Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser

Pro-environmental purchase behaviour: The role of consumers'

biospheric values
The Ninh Nguyen n, Antonio Lobo, Steven Greenland
Swinburne Business School, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a unique model which investigates the effects of consumers' biospheric values on
Received 28 April 2016 their purchase behaviour of energy efcient household appliances. Data were obtained in Vietnam from
Received in revised form 682 shoppers in large electronic appliance stores. The ndings reveals that biospheric values encourage
22 July 2016
active engagement in pro-environmental purchase behaviour by enhancing consumers' attitudes to-
Accepted 19 August 2016
Available online 25 August 2016
wards environmental protection, their subjective norms and environmental self-identity, and by miti-
gating their perceived inconvenience associated with eco-friendly products. Additionally, these ndings
Keywords: were moderated by consumers' past purchase behaviour. The implications for retailers, marketers and
Pro-environmental purchase behaviour other stakeholders are discussed and future research directions presented.
Biospheric values
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Past purchase behaviour

1. Introduction believe that better understanding of the determinants of en-

Climate change risks and impact will increase signicantly over
the next decade (UNEP 2014a), with annual climate change
adaptation costs projected to reach US $300 billion by 2050 (UNEP,
2015). Energy consumption, particularly in relation to carbon di-
oxide emissions, is the major contributor to rising global tem-
peratures and many associated environmental problems (Gardner
and Stern, 2002). The promotion and adoption of lower energy
consuming lifestyles is therefore imperative for environmental
sustainability (Bhate, 2005; Pothitou et al., 2016; UNEP, 2015),
particularly in emerging markets with their faster electricity de-
mand growth rates (UNEP, 2014b). In such low-income countries,
the economic aspirations of billions of inhabitants are often fa-
cilitated by unprecedented levels of energy consumption (Smil,
2013, p. 145).
Growing global public awareness of sustainability issues has
been widely reported in documents about climate change (e.g.
IPCC, 2014; UNEP, 2015), and numerous global initiatives such as
the Efcient Appliances and Equipment Partnership (UNEP, 2014b)
seek to accelerate the transition to more sustainable consumption
behaviour. However, educating consumers about sustainability is
challenging, not least because awareness of and concerns about
environmental issues frequently fail to translate into sustainable
behaviours (Tsarenko, 2013). Olander and Thgersen (1995, p. 345)
n critical review of relevant literature and adopts an integrative
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: theninhnguyen@swin.edu.au (T.N. Nguyen),
alobo@swin.edu.au (A. Lobo), sgreenland@swin.edu.au (S. Greenland).
vironmentally friendly behaviour is a prerequisite for environ-
mental protection, and in this regard research into pro-environ-
mental consumer behaviour has a critical role to play. That is, if the
drivers of sustainable energy consumption behaviour are better
understood, then it should be possible to design more effective
public campaigns that raise awareness of environmental issues
and most importantly translate this awareness into action (i.e.
sustainable consumption).
One avenue of pro-environmental behaviour research that has
received increasing attention concerns biospheric values (e.g. De
Groot et al., 2012; Lee and Jan, 2015; Nilsson et al., 2016; Ruepert
et al., 2016). The biosphere is the thin outer shell of the earth and
the inner layers of its atmosphere; the place where all living sys-
tems are found (Hirsch et al., 2002, p. 526); and biospheric values
are fundamental beliefs that reect concern with the biosphere
(Stern et al., 1993) and emphasise the quality of nature and the
environment independently from the benets it provides for hu-
man beings (Steg and De Groot, 2012). People who endorse bio-
spheric values therefore assign importance to the intrinsic value of
the ecosystem, which translates into a moral imperative to act pro-
environmentally (Stern and Dietz, 1994).
This study makes a major contribution to the body of research
on pro-environmental consumption behaviour by presenting, and
then testing, a new biospheric model of energy efcient electrical
appliance purchase behaviour. This holistic model is based on a
perspective by examining the dynamic relationships between
biospheric values and other inuencers of pro-environmental

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2016.08.010
0969-6989/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 T.N. Nguyen et al. / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108
purchase behaviour. Notably, given the paucity of knowledge re-
lating to pro-environmental behaviour in developing countries
(Ramayah et al., 2010), this study makes further contribution by
focusing on Vietnam. The growing economic signicance of
emerging markets has been widely acknowledged (Greenland and
Kwansah-Aidoo, 2012; Paul et al., 2016), and Vietnam is typical in
this regard with a doubling of carbon dioxide emissions over the
last decade (World Bank, 2016) and energy demands that are es-
timated to triple over the next 10 years (VNEEP, 2012).
