos
Nadu, densely packed with rows of painted statues and Cambodia, and more wooden sculpture survives from
across the region.
38 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Apsara and
Gandarva pedestal, Tr Kiu, Cham art, Vietnam,
c.7th8th century

Bronze
Avalokiteshvara from Bidor, Perak, Malaysia,
c. 8th-9th century

Relief sculp-
ture from Borobudur temple, Indonesia, c. 760830

Vishnu from Prasat Rup

Arak, Kulen, Khmer art, Cambodia, c. 800-875

Vairocana Buddha from

Borobudur temple, Indonesia, c. 760830

Bronze Avalokiteshvara Dragon head palace

torso from Chaiya, Southern Thailand, Srivijayan decoration from the L dynasty, Vietnam, c.
art, c. 8th century 10091225
6.6 Islam 39

Buddha in Ananda Tem-

ple, Bagan, Myanmar, c. 1105
the Buddha calling
the earth to witness, The Buddhas hands are in the
bhmisparsa mudr (subduing Mra) position. Ho
Phra Kaeo temple, Vientiane, Laos

6.6 Islam
Stone bas-
relief of apsaras from Bayon temple, Cambodia, c.
1200

Ivory with traces of paint, 11th12th century, Egypt

Islam is famously aniconic, so the vast majority of sculp-

ture is arabesque decoration in relief or openwork, based
on vegetable motifs, but tending to geometrical abstract
Prajnaparamita forms. In the very early Mshatta Facade (740s), now
Singhasari art, East Java, Indonesia, c. 13th mostly in Berlin, there are animals within the dense
century arabesques in high relief, and gures of animals and men
in mostly low relief are found in conjunction with decora-
tion on many later pieces in various materials, including
metalwork, ivory and ceramics.[108]
Figures of animals in the round were often acceptable for
works used in private contexts if the object was clearly
practical, so medieval Islamic art contains many metal an-
imals that are aquamaniles, incense burners or supporters
for fountains, as in the stone lions supporting the famous
one in the Alhambra, culminating in the largest medieval
Islamic animal gure known, the Pisa Grin. In the
same way, luxury hardstone carvings such as dagger hilts
and cups may be formed as animals, especially in Mughal
art. The degree of acceptability of such relaxations of
Phra Achana, Wat Si strict Islamic rules varies between periods and regions,
Chum, Big Buddha image in Sukhothai, Thailand, with Islamic Spain, Persia and India often leading relax-
c. 14th century ation, and is typically highest in courtly contexts.[109]
40 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

6.7 Africa

The Mshatta
Facade, from a palace near Damascus, 740s

The Pisa Grin, 107

cm high, probably 11th century

Mask from Gabon

Part of a 15th-century
ceramic panel from Samarkand with white calligra-
phy on a blue arabesque background.

Two Chiwara c. late 19th early 20th centuries, Art Institute of

Chicago. Female (left) and male Vertical styles

Historically, with the exception of some monumental

Egyptian sculpture, most African sculpture was created in
Mughal dagger with hilt wood and other organic materials that have not survived
in jade, gold, rubies and emeralds. Blade of from earlier than a few centuries ago; older pottery gures
damascened steel inlaid with gold. are found from a number of areas. Masks are important
6.7 Africa 41

elements in the art of many peoples, along with human

gures, often highly stylized. There is a vast variety of
styles, often varying within the same context of origin de-
pending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends
are apparent; sculpture is most common among groups
of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and
Congo rivers" in West Africa.[110] Direct images of deities
are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or
were often made for religious ceremonies; today many
are made for tourists as airport art.[111] African masks
were an inuence on European Modernist art, which was
inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depic-
tion. Nok terracotta, 6th cen-
tury BC6th century CE
The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in
close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced
monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to the
north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are
from the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and
500 AD in modern Nigeria, with clay gures typically
with elongated bodies and angular shapes. Later West
African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs to
decorate palaces like the famous Benin Bronzes, and very
ne naturalistic royal heads from around the Yoruba town
of Ife in terracotta and metal from the 12th14th cen-
turies. Akan goldweights are a form of small metal sculp-
tures produced over the period 14001900, some appar-
ently representing proverbs and so with a narrative ele-
Ife head, terracotta,
ment rare in African sculpture, and royal regalia included
probably 1214th centuries CE
impressive gold sculptured elements.[112]
Many West African gures are used in religious rituals
and are often coated with materials placed on them for
ceremonial oerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of
the same region make pieces of wood with broad, at
surfaces and arms and legs are shaped like cylinders. In
Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing charac-
teristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward
and display patterns of circles and dots.
Populations in the African Great Lakes are not known for
their sculpture.[110] However, one style from the region is
pole sculptures, carved in human shapes and decorated
with geometric forms, while the tops are carved with
gures of animals, people, and various objects. These Yoruba bronze head
poles are, then, placed next to graves and are associ- sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12th century
ated with death and the ancestral world. The culture
known from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive build-
ings than sculpture but the eight soapstone Zimbabwe
Birds appear to have had a special signicance and were
mounted on monoliths. Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in
soapstone have achieved considerable international suc-
cess. Southern Africas oldest known clay gures date
from 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a
mixture of human and animal features.

Sculpture of a 'Queen
42 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Mother' from Benin, 16th century. ria

6.8 The Americas

See also: Sculpture of the United States, Visual arts by

indigenous peoples of the Americas, Pre-Columbian art,
Northwest Coast art, and Inuit art

Sculpture in what is now Latin America developed in

16th century ivory two separate and distinct areas, Mesoamerica in the north
mask from Benin and Peru in the south. In both areas, sculpture was
initially of stone, and later of terracotta and metal as
the civilizations in these areas became more technolog-
ically procient.[113] The Mesoamerican region produced
more monumental sculpture, from the massive block-like
works of the Olmec and Toltec cultures, to the superb low
reliefs that characterize the Mayan and Aztec cultures. In
the Andean region, sculptures were typically small, but
often show superb skill.

6.8.1 Pre-Columbian

One of the
Benin Bronzes, 16th18th century, Nigeria.

Mask from Olmec Baby Figure

Burkina Faso, 19th century 1200-900 BCE

Olmec
Jadeite Mask 1000600 BCE
Mambila gure, Nige-
6.8 The Americas 43

Teotihuacan-
Olmec Detail of the Temple of the Feathered Serpent
Colossal Head No. 3 1200900 BCE 200250 CE

A funerary
urn in the shape of a bat god or a jaguar, Oaxaca,
La Mojarra Stela 1 2nd 300650 CE
century CE

Chalchiuhtlicue from Moche portrait vessel

Teotihuacn 200500 CE with stirrup spout, Peru, 100 BCE-700 CE

Teotihuacan K'inich Janaab Pakal I

mask 200600 CE of Palenque, Maya, 603683
44 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Ahkal Mo' Naab III Of

Palenque, 8th century
Atlante from Tollan-
Xicocotitlan also known as Tula 1000

Double-
headed serpent, Turquoise, red and white mosaic on
Upakal K'inich 8th century AD, wood, Aztec (possibly) Mixtec, c. 14001521,
Palenque

6.9 Moving toward modern art

6.9.1 North America

In North America, wood was sculpted for totem poles,

masks, utensils, War canoes and a variety of other uses,
with distinct variation between dierent cultures and re-
gions. The most developed styles are those of the Pacic
Northwest Coast, where a group of elaborate and highly
stylized formal styles developed forming the basis of a
tradition that continues today. In addition to the famous
Jaina Island type gure totem poles, painted and carved house fronts were com-
(Mayan) 650800 plemented by carved posts inside and out, as well as mor-
tuary gures and other items. Among the Inuit of the far
north, traditional carving styles in ivory and soapstone are
still continued.[114]
The arrival of European Catholic culture readily adapted
local skills to the prevailing Baroque style, producing
enormously elaborate retablos and other mostly church
sculptures in a variety of hybrid styles.[115] The most fa-
mous of such examples in Canada is the altar area of
the Notre Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec, which
was carved by peasant habitant labourers. Later, artists
trained in the Western academic tradition followed Eu-
ropean styles until in the late 19th century they began to
Classic Ver- draw again on indigenous inuences, notably in the Mex-
acruz culture face 600900 ican baroque grotesque style known as Churrigueresque.
6.9 Moving toward modern art 45

Gutzon
Borglum and his son, Lincoln Borglum, Mount
Rushmore, 19271941. L-R, George Washing-
ton, Thomas Jeerson, Theodore Roosevelt, and
Abraham Lincoln.

St. James panel, from reredos in Cristo Rey Church, Santa Fe,
New Mexico, c. 1760 Robert
Gould Shaw Memorial by Augustus Saint-Gaudens,
18841897, plaster version
Aboriginal peoples also adapted church sculpture in vari-
ations on Carpenter Gothic; one famous example is the
Church of the Holy Cross in Skookumchuck Hot Springs,
British Columbia.
The history of sculpture in the United States after Eu-
ropeans arrival reects the countrys 18th-century foun-
dation in Roman republican civic values and Protestant
Christianity. Compared to areas colonized by the Span-
ish, sculpture got o to an extremely slow start in the
British colonies, with next to no place in churches, and
was only given impetus by the need to assert national-
ity after independence. American sculpture of the mid-
to late-19th century was often classical, often romantic,
but showed a bent for a dramatic, narrative, almost jour- Lee Lawrie, The Sower,
nalistic realism. Public buildings during the last quarter 1928 Art Deco relief on Beaumont Tower, Michigan
of the 19th century and the rst half of the 20th century State University
often provided an architectural setting for sculpture, es-
pecially in relief. By the 1930s the International Style
of architecture and design and art deco characterized by
the work of Paul Manship and Lee Lawrie and others be-
came popular. By the 1950s, traditional sculpture educa-
tion would almost be completely replaced by a Bauhaus-
inuenced concern for abstract design. Minimalist sculp-
ture replaced the gure in public settings and architects
almost completely stopped using sculpture in or on their
designs. Modern sculptors (21st century) use both classi-
cal and abstract inspired designs. Beginning in the 1980s,
there was a swing back toward gurative public sculpture;
by 2000, many of the new public pieces in the United Daniel
States were gurative in design. Chester French, Abraham Lincoln (1920) in the
46 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C.

The K'alyaan Totem

Pole of the Tlingit Kiks.di Clan, erected at Sitka
National Historical Park to commemorate the lives
lost in the 1804 Battle of Sitka

Frederic Remington, The Bronco Buster, limited

edition #17 of 20, 1909. Auguste Rodin, The Thinker, 1902, Muse Rodin, Paris

6.10 19thearly 20th century, early Mod-

ernism and continuing realism

Paul Manship,
Dancer and Gazelles, 1916, Smithsonian American
Art Museum, Washington, D.C. Franois Rude, a
Romantic Jeanne d' Arc, 1852, Louvre

Gertrude
Vanderbilt Whitney, The Scout, 1924, commemo-
rating Bualo Bill in Cody, Wyoming
Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux,
6.10 19thearly 20th century, early Modernism and continuing realism 47

Auguste
Rodin The Burghers of Calais 1889, Calais, France

Alfred Gilbert, the

so-called Eros, 1893, the worlds rst aluminium
statue, Piccadilly Circus, London

Paul Gauguin, 1894, Oviri (Sauvage), partially glazed

stoneware, 75 x 19 x 27 cm, Muse d'Orsay, Paris

Ugolino and His Sons, 18571860, Metropolitan

Museum of Art

Detail of the grave of

Cyprian Kamil Norwid in Wawel Cathedral,
Krakw by Czesaw Dwigaj

Edgar Degas, Little

Dancer of Fourteen Years, cast in 1922 from a Sculpture on
mixed-media sculpture modeled ca. 187980, the Discoveries Age and Portuguese navigators in
Bronze, partly tinted, with cotton Lisbon, Portugal
48 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Antoine Bourdelle, Amedeo Modigliani, Female

Day and Night, marble, 1903, Muse Bourdelle, Head, 1911/1912, Tate
Paris

Aristide
Maillol, The Night, 1920, Stuttgart

Modern classicism contrasted in many ways with the clas-

Jan tursa, Before the
Bath, 1906, National Gallery in Prague
Constantin Brncui,
Portrait of Mademoiselle Pogany 1912, White
marble; limestone block, Philadelphia Museum of
Art. Exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show
sical sculpture of the 19th century which was charac-
terized by commitments to naturalism (Antoine-Louis
Barye)the melodramatic (Franois Rude) sentimen-
tality (Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux)-- or a kind of stately
grandiosity (Lord Leighton). Several dierent directions
in the classical tradition were taken as the century turned,
but the study of the live model and the post-Renaissance
tradition was still fundamental to them. Auguste Rodin
was the most renowned European sculptor of the early
20th century.[116][117] He is often considered a sculp-
tural Impressionist, as are his students including Camille
Claudel, and Hugo Rheinhold, attempting to model of
a eeting moment of ordinary life. Modern classicism
showed a lesser interest in naturalism and a greater inter-
est in formal stylization. Greater attention was paid to the
rhythms of volumes and spacesas well as greater atten-
tion to the contrasting qualities of surface (open, closed,
planar, broken etc.) while less attention was paid to story-
telling and convincing details of anatomy or costume.
Greater attention was given to psychological eect than to
physical realism, and inuences from earlier styles world-
wide were used.
Early masters of modern classicism included: Aristide
Maillol, Alexander Matveyev, Joseph Bernard, Antoine
Bourdelle, Georg Kolbe, Libero Andreotti, Gustav Vige-
land, Jan Stursa, Constantin Brncui. As the century
progressed, modern classicism was adopted as the na-
 49

tional style of the two great European totalitarian em-

pires: Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia, who co-opted the
work of earlier artists such as Kolbe and Wilhelm Lehm-
bruck in Germany[118] and Matveyev in Russia. Over
the 70 years of the USSR, new generations of sculptors
were trained and chosen within their system, and a dis-
tinct style, socialist realism, developed, that returned to
the 19th centurys emphasis on melodrama and natural-
ism.
Classical training was rooted out of art education in West-
ern Europe (and the Americas) by 1970 and the classi- Henry Moore, Large Reclining Figure, 1984 (based on a smaller
cal variants of the 20th century were marginalized in the model of 1938), Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
history of modernism. But classicism continued as the
foundation of art education in the Soviet academies until
1990, providing a foundation for expressive gurative art
throughout eastern Europe and parts of the Middle East.
By the year 2000, the European classical tradition retains
a wide appeal to the public but awaits an educational tra-
dition to revive its contemporary development.
Some of the modern classical became either more dec-
orative/art deco (Paul Manship, Jose de Creeft, Carl
Milles) or more abstractly stylized or more expressive
(and Gothic) (Anton Hanak, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Ernst
Barlach, Arturo Martini)or turned more to the Renais-
sance (Giacomo Manz, Venanzo Crocetti) or stayed the
same (Charles Despiau, Marcel Gimond).

7 Modernism

David Smith, CUBI VI, (1963), Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

his constructions fashioned by combining disparate ob-

jects and materials into one constructed piece of sculp-
ture; the sculptural equivalent of the collage in two-
dimensional art. The advent of Surrealism led to things
Gaston Lachaise, Floating Figure 1927, bronze, no. 5 from an
edition of 7, National Gallery of Australia occasionally being described as sculpture that would
not have been so previously, such as involuntary sculp-
ture in several senses, including coulage. In later years
Main article: Modern sculpture Picasso became a prolic potter, leading, with interest
in historic pottery from around the world, to a revival of
Modernist sculpture movements include Cubism, ceramic art, with gures such as George E. Ohr and sub-
Geometric abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism, sequently Peter Voulkos, Kenneth Price, and Robert Ar-
Constructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, neson. Marcel Duchamp originated the use of the "found
Formalism Abstract expressionism, Pop-Art, object" (French: objet trouv) or readymade with pieces
Minimalism, Land art, and Installation art among such as Fountain (1917).
others. Similarly, the work of Constantin Brncui at the begin-
In the early days of the 20th century, Pablo Picasso rev- ning of the century paved the way for later abstract sculp-
olutionized the art of sculpture when he began creating ture. In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and his
50 7 MODERNISM

late-19th-century contemporaries, Brncui distilled sub- 7.1 Gallery of modernist sculpture

jects down to their essences as illustrated by the elegantly
rened forms of his Bird in Space series (1924).[119]
Brncuis impact, with his vocabulary of reduction and
abstraction, is seen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, and
exemplied by artists such as Gaston Lachaise, Sir Jacob
Epstein, Henry Moore, Alberto Giacometti, Joan Mir, Henri Ma-
Julio Gonzlez, Pablo Serrano, Jacques Lipchitz[120] and tisse, The Back Series, bronze, left to right: The
by the 1940s abstract sculpture was impacted and ex- Back I, 190809, The Back II, 1913, The Back
panded by Alexander Calder, Len Lye, Jean Tinguely, III 1916, The Back IV, c. 1931, all Museum of
and Frederick Kiesler who were pioneers of Kinetic art. Modern Art, New York City
Modernist sculptors largely missed out on the huge boom
in public art resulting from the demand for war memori-
als for the two World Wars, but from the 1950s the pub-
lic and commissioning bodies became more comfortable
with Modernist sculpture and large public commissions
both abstract and gurative became common. Picasso
was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50-
foot (15 m)-high public sculpture, the so-called Chicago
Picasso (1967). His design was ambiguous and somewhat
controversial, and what the gure represents is not clear;
it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract
shape.
During the late 1950s and the 1960s abstract sculptors
Otto Gutfreund, Cel-
began experimenting with a wide array of new materials
list, 191213
and dierent approaches to creating their work. Surre-
alist imagery, anthropomorphic abstraction, new mate-
rials and combinations of new energy sources and var-
ied surfaces and objects became characteristic of much
new modernist sculpture. Collaborative projects with
landscape designers, architects, and landscape architects
expanded the outdoor site and contextual integration.
Artists such as Isamu Noguchi, David Smith, Alexander
Calder, Jean Tinguely, Richard Lippold, George Rickey,
Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson came to charac-
terize the look of modern sculpture.
By the 1960s Abstract expressionism, Geometric abstrac-
tion and Minimalism, which reduces sculpture to its most
essential and fundamental features, predominated. Some
works of the period are: the Cubi works of David Smith, Alexander Archipenko,
and the welded steel works of Sir Anthony Caro, as well as La Vie Familiale (Family Life), 1912
welded sculpture by a large variety of sculptors, the large-
scale work of John Chamberlain, and environmental in-
stallation scale works by Mark di Suvero. Other Min-
imalists include Tony Smith, Donald Judd, Robert Mor-
ris, Anne Truitt, Giacomo Benevelli, Arnaldo Pomodoro,
Richard Serra, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, and John Safer
who added motion and monumentality to the theme of
purity of line.[121]
During the 1960s and 1970s gurative sculpture by mod-
ernist artists in stylized forms was made by artists such
as Leonard Baskin, Ernest Trova, George Segal, Marisol
Escobar, Paul Thek, Robert Graham in a classic articu-
lated style, and Fernando Botero bringing his paintings
Joseph
'oversized gures into monumental sculptures.
Csaky, Tte, ca.1920 (front and side view), lime-
stone, 60 cm, Krller-Mller Museum, Otterlo,
7.1 Gallery of modernist sculpture 51