2. Literature review and development of conceptual
framework
2.1. Pro-environmental purchase behaviour
Pro-environmental behaviour refers to any action that en-
hances the quality of the environment (Steg et al., 2014, p. 104),
and has received increasing attention from consumer behaviour
scholars, e.g. (Barbarossa and De Pelsmacker, 2016; Chen, 2015;
Griskevicius et al., 2012; Mancha et al., 2015; Parsa et al., 2015;
Tjrnemo and Sdahl, 2015). Stern et al. (1999) categorised pro-
environmental behaviour as belonging to two categories, i.e. public
and private spheres. The public sphere encompasses committed
activism (e.g. working in environmental organisations), good citi-
zenship (e.g. petitioning on environmental issues) and support for
environmental policies (e.g. stated approval of environmental
regulations). Private-sphere behaviour, which is the main focus of
consumer research, consists of the purchase, consumption and
disposal of personal and household products that impact on the
environment (Stern, 1999). Hence the purchase of eco-friendly
products has the most direct positive impact on environmental
problems (Mostafa, 2007).
Pro-environmental purchase behaviour or green consumerism
generally refers to purchasing products that are environmentally
benecial (Mainieri et al., 1997). More specically, Stern (2000)
subdivided such behaviour into two categories according to its
environmental impact during the stages of production and con-
sumption. That is, green consumerism reects purchasing prac-
tices that consider the environmental impact of future production
demand such as buying organic food and recycled products, while
the purchase of major household goods and services such as au-
tomobiles and household appliances tends to have more en-
vironmental impact during the consumption stage (Stern, 2000).
This latter stage of green purchasing has more of a direct impact
on the environment (Olander and Thgersen, 1995; Stern, 2000),
particularly in relation to carbon dioxide emissions and climate
change.
2.2. Key determinants of pro-environmental purchase behaviour
Several pro-environmental behaviour studies have been un-
derpinned by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991),
which have proven effective in predicting sustainable behaviours
such as recycling, using biodegradable packaging, and purchasing
eco-friendly products (e.g., Paul et al., 2016; Stavros et al., 1999;
Tilikidou and Delistavrou, 2014). These TPB-based studies suggest
that consumers are more likely to engage in pro-environmental
behaviour if they believe it provides them with positive con-
sequences (favourable environmental attitudes) and social ap-
proval (subjective norms), together with greater control over
performing the behaviour (perceived behavioural control) (Kala-
fatis et al., 1999). Other pro-environmental consumption beha-
viour studies (e.g. Barbarossa and De Pelsmacker, 2016) have fo-
cused on the latter control dimension and demonstrated that the
perceived inconvenience associated with environmentally friendly
99
product purchases can impact negatively on future purchase
behaviour.
Despite its widespread use, the TPB approach is not without
limitations, with Lindenberg and Steg (2007) arguing that this
theory focuses primarily upon self-interest motives, in that pro-
environmental behaviour is heavily inuenced by the money, time
and effort expended. The TPB therefore fails to adequately ac-
knowledge other signicant determinants of pro-environmental
behaviour, such as personal values and self-identity. Self-identity
inuences pro-environmental behaviour at both generic and be-
haviour-specic levels (Dean et al., 2012; Whitmarsh and O'Neill,
2010). While the former refers to an individual's self-identication
with green consumerism (Gatersleben et al., 2012; Sparks and
Shepherd, 1992), the latter denotes how individuals see them-
selves as someone who performs a specic pro-environmental
behaviour (Van der Werff et al., 2013b), such as recycling (Man-
netti et al., 2004; Nigbur et al., 2010). Essentially, individuals with
strong environmental self-identity tend to act in a pro-environ-
mental manner at both the generic and behaviour-specic levels.
Some other studies extending the TPB suggest moderating ef-
fects of past behaviour on the relationship between behaviour,
intention and their determinants (Dean et al., 2012; Sommer,
2011; Terry et al., 1999). Such moderating effects support the
common argument that past engagement in a behaviour elicits
changes in consumers deliberative processing of information and
heuristic processing of contextual cues relating to that behaviour
(Kidwell and Jewell, 2008; Wood et al., 2005).