Holland

John Cham-
berlain, S, 1959, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture
Jacob Ep- Garden, Washington, DC.
stein, Day and Night, carved for the London
Underground's headquarters, 1928.

Henry
Moore, Three Piece Reclining gure No.1, 1961,
Kthe Koll- Yorkshire
witz, The Grieving Parents, 1932, World War I
memorial (for her son Peter), Vladslo German war
cemetery

Marcel
Duchamp, Fountain 1917; 1964 artist-authorized
replica made by the artists dealer, Arturo Schwarz,
based on a photograph by Alfred Stieglitz. Porce-
Jacques
lain, Tate Modern, London
Lipchitz, Birth of the Muses, (19441950)

Barbara Hepworth, Pablo Picasso, Public

Monolith-Empyrean, 1953 Sculpture, 1967, Chicago, Illinois
52 7 MODERNISM

Isamu Noguchi, Louise Nevelson, At-

Heimar, 1968, at the Billy Rose Sculpture Garden, mosphere and Environment XII, 19701973,
Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel Philadelphia Museum of Art

Sir Anthony
Caro, Black Cover Flat, 1974, steel, Tel Aviv
Museum of Art

George Rickey, Four

Squares in Geviert, 1969, terrace of the New
National Gallery, Berlin, Germany, Rickey is
considered a Kinetic sculptor

Joan Mir, Woman and Bird,

1982, Barcelona, Spain

Alexander Calder,
Crinkly avec disc rouge, 1973, Schlossplatz, George
Stuttgart Segal, Street Crossing, 1992, permanently installed
on a public sidewalk at Montclair State University,
7.3 Minimalism 53

in Montclair, New Jersey LeWitt, Jackie Winsor, Keith Sonnier, and Bruce Nau-
man, among others were pioneers of Postminimalist
sculpture.
Also during the 1960s and 1970s artists as diverse as
Eduardo Paolozzi, Chryssa, Claes Oldenburg, George Se-
gal, Edward Kienholz, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell,
Duane Hanson, and John DeAndrea explored abstraction,
imagery and guration through video art, environment,
light sculpture, and installation art in new ways.
Conceptual art is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s)
involved in the work take precedence over traditional
Mark di
aesthetic and material concerns. Works include One
Suvero, Aurora, 19921993
and Three Chairs, 1965, is by Joseph Kosuth, and An
Oak Tree by Michael Craig-Martin, and those of Joseph
Beuys, James Turrell and Jacek Tylicki.

7.3 Minimalism

Louise
Bourgeois, Maman, 1999, outside Museo Guggen-
heim

7.2 Contemporary movements

Tony Smith,
Free Ride, 1962, 6'8 x 6'8 x 6'8 (the height of a
standard US door opening), Museum of Modern
Art, New York

Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Umbrellas 1991, Japan [122]

Site specic and environmental art works are represented

by artists: Andy Goldsworthy, Walter De Maria,[123]
Richard Long, Richard Serra, Robert Irwin,[124] George
Rickey and Christo and Jeanne-Claude led contempo-
rary abstract sculpture in new directions. Artists created
environmental sculpture on expansive sites in the 'land Larry Bell, Untitled
art in the American West' group of projects. These land 1964, bismuth, chromium, gold, and rhodium
art or 'earth art' environmental scale sculpture works ex- on gold-plated brass; Hirshhorn Museum and
emplied by artists such as Robert Smithson, Michael Sculpture Garden
Heizer, James Turrell (Roden Crater). Eva Hesse, Sol
54 7 MODERNISM

Richard Serra, Ful- Jean-Yves Lecheval-

crum 1987, 55 ft high free standing sculpture of lier, Fettered wing. 1991
Cor-ten steel near Liverpool Street station, London

Donald
Judd, Untitled, 1991, Israel Museum Art Garden,
Jerusalem
Anish Kapoor, Turn-
ing the World Upside Down, Israel Museum, 2010

7.3.1 Postminimalism

Damien
Hirst, The Physical Impossibility of Death in the
Bruce Nau- Mind of Someone Living. 1991
man, Human/Need/Desire, 1983, Neon sculpture

Richard Rachel
Long, South Bank Circle, 1991 Tate Liverpool, Whiteread, Holocaust Monument 2000 Judenplatz,
England Vienna
 55

to move, which include mobiles. Snow sculptures are

usually carved out of a single block of snow about 6 to
15 feet (1.8 to 4.6 m) on each side and weighing about
2030 tons. The snow is densely packed into a form af-
ter having been produced by articial means or collected
from the ground after a snowfall. Sound sculptures take
the form of indoor sound installations, outdoor installa-
tions such as aeolian harps, automatons, or be more or less
near conventional musical instruments. Sound sculpture
is often site-specic. Art toys have become another for-
mat for contemporary artists since the late 1990s, such as
those produced by Takashi Murakami and Kid Robot, de-
Guardians of Time, light signed by Michael Lau, or hand-made by Michael Leavitt
sculpture by Manfred Kielnhofer at the Light Art (artist).[125]
Biennale Austria 2010

8 Conservation

The Spire of Dublin ocially titled the

Monument of Light, stainless steel, 121.2 metres
(398 feet), the worlds tallest sculpture
Visible damage due to acid rain on a sculpture

Sculptures are sensitive to environmental conditions such

7.3.2 Contemporary genres
Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson, in 2005
Some modern sculpture forms are now practiced out-
doors, as environmental art and environmental sculpture,
often in full view of spectators. Light sculpture, street
art sculpture and site-specic art also often make use of
the environment. Ice sculpture is a form of ephemeral
sculpture that uses ice as the raw material. It is popular
in China, Japan, Canada, Sweden, and Russia. Ice sculp-
tures feature decoratively in some cuisines, especially in
Asia. Kinetic sculptures are sculptures that are designed
as temperature, humidity and exposure to light and
ultraviolet light. Acid rain can also cause damage to cer-
tain building materials and historical monuments. This
results when sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts
with the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone,
sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which
then akes o.
At any time many contemporary sculptures have usually
been on display in public places; theft was not a problem
as pieces were instantly recognisable. In the early 21st
century the value of metal rose to such an extent that theft
of massive bronze sculpture for the value of the metal
became a problem; sculpture worth millions being stolen
and melted down for the relatively low value of the metal,
a tiny fraction of the value of the artwork.[126]
9 See also
List of female sculptors
List of sculptors
Outline of sculpture
56 10 NOTES

List of Stone Age art [5] The Ptolemies began the Hellenistic tradition of ruler-
portraits on coins, and the Romans began to show dead
List of sculpture parks politicians in the 1st century BC, with Julius Caesar the
rst living gure to be portrayed; under the emperors por-
List of most expensive sculptures traits of the Imperial family became standard. See Bur-
nett, 34-35; Howgego, 63-70
Arborsculpture
[6] Article by Morris Cox
Architectural sculpture
[7] Gods in Colour
Assemblage
[8] Cook, 147; he notes that ancient Greek copyists seem to
Butter sculpture have used many fewer points than some later ones, and
copies often vary considerably in the composition as well
Cass Sculpture Foundation as the nish.
Collage [9] Flash animation of the lost-wax casting process. James
Peniston Sculpture. Retrieved 2008-11-30.
Electrotyping
[10] Ravi, B. (2004). Metal Casting Overview (PDF). Bu-
Floral design (Ikebana) reau of Energy Eciency, India.
Garden sculpture [11] British Museum - The Lycurgus Cup

Sculpture garden [12] V&A Museum, Sculpture techniques: modelling in clay,

accessed August 31, 2012
Gas sculpture
[13] Rawson, 140144; Frankfort 112113; Henig, 179180
Glassblowing
[14] Rawson, 134135
Hill gure
[15] Burford, Alison, Greece, ancient, IV, 1: Monumental
History of Eastern art sculpture: Overview, 5 c)" in Oxford Art Online, accessed
August 24th, 2012
Hologram
[16] Olsen, 150151; Blunt
Inuit Art
[17] Jewish virtual library, History of Jewish sculpture
Living sculpture [18] P.Mellars, Archeology and the Dispersal of Modern Hu-
mans in Europe: Deconstructing the Aurignacian, Evolu-
Mask
tionary Anthropology, vol. 15 (2006), pp. 167182.
Mobiles [19] de Laet, Sigfried J. (1994). History of Humanity: Prehis-
Monumental sculpture tory and the beginnings of civilization. UNESCO. p. 211.