Another key area of the growing green consumer literature
concerns the role played by personal values in determining pro-
environmental behaviour (Follows and Jobber, 2000; Soyez, 2012;
Steg and De Groot, 2012; Van der Werff et al., 2013b). Such a nexus
is grounded in the conventional wisdom that values are concepts
or beliefs that serve as standards or criteria for evaluating actions,
people and events (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). Given that pro-
environmental purchase behaviours often involve a conict be-
tween individualcollective gains and short-termlong-term fo-
cuses, consumers will often make decisions based on the values
they personally endorse (Steg et al., 2014). Such values express
motivational and normative qualities that guide the consumer's
mode of conduct. Although several studies have identied a direct
relationship between personal values and the purchase of en-
vironmentally friendly products, most researchers agree that such
values typically inuence green purchasing indirectly (see review
in Steg and De Groot (2012)).
Previous research has produced numerous typologies of per-
sonal values, including the human value theory (Schwartz, 1992,
1994), the environmental value orientations of egoistic, altruistic
and biospheric (Stern et al., 1993), and the ecocentric-anthropo-
centric approach (Thompson and Barton, 1994). Yet there is as no
clear consensus on how these personal values affect different
types of pro-environmental behaviour (Nguyen et al., 2015).
In a recent review of related literature, Steg and De Groot
(2012) emphasised that biospheric values appear to be more ef-
fective predictive determinants of pro-environmental behaviour
than the rest. This suggests there is a need to better understand
how personal values, and more specically biospheric values, drive
pro-environmental behaviour.
2.2.1. Biospheric values and attitudes towards environmental
protection
Consumers with strong adherence to biospheric values are
generally more concerned about the environment (De Groot and
Steg, 2008; Stern, 2000), and place emphasis on how the purchase
of eco-friendly products protects it. Perlaviciute and Steg (2015)
demonstrated that consumers who strongly endorse biospheric
values are more likely to assign more importance to
100 T.N. Nguyen et al. / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108
environmental impact (e.g. effect on greenhouse gas emissions)
when considering the purchase of renewable energy. Furthermore,
an empirical study Soyez (2012) found that German consumers
ecocentric orientation has a positive inuence on their attitudes
towards organic food. It is important to note that ecocentric value
orientation represents the belief that the ecosystem should be
protected solely because it has an intrinsic value (Thompson and
Barton, 1994), and thus it is conceptually similar to biospheric
values.
Based on this literature review, it is suggested in this study that
biospheric values exert indirect inuence on pro-environmental
purchase behaviour through attitudes, subjective norms, perceived
inconvenience and environmental self-identity. Thus based on the
literature review, the following hypothesis has been formulated in
this study:
H1. Consumers biospheric values have a positive inuence on
their attitudes towards environmental protection associated with
pro-environmental purchase behaviour.
2.2.2. Biospheric values and subjective norms
Even though both values and subjective norms are important
determinants of pro-environmental behaviour, the relationship
between these two variables has received only sparse attention
(Nguyen et al., 2015). Notably, Soyez (2012) revealed that eco-
centric value orientation is the main driver of subjective norms
associated with the purchase of organic food in the following four
countries: USA, Canada, German and Australia. That is, individuals
may develop perceived social norms relating to pro-environmental
behaviour because of their concerns for nature itself. In addition,
given that biospheric values often reect prosocial values (Steg
and De Groot, 2012), consumers with strong biospheric values are
also likely to be motivated by social norms. Hence, the following
has been hypothesised in this study:
H2. Consumers biospheric values have a positive inuence on
their subjective norms associated with pro-environmental pur-
chase behaviour.
2.2.3. Biospheric values and perceived inconvenience
In many scenarios, the purchase of eco-friendly products is
associated with consumers perceived inconvenience such as
higher costs, limited choice and time (Lindenberg and Steg, 2007).
That is, most consumers with a strong adherence to biospheric
values place emphasis on environmental quality, they generally
engage in pro-environmental purchase behaviour regardless of
perceived barriers (Steg and De Groot, 2012). For example, a study
by Van der Werff et al. (2013b) revealed that consumers with
strong biospheric values often choose sustainable products even
though they are more expensive. In line with this, Perlaviciute and
Steg (2014, 2015) concluded that consumers who endorse bio-
spheric values downplay negative perceived consequences relating
to renewable energy consumption (e.g. higher price, extra effort)
Hence, the following hypothesis was developed:
H3. Consumers biospheric values have a negative inuence on
their perceived inconvenience associated with pro-environmental
purchase behaviour.