[20] Cook, J. (2013) Ice Age art: arrival of the modern mind,
Origami
The British Museum, ISBN 978-0714123332
Plaster cast [21] Sandars, 816, 2931
Wax sculpture [22] Hahn, Joachim, Prehistoric Europe, II: Palaeolithic 3.
Portable art in Oxford Art Online, accessed August 24,
Welded sculpture 2012; Sandars, 3740

[23] Kleiner, Fred (2009). Gardners Art through the Ages: The
Western Perspective, Volume 1. p. 36.
10 Notes
[24] Sandars, 7580
[1]
[25] Sandars, 253257, 183185
[2] Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity
September 2007 to January 2008, The Arthur M. Sackler [26] Frankfort, 2437
Museum [27] Frankfort, 4559
[3] See for example Martin Robertson, A shorter history of [28] Frankfort, 6166
Greek art, p. 9, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN
978-0-521-28084-6 [29] Frankfort, Chapters 25

[4] NGA, Washington feature on exhibition. [30] Frankfort, 110112

 57

[31] Frankfort, 6674 [65] Calkins, 7980; 90102

[32] Frankfort, 7173 [66] Calkins, 107114

[33] Frankfort, 6674; 167 [67] Calkins, 115132

[34] Frankfort, 141193 [68] Honour and Fleming, 297300; Henderson, 55, 82-84

[35] Smith, 33 [69] Olson, 1124; Honour and Fleming, 304; Henderson, 41

[36] Smith, 1213 and note 17 [70] Snyder, 65-69

[37] Smith, 2124 [71] Snyder, 305-311

[38] Smith, 170178; 192194 [72] V&A Museum feature on the Nottingham alabaster
Swansea Altarpiece
[39] Smith, 102103; 133134
[73] Calkins, 193-198
[40] Smith, 45; 208209
[74] Cherry, 25-48; Henderson, 134-141
[41] Smith, 8990
[75] Olson, 4146, 6263
[42] images of Getty Villa 85.AA.103
[76] Olson, 4552, and see index
[43] Cook, 72, 85109; Boardman, 4759
[77] Olson, 114118, 149150
[44] Cook, 109119; Boardman, 8795
[78] Olson, 149150
[45] Lapatin, Kenneth D. S., Phidias, Oxford Art Online, ac-
cessed August 24, 2012 [79] Olson, 103110, 131132

[46] Cook, 119131 [80] Olson, Chapter 8, 179181

[47] Cook, 131141 [81] Olson, 179182

[48] Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. xiii. [82] Olson, 183187
Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9
[83] Olson, 182183
[49] Cook, 142156
[84] Olson, 194202
[50] Cook, 142154
[85] Boucher, 134-142 on the Cornaro chapel; see index for
[51] Cook, 155158 Bernini generally

[52] Strong, 5863; Hennig, 66-69 [86] Boucher, 1618

[53] Hennig, 24 [87] Honour and Fleming, 450

[54] Henig, 6669; Strong, 3639, 48; At the trial of Verres, [88] Honour and Fleming, 460-467
former governor of Sicily, Cicero's prosecution details his
[89] Boardman, 370378; Harle, 7184
depredations of art collections at great length.
[90] Boardman, 370378; Sickman, 8590; Paine, 2930
[55] Henig, 2324
[91] Rawson, Chapter 1, 135136
[56] Henig, 6671
[92] Rawson, 138-138
[57] Henig, 7382;Strong, 4852, 8083, 108117, 128132,
141159, 177182, 197211 [93] Rawson, 135145; 145163
[58] Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303315 [94] Rawson, 163165

[59] Henig, Chapter 8 [95] Rawson, Chapters 4 and 6

[60] Strong, 171176, 211214 [96] Rawson, 135

[61] Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1; [97] Middle Jomon Sub-Period, Niigata Prefectural Museum
Strong, 250257, 264266, 272280 of History, accessed August 15, 2012

[62] Strong, 287291, 305308, 315318; Henig, 234240 [98] Paine & Soper, 3031

[63] Robinson, 12, 15 [99] Paine & Soper, 121

[64] Dodwell, Chapter 2 [100] Harle, 1720

 58
[101] Harle, 2224
[102] Harle, 2638
[103] Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the period
[104] Harle, 124
[105] Harle, 301-310, 325-327
[106] Harle, 276284
[107] Honour & Fleming, 196200
[108] Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 26-27, 33-37
[109] Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 33-37
[110] Honour & Fleming, 557
[111] Honour & Fleming, 559561
[112] Honour & Fleming, 556561
[113] Castedo, Leopoldo, A History of Latin American Art and
architecture, Frederick A. Praeger, Publisher, New York,
1969
[114] Honour & Fleming, 553556
[115] Neumeyer, Alfred, The Indian Contribution to Architec-
tural Decoration in Spanish Colonial America. The Art
Bulletin, June 1948, Volume XXX, Number two
[116] Elsen, Albert E. (2003). Rodins Art: The Rodin Col-
lection of the Iris & Gerald B. Cantor Center for the Vi-
sual Arts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
513381-1.
[117] Rodin to Now: Modern Sculpture, Palm Springs Desert
Museum
[118] Curtis, Penelpoe, Taking Positions: Figurative Sculpture
and the Third Reich, Henry Moore Institute, London,
2002
[119] Visual arts in the 20th century, Author Edward Lucie-
Smith, Edition illustrated, Publisher Harry N. Abrams,
1997,Original from the University of Michigan, ISBN
978-0-8109-3934-9
[120] The Oxford dictionary of American art and artists, Au-
thor Ann Lee Morgan, Publisher Oxford University Press,
2007,Original from the University of Michigan,ISBN 0-
19-512878-8, ISBN 978-0-19-512878-9
[121] National Air and Space Museum Receives Ascent
Sculpture for display at Udvar-Hazy Center
[122] NY Times, Umbrella Crushes Woman
[123] Guggenheim museum
[124] Dia Foundation
[125] Art Army by Michael Leavitt, hypediss.com, December
13, 2006.
[126] BBC: Barbara Hepworth sculpture stolen from Dulwich
Park, 20 December 2011. Example of theft of large
bronze sculpture for the value of the metal.
11 REFERENCES
11 References
Boucher, Bruce, Italian Baroque Sculpture,
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0500203075
Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 14501660,
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Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classi-
cal Art, 1993, OUP, ISBN 0198143869
Burnett, Andrew, Coins; Interpreting the Past, Uni-
versity of California/British Museum, 1991, ISBN
0520076281
Calkins, Robert G.; Monuments of Medieval Art,
Dutton, 1979, ISBN 0525475613
Cherry, John. The Holy Thorn Reliquary, 2010,
British Museum Press (British Museum objects in
focus), ISBN 0-7141-2820-1
Cook, R.M., Greek Art, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of
1972), ISBN 0140218661
Dodwell, C. R., Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspec-
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12 External links
Sculpture hub at the Victoria and Albert Museum

Essays on sculpture from Sweet Briar College, De-

partment of Art History

International Sculpture Center

Stone Carvers Guild of America (ocial website).

Sculpture artists listings from the-artists.org

Corning Museum of Glass

Weird, Wonderful Modern Sculptures, a slideshow

by Life magazine
60 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

Sculpture Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture?oldid=766394163 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, Kpjas,

MichaelTinkler, Zundark, Koyaanis Qatsi, 0, Andre Engels, XJaM, Rmhermen, William Avery, SimonP, Merphant, Daniel C. Boyer,
Heron, Montrealais, Sfdan, Branko, Olivier, Edward, Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Palnatoke, SGBailey, Theanthrope, Arp-
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Focus mankind~enwiki, BRG, Denny, Genie, Nikola Smolenski, Norwikian, Hike395, Emperorbma, Guaka, Tpbradbury, Imc, Hyacinth,
Rei, Philopp, Warofdreams, Jusjih, Camerong, Jamesday, Adam Carr, UninvitedCompany, Dimadick, Paul W, Robbot, AlainV, Pig-
sonthewing, Altenmann, Naddy, Modulatum, Rajivshetty, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Rursus, Sheridan, Hadal, Borislav, Mush-
room, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Barbara Shack, Mat-C, Inter, Fudoreaper, Kenny sh, Zigger, Marcika, Wouterhagens, Ssd, Leonard G.,
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Karl Dickman, Bluemask, Ryuu, Alkivar, Moverton, Discospinster, Helohe, Vsmith, Eric Shalov, Notinasnaid, Carptrash, Dbachmann,
Bender235, Kaisershatner, Furius, El C, Art LaPella, Migozared, Thuresson, Prsephone1674, Bobo192, Iamunknown, Jemedke, Virid-
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Rebroad, Dhanak~enwiki, Clubmarx, Evil Monkey, Du, BDD, Versageek, Mnd, Johntex, Brookie, Postrach, Fontgirl, Feezo, Roylee,
Vashti, Woohookitty, Holdspa, Kosher Fan, Pol098, JeremyA, Mandarax, DavidPartt, Graham87, Sparkit, Jalada, BD2412, Opie, Me-
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Efrarodz, RussBot, Splash, Manop, David Woodward, Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, Royalbroil, Veledan, Grafen, Welsh, U1825,
Howcheng, Aaron Brenneman, Nucleusboy, Nephron, Vastu, BOT-Superzerocool, CLW, 1717, Deepak~enwiki, Wames, Wknight94,
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Persept, Paganpan, Roke, DVD R W, That Guy, From That Show!, Yvwv, Attilios, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Derek Andrews,
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eye, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Skookum1, Fplay, Mountshang, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Rosemania, RayAYang, TheLeopard, CSWarren,
Colonies Chris, Florian Adler, Ulises Sarry~enwiki, Smallbones, Frap, Chlewbot, Ahudson, OrphanBot, Yidisheryid, TKD, TedE, Jon Aw-
brey, EdGl, BinaryTed, Maelnuneb, Zzorse, Bejnar, Pekiro, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Askorahn, Mathboy965, Michael Bednarek,
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Larry R. Holmgren, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Technopat, Ridernyc, Karmos, Blunjean, SeattleChronic, Sankalpdravid, Beyond silence,
Yilloslime, GustavOlafson~enwiki, Seb az86556, BotKung, Jeremy Bolwell, Maxim, Mazarin07, Uannis~enwiki, Orestek, OhMyDeer,
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dinformation, Lindamulder, Abrech, Vkutah, X1MAN1x, Tnxman307, Redthoreau, Dekisugi, Rerter 2, SchreiberBike, Theramin, Crusty
7, Aitias, Rossen4, Nathann sc, Design Glass, XLinkBot, Puneetminda, Stickee, P30Carl, MystBot, Balalajka~enwiki, Deineka, Addbot,
Lithoderm, Piesoul, Granado granado~enwiki, Oureort, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, CarsracBot, OsBlink, VASANTH S.N., Tide
rolls, Jafd88, 123dylan456, Albert galiza, Angrysockhop, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Taxisfolder, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?,
MacTire02, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Adamengland, Maxis ftw, GB fan, Elena25gheorghe,
LilHelpa, Xqbot, Luggnagg, TinucherianBot II, SLIMHANNYA, Capricorn42, Research Method, Moostyrio, 4twenty42o, Wikishwki,
Kak Language, Timmyshin, 3Dwiki, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Sionk, J04n, GrouchoBot, Sabrebd, Lna, GhalyBot, Moxy, Glic16,
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Enki H., OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Ganyisto, Pinethicket, Hard Sin, Alonso de Mendoza, Serols, Fumitol, SergeWoodzing, Art&concepts,
Jauhienij, Kostius, Robvanvee, FoxBot, Russianh, Notpietru, DrDouglasLewis FAAR, Theo10011, Germantas, Jerd10, Canuckian89,
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vanniVegaz, Coolbeans53, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Brendan Jamison, Sophie, Kronberger4, Look2See1, Dewritech,
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Princessbiba, Sbblr geervaanee, Daytonarolexboston, Bigstatues, DPL bot, Snow Blizzard, Rttavi, Davidfurchgott, Squeamish Ossifrage,
Vvven, David.moreno72, Mogenskbh, Anaartfan, Pumsy, ChrisGualtieri, Mesoamerican, Pho-logic, Khazar2, Jeanelle82, Kiransubbaiah,
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KlaasZ4usV, Srednuas Lenoroc, Anddme, Csldigicol, Starwars az, GOVI13143, Torihamilton16, Www.ibn.live, Steel sculpture, Invisible
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13.2 Images 61

13.2 Images
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Pa-Akh-Ra_CdM.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a href='https:
//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
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/></a>
File:Bodhisattva_Guanyin_from_Nantoys_Collection.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/25/Bodhisattva_
Guanyin_from_Nantoy%C5%8Ds%C5%8D_Collection.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:
Own work
Original artist:
Iwanash (talk) (Uploads)
File:Bouddha_Hadda_Guimet_181171.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Bouddha_Hadda_Guimet_
181171.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vassil
File:Braunschweiger_Loewe_Original_Brunswick_Lion.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/
Braunschweiger_Loewe_Original_Brunswick_Lion.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Brunswyk
File:BroncoBusterRemingtonSculpture.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/
BroncoBusterRemingtonSculpture.png License: Public domain Contributors: National Archives and Records Administration, ac-
cording to enwiki en:Image:BroncoBusterRemingtonSculpture.gif Original artist: Frederic Remington
File:Bronze_Statuette_of_a_Horse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Bronze_Statuette_of_a_Horse.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Bronze Statuette of a Horse Original artist: Claire H.
File:Buddha_from_Sarnath.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Buddha_from_Sarnath.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: The Buddha from Flickr Original artist: dr.jd
File:Buddhaimage7.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Buddhaimage7.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Common Good using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Adam Carr at English
Wikipedia
File:Byzantine_ivory_801.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Byzantine_ivory_801.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Michel wal (travail personnel (own work)) Original artist: ?
File:CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_bronze_cowrie_container.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/e/e9/CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_bronze_cowrie_container.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Editor at Large
File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Boeddhabeeld_van_de_Borobudur_voorstellende_Dhyani_Boeddha_Vairocana_
TMnr_60048721.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_
Boeddhabeeld_van_de_Borobudur_voorstellende_Dhyani_Boeddha_Vairocana_TMnr_60048721.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Tropenmuseum Original artist: Oudheidkundige Dienst (Fotostudio). niet bekend / unknown (Fotograaf/photographer).
File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Relif_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_20025652.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Reli%C3%ABf_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_20025652.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Tropenmuseum Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
13.2 Images 63

File:COMMODE_HERCULE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/COMMODE_HERCULE.jpg Li-

cense: CC0 Contributors: wikimedia commons Original artist: Jofrey Rudel Marie-Lan Nguyen (Jastrow)
File:Cambogia,_visnu,_dintorni_di_prasat_rup_arak,_stile_din_kulen,_800-875_ca._02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Cambogia%2C_visnu%2C_dintorni_di_prasat_rup_arak%2C_stile_din_kulen%2C_800-875_ca._02.JPG
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko
File:Cantoria_Della_Robbia_OPA_Florence_6.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Cantoria_Della_
Robbia_OPA_Florence_6.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow, own picture Original artist: Luca della Robbia (Italian, 1400
1482)
File:Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/
Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: cropped from File:Capitoline Brutus Musei
Capitolini MC1183 01.jpg Original artist: User:MatthiasKabel
File:Caro_1974.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Caro_1974.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contribu-
tors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. Talmoryair assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Cathedral_of_Ourense_(Spain).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Cathedral_of_Ourense_
%28Spain%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Cathedral of Ourense (Spain) Original artist: Victor
Hermida Prada
File:Chartres2006_077.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Chartres2006_077.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Urban
File:Chartres_cathedral_023_martyrs_S_TTaylor.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Chartres_
cathedral_023_martyrs_S_TTaylor.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: photo TTaylor, 2005 Original artist: Medieval sculptor
File:Chihuly_glass_in_boat,_morning,_Palm_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_297500.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/08/Chihuly_glass_in_boat%2C_morning%2C_Palm_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_297500.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Eric Baker
File:China_-_Beijing_12_-_lion_outside_the_Tibetan_Monastery_(134036069).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/e/e8/China_-_Beijing_12_-_lion_outside_the_Tibetan_Monastery_%28134036069%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: China - Beijing 12 - lion outside the Tibetan Monastery Original artist: McKay Savage from London, UK
File:China_Pferd_und_Pferdeknecht_Linden-Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/China_
Pferd_und_Pferdeknecht_Linden-Museum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:KarlHeinrich
File:Chinese_-_Cup_with_Dragon_Handles_-_Walters_42250_-_Profile.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/d/dc/Chinese_-_Cup_with_Dragon_Handles_-_Walters_42250_-_Profile.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-
height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/19316' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (China)
File:Chinese_tomb_guardian_300_BC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Chinese_tomb_guardian_
300_BC.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Sean Pathasema/Birmingham Museum of Art Original artist: ?
File:Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Helen Cook
File:Claudius_Pio-Clementino_Inv243.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Claudius_
Pio-Clementino_Inv243.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2003) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Column,_Sanchi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Column%2C_Sanchi.jpg License: GFDL
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yann (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Yann' title='User talk:Yann'>talk</a>)
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Constantin_Brancusi,_Portrait_of_Mlle_Pogany,_1912,_Philadelphia_Museum_of_Modern_Art,_Philadelphia.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/39/Constantin_Brancusi%2C_Portrait_of_Mlle_Pogany%2C_1912%2C_
Philadelphia_Museum_of_Modern_Art%2C_Philadelphia.jpg License: PD-US Contributors:
Source: Philadelphia Museum of Art Original artist:
Constantin Brancusi
File:Cylinder_seal_lions_Louvre_MNB1167.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Cylinder_
seal_lions_Louvre_MNB1167.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
64 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Dafuo2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Dafuo2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own