2.2.4. Biospheric values and environmental self-identity
Values have often been viewed as important facets of in-
dividual's self-identity (Rokeach, 1973). Specically, such values
form the core of personal identity, and often lead to behaviour
congruent with that identity (Hitlin, 2003). Hence, if individuals
subscribe to pro-environmental values they are likely to see
themselves as an environmentally responsible person and act in
an environmentally friendly manner (Whitmarsh and O'Neill,
2010). This argument supports the earlier nding that values exert
stronger inuence on behaviour when the self is activated (Ver-
planken and Holland, 2002; Verplanken et al., 2009).
Empirical evidence shows that biospheric values relate strongly
to generic environmental self-identity and energy-saving self-
identity, which in turn positively correlate with pro-environ-
mental behaviour (Van der Werff et al., 2013a, b). Thus, the fol-
lowing hypothesis has been developed:
H4. Consumers biospheric values have a positive inuence on
their environmental self-identity.
2.2.5. Environmental attitudes
Attitudes have been widely considered as the predominant
variable that predicts pro-environmental behaviour. Past research
has mainly focused on two types of environmental attitudes:
general attitudes; and specic attitudes. While the former refers to
judgements about environmental problems, the latter represents
the evaluation of certain types of eco-friendly products or beha-
viours. Research has posited that specic attitudes are more likely
to manifest in pro-environmental behaviour (e.g., Hines et al.,
1987; Mainieri et al., 1997; Tanner and Kast, 2003). Ha and Janda
(2012) found that consumers' specic attitudes towards energy
efcient products positively inuence their purchase intention.
Another study by McCarty and Shrum (1994) revealed that in-
dividuals who have positive attitudes towards the environmental
benets of recycling are more likely to engage in the behaviour.
Likewise, Tanner and Kast (2003) concluded that specic en-
vironmental attitudes towards environmental protection are the
strongest predictor of the purchase of organic food. Hence, the
following hypotheses have been developed in this study:
H5. Consumers' attitudes towards environmental protection have
a positive inuence on their purchase intention (H5a) and their
purchase of eco-friendly products (H5b).
2.2.6. Subjective norms
Subjective norms regulate behaviour by representing the
perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the beha-
viour (Ajzen, 1991, p. 188). In accordance with the TPB, several
relevant studies have indicated that subjective norms affect green
purchase behaviour indirectly via behavioural intention. For ex-
ample, Moons and De Pelsmacker (2012) reported that subjective
norms signicantly inuence electric car usage, while Wang
(2014) identied the positive inuence of subjective norms on the
intention to purchase green products in general. Furthermore,
Thgersen (2006) found a direct relationship between subjective
social norms and two pro-environmental behaviours (i.e. waste
handling and using public transportation). In a subsequent study,
Thgersen (2008) contended that injunctive norms (i.e. reecting
what most expect individuals to do) are also strongly correlated
with the purchase of environmentally friendly products. Hence,
the following have been hypothesised:
H6. Consumers' subjective norms have a positive inuence on
their purchase intention (H6a) and their purchase of eco-friendly
products (H6b).
2.2.7. Perceived behavioural control
Perceived behavioural control (PBC) reects the ease or dif-
culty to perform an action (Ajzen and Madden, 1986). Pro-en-
vironmental studies have operationalised PBC as consumers
control beliefs about different consumption aspects such as cost,
time, availability, and product labelling (e.g. Barbarossa and De
Pelsmacker, 2016; Tanner and Kast, 2003). These factors generally
indicate perceived inconvenience or barriers to performing en-
vironmentally responsible behaviour. McCarty and Shrum (2001)
 T.N. Nguyen et al. / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108
demonstrated that consumers who believe that recycling is in-
convenient are less likely to actually perform the behaviour. In
addition, Barbarossa and De Pelsmacker (2016) uncovered that
perceived inconvenience is often negatively related to purchase
intention and purchase behaviour towards eco-friendly products.
Hence, the following hypotheses have been formulated:
H7. Consumers perceived inconvenience has a negative inuence
on their purchase intention (H7a) and their purchase of eco-
friendly products (H7b).