work Fanghongs photo. Original artist: Taken by Fanghong
File:Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Dagger_
horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Dancer_and_Gazelles.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Dancer_and_Gazelles.JPG License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Paul Manship Original artist: AgnosticPreachersKid
File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Dancing_Girl_of_
Mohenjo-daro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Joe Ravi
File:Decorate_palace.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Decorate_palace.jpg License: CC BY 2.5
Contributors: Own work Original artist: ?
File:Degas-dancer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Degas-dancer.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Flickr description page Original artist: Bruin from Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
File:Demetrius_I_MET_coin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Demetrius_I_MET_coin.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, photographes at the MET Original artist: Uploadalt
File:Detalle_crucificado_Lujn_Prez,_1793.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Detalle_
crucificado_Luj%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez%2C_1793.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jafd88
File:Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Ricardo Andr Frantz (User:Tetraktys), 2006 - crop of File:Devries-mercurio&psique5b.jpg Original artist:
Adriaen de Vries (1556-1626)
File:Dijon_mosesbrunnen4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Dijon_mosesbrunnen4.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: simonsara
File:Dogu_Miyagi_1000_BCE_400_BCE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Dogu_Miyagi_1000_
BCE_400_BCE.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, photographed at Ueno Museum Tokyo Original artist: World Imaging
File:Dona_i_Ocell.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Dona_i_Ocell.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:DonaldJudd_IMJ.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Donald%D6%B9Judd_IMJ.JPG License:
GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Talmoryair
File:Double_Headed_Turquoise_Serpent.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Double_Headed_
Turquoise_Serpent.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Sara Branch from Cymru / Wales (Turquoise mosaic of a double-headed serpent)
Original artist: ?
File:Dying_gaul.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
[1] Original artist: antmoose
File:Dying_slave_Louvre_MR_1590.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Dying_slave_Louvre_MR_
1590.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2007) Original artist: Michelangelo Buenarroti (1475-1564)
File:Egypte_louvre_066.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Egypte_louvre_066.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Guillaume Blanchard, Own work, July 2004, Fujilm S6900 Original artist: ?
File:Elephanta_tourists.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Elephanta_tourists.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as IMG_8633 Original artist: Paul Morrison
File:Ellora_cave16_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Ellora_cave16_001.jpg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: http://pipimaru.dyndns.org/india_2004/index.html Original artist: Y.Shishido
File:English_-_Resurrection_-_Walters_27308.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/English_-_
Resurrection_-_Walters_27308.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_
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folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-height='128' /></a>
Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/1198' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (England)
File:Eros@Piccadilly.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Eros%40Piccadilly.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain Original artist: Eriko Nakagawa
File:Exhibit_Archaeologycal_Museum_Athens.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Exhibit_
Archaeologycal_Museum_Athens.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Svilen Enev
File:Firenze.PalVecchio.Donatello.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Firenze.PalVecchio.
Donatello.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
13.2 Images 65

File:Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Florence_-_David_by_

Donatello.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Florence - David by Donatello Original artist: Patrick
A. Rodgers
File:Fontainebleau_escalier_roi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Fontainebleau_escalier_roi.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Urban~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Francesco_Laurana_pushkin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Francesco_Laurana_pushkin.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:shakko
File:Franz_Anton_Bustelli_Liebesgruppe_1756-4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Franz_Anton_
Bustelli_Liebesgruppe_1756-4.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rufus46
File:Fregio_della_gigantomachia_02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Fregio_della_
gigantomachia_02.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko
File:French_-_Casket_with_Scenes_of_Romances_-_Walters_71264_-_Top.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/51/French_-_Casket_with_Scenes_of_Romances_-_Walters_71264_-_Top.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-
height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/5780' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (France)
File:Fronton_Guimet_240907_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Fronton_Guimet_240907_3.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vassil
File:Funerary_Urn_from_Oaxaca.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Funerary_Urn_from_Oaxaca.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Madman2001 assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:GBA1(trimmed).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9d/GBA1%28trimmed%29.jpg License: PD Contribu-
tors:
Released in the Public Domain by UNESCO[1], allowed for unrestricted use according to image caption in [2] Original artist: ?
File:GD-EG-Caire-Muse120.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%
A9e120.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:GandharaDonorFrieze2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/GandharaDonorFrieze2.JPG Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.
jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ganjin_wajyo_portrait.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Ganjin_wajyo_portrait.JPG License:
Public domain Contributors: Collected papers on Tshdai-ji temple, KUWANA BUNSEIDO Books., 1949-02-20, KYOTO, Japan Orig-
inal artist: OGAWA SEIYOU(1894-1960) a famous photographer in Japan}
File:Gaston_lachaise_floating_figure.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Gaston_lachaise_floating_
figure.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Creator:Gaston Lachaise
upload by Ctzart at en.wikipedia
File:George_Rickey_Ri10.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/George_Rickey_Ri10.gif License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Originally from de.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Hans Bug
File:George_Segal_Street_Crossing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b6/George_Segal_Street_Crossing.jpg
License: Fair use Contributors:
Own work
Original artist:
image: Beyond My Ken (talk)
sculpture: George Segal (public art, on permanent display in a publicly-owned university)
File:Gerokreuz_detail_20050903.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Gerokreuz_detail_20050903.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Elya assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Elya assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Ghiberti-porta.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Ghiberti-porta.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: taken by Ricardo Andr Frantz Original artist: Ricardo Andr Frantz (User:Tetraktys)
File:Giambologna_raptodasabina.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Giambologna_raptodasabina.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: taken by Ricardo Andr Frantz Original artist: Ricardo Andr Frantz (User:Tetraktys)
File:Gold_monster.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Gold_monster.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: jesse
66 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Goulandris_Master_-_Cycladic_Female_Figurine_-_Walters_23253.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/3/3d/Goulandris_Master_-_Cycladic_Female_Figurine_-_Walters_23253.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-
height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/31097' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Goulandris Master
File:Great_Cameo_of_France_CdM_Paris_Bab264_white_background.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/f/f8/Great_Cameo_of_France_CdM_Paris_Bab264_white_background.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Janmad on
basis of the picture by Jastrow Image:Great Cameo of France CdM Paris Bab264 n1.jpg Original artist: ?
File:Guanyin_00.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Guanyin_00.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia by SreeBot Original artist: Uploaded by Whipsandchains at en.wikipedia
File:Guennol_Lioness.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Guennol_Lioness.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.plantsciences.ucdavis.edu/plantsciences_Faculty/Bloom/CAMEL/economics.html Original artist: Un-
known sculptor
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Public domain Contributors: en:Image:Harvestermountainlord.jpg Original artist: en:User:Maunus
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figurine_Spedos_Louvre_Ma2709.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:HenryMoore_RecliningFigure_1951.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/HenryMoore_
RecliningFigure_1951.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Prassitele%2C_at_Olimpia%2C_front.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 it Contributors: Own work Original artist: Roccuz [1]
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treurende_ouderpaar_-_K%C3%A4the_Kolwitz.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: self
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jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Johnbod
File:Horyu-ji14s3200.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Horyu-ji14s3200.jpg License: CC BY 2.5
Contributors: Own work Original artist: 663highland
File:Houdon_-_Benjamin_Franklin_(1778)_ArM.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Houdon_-_
Benjamin_Franklin_%281778%29_ArM.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original upload to the English Wikipedia by User:
Dlz28, on 18 August 2007, 7:42 p.m. under the same licence as below. Original artist: Jean-Antoine Houdon (17411828)
File:Humanneeddesire.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8b/Humanneeddesire.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/eschipul/431902450/ Original artist:
by eschipul
File:Ife_sculpture_Inv.A96-1-4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Ife_sculpture_Inv.A96-1-4.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell'antichit_08_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell%27antichit%C3%
A0_08_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Italia_del_sud,_due_statuette_femminili_dolenti,_350-300_ac._ca.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/f/fd/Italia_del_sud%2C_due_statuette_femminili_dolenti%2C_350-300_ac._ca.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
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File:Izumiya_Tomotada_-_Netsuke_in_the_Form_of_a_Dog_-_Walters_711020_-_Three_Quarter.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Izumiya_Tomotada_-_Netsuke_in_the_Form_of_a_Dog_-_Walters_
711020_-_Three_Quarter.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
13.2 Images 67

srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-height='128' /></a>
Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/19969' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Izumiya Tomotada (Japanese, active late 18th century)
File:JacobEpstein_DayAndNight.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/JacobEpstein_DayAndNight.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Jacques_Lipchitz,_Birth_of_the_Muses_(1944-1950),_MIT_Campus.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/99/Jacques_Lipchitz%2C_Birth_of_the_Muses_%281944-1950%29%2C_MIT_Campus.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Common Good using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Daderot at English
Wikipedia
File:Jaina_Island_type_figure,_Art_Institute.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Jaina_Island_type_
figure%2C_Art_Institute.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Madman2001
File:Jan_tursa_-_Ped_koupel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Jan_%C5%A0tursa_-_P%C5%
99ed_koupel%C3%AD.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://osobnosti.profitux.cz/?typ=galerie&od=ss&os=173 Original artist:
Jan tursa
File:Jaso_e_o_Velo_de_ouro_-_Bertel_Thorvaldsen_-_1803.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/
Jas%C3%A3o_e_o_Velo_de_ouro_-_Bertel_Thorvaldsen_-_1803.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:ThorvaldsensJason.
jpg Original artist: Bertel Thorvaldsen
File:Jean-baptiste_carpeaux,_ugolino_and_his_sons,_1857-60.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/
0d/Jean-baptiste_carpeaux%2C_ugolino_and_his_sons%2C_1857-60.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original
artist: sailko
File:Jeanne_d'Arc_Franois_Rude.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Jeanne_d%27Arc_Fran%
C3%A7ois_Rude.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Mnasiri7 photo: Mansour Nasiri Original artist: Franois Rude (French,
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File:Jocho-Buddha150.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cc/Jocho-Buddha150.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:John_Chamberlain_at_the_Hirshhorn.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/77/John_Chamberlain_at_the_
Hirshhorn.jpg License: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:
Image I took for Wikipedia
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tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Joseph_Csaky,_Tte,_ca_1920_(front_and_side_view)_limestone,_60_cm,_Krller-Mller_Museum,_Otterlo,_Holland.
tiff Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cd/Joseph_Csaky%2C_T%C3%AAte%2C_ca_1920_%28front_and_side_
view%29_limestone%2C_60_cm%2C_Kr%C3%B6ller-M%C3%BCller_Museum%2C_Otterlo%2C_Holland.tiff License: PD-US
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cense: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as National Museum of Anthropology Original artist: Jami Dwyer
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cense: Copyrighted free use Contributors: http://www.egyptarchive.co.uk/html/cairo_museum_24.html Original artist: Jon Bodsworth
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68 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Edited version of (cloned object out of
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BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Gaya
File:Miyasaka_Hakuryu_II_-_Tigress_with_Two_Cubs_-_Walters_71909.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/8c/Miyasaka_Hakuryu_II_-_Tigress_with_Two_Cubs_-_Walters_71909.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-
height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/6305' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-
le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Miyasaka Hakuryu II (Japanese, active mid 19th
century)
File:Moche_portrait_ceramic_Quai_Branly_71.1930.19.162_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/
Moche_portrait_ceramic_Quai_Branly_71.1930.19.162_n2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Patrick.charpiat, Own work, 2009-03
Original artist: ?
File:Modis2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Modis2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Moore_ThreePieceRecliningFigureNo1_1961.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Moore_
ThreePieceRecliningFigureNo1_1961.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Moses_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Moses_San_Pietro_in_
Vincoli.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Prasenberg (transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Leoboudv using
CommonsHelper). Original artist: Michelangelo
13.2 Images 69

File:Mountrushmore.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Mountrushmore.jpg License: Public domain

Contributors: ? Original artist: The original uploader was Sfmontyo at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Fuelbottle,
Brimstone86 at en.wikipedia.
File:Mois.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Mo%C3%A1is.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: This le was derived from Moai Rano raraku.jpg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg'
class='image'><img alt='Moai Rano raraku.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_Rano_raraku.
jpg/50px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg' width='50' height='67' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_
Rano_raraku.jpg/75px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_Rano_raraku.
jpg/100px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg 2x' data-le-width='1944' data-le-height='2592' /></a>
Original artist: Aurbina
File:Mschatta-Fassade_(Pergamonmuseum).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Mschatta-Fassade_
%28Pergamonmuseum%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raimond Spekking
File:Museo_archeologico_di_Firenze,_coperchio_di_sepolcro_muliebre_da_Tuscania,_terracotta_con_tracce_di_policromia_
III_sec._d.c.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Museo_archeologico_di_Firenze%2C_coperchio_di_
sepolcro_muliebre_da_Tuscania%2C_terracotta_con_tracce_di_policromia_III_sec._d.c.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Sailko
File:Muse_des_Beaux-Arts_de_Dijon_-_Louis_XIV_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Mus%
C3%A9e_des_Beaux-Arts_de_Dijon_-_Louis_XIV_1.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: This photo was taken by Eusebius (Guil-
laume Piolle).
Original artist: Antoine Coysevox
File:Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG Li-
cense: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryndor
File:NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Narmer_Palette,_Egypt,_c._3100_BC_-_Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_DSC09726.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/2/20/Narmer_Palette%2C_Egypt%2C_c._3100_BC_-_Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_DSC09726.JPG License: CC0
Contributors: Daderot Original artist: Daderot
File:NatarajaMET.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/NatarajaMET.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5
Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here
Original artist: User Kaysov on en.wikipedia
File:Natarajartemple1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Natarajartemple1.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: Lakshmanan (talk)
File:National_gallery_in_washington_d.c.,_pisanello,_medaglia_di_giovanni_di_bisanzio_recto.JPG Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/National_gallery_in_washington_d.c.%2C_pisanello%2C_medaglia_di_giovanni_di_
bisanzio_recto.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work (my camera) Original artist: sailko
File:Nike_of_Samothrake_Louvre_Ma2369_n4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Nike_of_
Samothrake_Louvre_Ma2369_n4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2007) Original artist: ?
File:Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Philip Pikart
File:Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Nok_sculpture_
Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marie-Lan Nguyen
File:Norwid_Relief.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Norwid_Relief.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Nswag,_dinastia_han,figurina_dipinta_di_danzatrice.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/
Nswag%2C_dinastia_han%2Cfigurina_dipinta_di_danzatrice.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko
File:Otto_Gutfreund_(Cellista).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Otto_Gutfreund_%28Cellista%
29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: located in Kampa Museum, own photo Original artist: Diligent
File:Palenque_Relief.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Palenque_Relief.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Panel_
hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2006) Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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File:Paul_Gauguin,_1894,_Oviri_(Sauvage),_partially_glazed_stoneware,_75_x_19_x_27_cm,_Muse_d'Orsay,_Paris.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Paul_Gauguin%2C_1894%2C_Oviri_%28Sauvage%29%2C_partially_
glazed_stoneware%2C_75_x_19_x_27_cm%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay%2C_Paris.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Coldcreation photographed this sculpture by Paul Gauguin at the Muse d'Orsay, Paris, 17 April 2013 Original artist: Paul Gauguin, Oviri,
photograph by Alex Mittelmann, aka, Coldcreation
File:Persee-florence.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Persee-florence.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Perseus_Andromeda_Puget_Louvre_MR2076.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Perseus_
Andromeda_Puget_Louvre_MR2076.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: English: Pierre Puget
(French, 16201694), with the help of Christophe Veyrier
70 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:PharroAndArdoxsho.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/PharroAndArdoxsho.jpg

License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Piet_Naumburg_Cathedral_01a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Piet%C3%A0_Naumburg_
Cathedral_01a.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Piet Naumburg Cathedral.jpg: <a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piet%C3%A0_Naumburg_Cathedral.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Piet Naumburg Cathe-
dral.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Piet%C3%A0_Naumburg_Cathedral.jpg/50px-Piet%C3%
A0_Naumburg_Cathedral.jpg' width='50' height='75' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Piet%C3%
A0_Naumburg_Cathedral.jpg/75px-Piet%C3%A0_Naumburg_Cathedral.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/8/8d/Piet%C3%A0_Naumburg_Cathedral.jpg/100px-Piet%C3%A0_Naumburg_Cathedral.jpg 2x' data-le-width='2848' data-
le-height='4288' /></a>
Original artist: Piet_Naumburg_Cathedral.jpg: Unknown sculptor of the 14th century. Foto by Mar del Sur
File:Pisa-Opera_del_Duomo-Grifone_islamico000.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Pisa-Opera_
del_Duomo-Grifone_islamico000.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Memorato
File:Pisa.Baptistery.pulpit02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Pisa.Baptistery.pulpit02.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No
machine-readable author provided. JoJan assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Pollution_-_Damaged_
by_acid_rain.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nino Barbieri
File:PoseidonGandhara.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/PoseidonGandhara.JPG License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No
machine-readable author provided. World Imaging assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Prajnaparamita_Java_Side_Detail.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Prajnaparamita_Java_
Side_Detail.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gunawan Kartapranata
File:Psych.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Psych%C3%A9.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Eric Pouhier (May 2007) Original artist: Antonio Canova (Italian, 17571822)
File:Public_contemporary-light-art-sculpture-manfred-kielnhofer-illumination.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/33/Public_contemporary-light-art-sculpture-manfred-kielnhofer-illumination.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Manfred Kielnhofer Original artist: Manfred Kielnhofer
File:Queen_Mother_Pendant_Mask-_Iyoba_MET_DP231460.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/
Queen_Mother_Pendant_Mask-_Iyoba_MET_DP231460.jpg License: CC0 Contributors:
http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/318622
Original artist: Edo people
File:Rachel_whitereadwien_holocaust_mahnmal_wien_judenplatz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
2/26/Rachel_whitereadwien_holocaust_mahnmal_wien_judenplatz.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Refugees_medal_DSCF9937.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Refugees_medal_DSCF9937.
JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Johnbod
File:Reggio_calabria_museo_nazionale_bronzi_di_riace.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/
Reggio_calabria_museo_nazionale_bronzi_di_riace.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Me
File:Reims6.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Reims6.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Foto
Original artist: ?
File:Remojadas_-_Lachendes_Gesicht_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Remojadas_-_
Lachendes_Gesicht_1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wolfgang Sauber
File:Renier_de_Huy_JPG0.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Renier_de_Huy_JPG0.jpg License:
CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jean-Pol GRANDMONT
File:RichardSerra_Fulcrum2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/RichardSerra_Fulcrum2.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: en:User:Solipsist (Andrew Dunn) Original artist: Andrew Dunn
File:Robert_Gould_Shaw_Memorial_-_detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Robert_Gould_
Shaw_Memorial_-_detail.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jarek Tuszyski
File:Rome-Basilique_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli-Moise_MichelAnge.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/
d0/Rome-Basilique_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli-Moise_MichelAnge.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jean-
Christophe BENOIST
File:Rothenburg_ob_der_Tauber_2011_St_Jakob_002.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/
Rothenburg_ob_der_Tauber_2011_St_Jakob_002.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tilman2007
File:SMITH_CUBI_VI.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/SMITH_CUBI_VI.JPG License: Public
domain Contributors: Talmoryair (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Talmoryair' title='User talk:Talmoryair'>talk</a>)
Original artist: , ,' :1965-1906
File:Saint_Remigius_binding_Medieval_Picardie_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/
Saint_Remigius_binding_Medieval_Picardie_Museum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Saint_Remigius_binding_Medieval_Picardie_Museum.png Original artist: Saint_Remigius_binding_Medieval_Picardie_Museum.png:
*Muse_Picardie_Mdival_01.jpg: Vassil
13.2 Images 71

File:Samson_slaying_a_philistine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Samson_slaying_a_philistine.

jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by NotFromUtrecht using CommonsHelper. Orig-
inal artist: The original uploader was VAwebteam at English Wikipedia
File:San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg
License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Maribel Ponce Ixba (frida27ponce)
File:Sculpted_reliefs_depicting_Ashurbanipal,_the_last_great_Assyrian_king,_hunting_lions,_gypsum_hall_relief_
from_the_North_Palace_of_Nineveh_(Irak),_c._645-635_BC,_British_Museum_(16722368932).jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Sculpted_reliefs_depicting_Ashurbanipal%2C_the_last_great_Assyrian_king%
2C_hunting_lions%2C_gypsum_hall_relief_from_the_North_Palace_of_Nineveh_%28Irak%29%2C_c._645-635_BC%2C_British_
Museum_%2816722368932%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Sculpted reliefs depicting Ashurbanipal, the last great Assyrian
king, hunting lions, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace of Nineveh (Irak), c. 645-635 BC, British Museum Original artist: Carole
Raddato from FRANKFURT, Germany
File:Seitaka_Doji_Kongobuji.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Seitaka_Doji_Kongobuji.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Nihon no Chokoku 6 - Kamakura Jidai (Bijutsu Shuppansha 1953) Original artist: et al.
File:Siege_castle_love_Louvre_OA6933.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Siege_castle_
love_Louvre_OA6933.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2007) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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data-le-height='590' /></a> (Paris?)
File:Sleeping_Reindeer_3_2918856445_7d66cc4796_o.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Sleeping_
Reindeer_3_2918856445_7d66cc4796_o.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Herb Neufeld (London - the British Museum) Original
artist: ?
File:Soldier_Horse.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Soldier_Horse.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Robin Chen assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Solvognen_-_Do_2010_1276.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Solvognen_-_Do_2010_1276.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://samlinger.natmus.dk/DO/6780 Original artist: Nationalmuseet, John Lee
File:Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Louis le Grand
File:South_Bank_Circle_by_Richard_Long,_Tate_Liverpool.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/
South_Bank_Circle_by_Richard_Long%2C_Tate_Liverpool.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
Rept0n1x
File:South_metope_27_Parthenon_BM.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/South_metope_27_
Parthenon_BM.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (User:Jastrow), 2007 Original artist: Phidias
File:Speerschleuder_LaMadeleine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Speerschleuder_LaMadeleine.
jpg License: CC BY 3.0 de Contributors: Own work Original artist: Klaus D. Peter, Wiehl, Germany
File:Spider._Guggenheim_Museum,_Bilbao.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Spider.
_Guggenheim_Museum%2C_Bilbao.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Keso
File:Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.
png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Sculpture: Robert Smithson
1938-1973

File:St_James_-Cristo_del_Rey.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/de/St_James_-Cristo_del_Rey.jpg License:

CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
I (Carptrash (talk)) aka Einar E. Kvaran created this work entirely by myself. Original artist:
Carptrash (talk)
File:St_Ninian{}s_Isle_TreasureDSCF6209det.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/St_Ninian%27s_
Isle_TreasureDSCF6209det.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Johnbod
File:Statue-Augustus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Till Niermann
File:Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2011) Original artist: ?
File:Statuette_Mambia_Nigria.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Statuette_Mambia_Nig%C3%
A9ria.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Siren-Com
File:TWUP_Jerusalem_190810_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/TWUP_Jerusalem_190810_1.
JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oren Rozen
File:Taller_Buddha_of_Bamiyan_before_and_after_destruction.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/
51/Taller_Buddha_of_Bamiyan_before_and_after_destruction.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Buddha_Bamiyan_1963.jpg Original artist: Buddha_Bamiyan_1963.jpg: UNESCO/A Lezine; Original uploader was Tsui at de.wikipedia.
File:Tanagra_o_corinto,_figura_di_donna_seduta,_325-150_ac_ca._11.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e4/Tanagra_o_corinto%2C_figura_di_donna_seduta%2C_325-150_ac_ca._11.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Sailko
72 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Teotihuacan-Temple_of_the_Feathered_Serpent-3035.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/

34/Teotihuacan-Temple_of_the_Feathered_Serpent-3035.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as
Teotihaucan-3035 Original artist: jschmeling
File:Teotihuacan_mask_Branly_70-1999-12-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/
Teotihuacan_mask_Branly_70-1999-12-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Teotihuacn_-_Chalchiuhtlicue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Teotihuac%C3%A1n_-_
Chalchiuhtlicue.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wolfgang Sauber
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File:The_Hindu_deity_Vishnu_-_Indian_Art_-_Asian_Art_Museum_of_San_Francisco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/The_Hindu_deity_Vishnu_-_Indian_Art_-_Asian_Art_Museum_of_San_Francisco.jpg License: CC BY-
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inal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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sculpture.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pmoore66; Tony Smith [1]
File:Triptych_Harbaville_Louvre_OA3247_recto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/
Triptych_Harbaville_Louvre_OA3247_recto.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist:
Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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File:Tsuchiya_Yasuchika_-_Tsuba_with_a_Rabbit_Viewing_the_Autumn_Moon_-_Walters_51163.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Tsuchiya_Yasuchika_-_Tsuba_with_a_Rabbit_Viewing_the_Autumn_
Moon_-_Walters_51163.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_
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Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/8881' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Tsuchiya Yasuchika
File:Turquoise_epigraphic_ornament_MBA_Lyon_A1969-333.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/
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2009-02-28 Original artist: ?
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Egyptian_Museum.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, http://bjornfree.com/galleries.html Original artist:
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13.2 Images 73

File:UntitledGoldBox1964.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/UntitledGoldBox1964.jpg License:

Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Ser Amantio di Nicolao
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Contributors:
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File:Venus_de_Milo_Louvre_Ma399_n4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Venus_
de_Milo_Louvre_Ma399_n4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2007) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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File:Vietnam_-_Da_nang_-_Muse_de_la_sculpture_Cham_(5).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/
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cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Gunnar Bach Pedersen
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on Flickr Original artist: Wikipedia Loves Art participant "shooting_brooklyn"
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jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist:
/ -

File:Wei-Maitreya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8b/Wei-Maitreya.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:

? Original artist: ?
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utors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Per Honor et Gloria at en.wikipedia
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SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photo by Mountain
File:Yamada_Chzabur_-_Wind_God_-_Walters_52158.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/
f8/Yamada_Ch%C3%B6zabur%C3%B6_-_Wind_God_-_Walters_52158.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art
Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png'
width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.
svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-height='128'
/></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/2053' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Yamada Chzabur
74 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%82.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dr Ajay
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