2.2.8. Environmental self-identity
Van der Werff et al. (2013b, p. 56) dened environmental
(green) self-identity as the extent to which you see yourself as a
type of person who acts environmentally-friendly. Prior to this
summation, Stets and Biga (2003) developed and validated an
environment identity model of pro-environmental behaviour.
Even earlier, Sparks and Shepherd (1992) found that green self-
identity is positively correlated with consumers intentions to
purchase organic food. They also suggested that self-identity sig-
nicantly contributes to both ethical obligation and affective
components relating to consumers choice of eco-friendly pro-
ducts. Barbarossa and De Pelsmacker (2016) also recently em-
phasised that green self-identity positively inuences purchase
intention and the purchase of eco-friendly products. Based on
these ndings, the following have been hypothesised in this study:
H8. Consumers environmental self-identity has a positive inu-
ence on their purchase intention (H8a) and their purchase of eco-
friendly products (H8b).
2.2.9. Purchase intention
Intention is the immediate antecedent of any behaviour (Ajzen
and Madden, 1986). In line with this, Bamberg and Mser (2007)
performed a meta-analysis and discovered an average correlation
of 0.52 between these two constructs. This relationship has been
further conrmed in empirical research into the purchase beha-
viour of different environmentally friendly products in the settings
of both developed and emerging markets (e.g. Akehurst et al.,
2012; Chan, 2001; Mostafa, 2007; Soyez, 2012). Most notably, a
study in China (Chan and Lau, 2000) demonstrated that purchase
intention has a highly positive inuence (0.84) on green purchase
behaviour. Hence, the following has been hypothesised here:
H9. Consumers' intentions to purchase energy efcient household
Fig. 1. Conceptual framework for the study.
101
appliances have a positive inuence on their purchase behaviour.
2.2.10. Moderating effects of past behaviour
Past behaviour often plays an important role in shaping con-
sumer behaviour, both in terms of the formation of behavioural
intention, as well as future behaviour (Sommer, 2011). Several
studies extending on the TPB have suggested that past behaviour
moderates the relationship between behaviour and its determi-
nants including attitudes, subjective norms, behavioural control
and intention (e.g., Cooke and Sheeran, 2004; Norman and Conner,
2006; Norman et al., 2000). Specically, consumers who have not
previously performed a behaviour are likely to rely heavily on
attitudes and subjective norms to acquire additional cognitive
resources when making decisions towards that behaviour (Kidwell
and Jewell, 2008). In contrast, consumers with a high amount of
experience are more likely to be inuenced by their level of cer-
tainty in their ability to perform such behaviour (Bentler and
Speckart, 1981; Kidwell and Jewell, 2008), and their behavioural
intentions tend to be transformed into actual behaviour (Car-
rington et al., 2010). However, some other studies have instead
demonstrated that consumers who have been involved in a par-
ticular behaviour are less likely to be affected by self-identity as-
sociated with that behaviour (e.g., Dean et al., 2012; Fekadu and
Kraft, 2001). One possible explanation is that as a behaviour be-
comes habitual, it tends to disappear from view and hence from
self-identity (Whitmarsh and O'Neill, 2010). Inspired by this, the
following hypotheses have been formulated:
H10a. Past purchase behaviour has a negative effect on the asso-
ciation between attitudes and the purchase of eco-friendly
products.
H10b. Past purchase behaviour has a negative effect on the asso-
ciation between subjective norms and the purchase of eco-friendly
products.
H10c. Past purchase behaviour has a negative effect on the asso-
ciation between perceived inconvenience and the purchase of eco-
friendly products.
H10d. Past purchase behaviour has a negative effect on the asso-
ciation between environmental self-identity and the purchase of
eco-friendly products.
H10e. Past purchase behaviour has a positive effect on the asso-
ciation between purchase intention and the purchase of eco-
friendly products.
The hypothetical relationships between the variables examined
in this study are demonstrated in Fig. 1 below.
102 T.N. Nguyen et al. / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108
3. Research methodology
3.1. Research context including focused product category
This study was conducted in Vietnam, which is facing serious
environmental problems due to rapid economic growth and rising
greenhouse gas emissions, as well as unsustainable consumption
(Dang et al., 2003; Taylor et al., 2010). Yet Vietnamese consumers
still have relatively low levels of awareness and knowledge of
sustainable consumption (De Koning et al., 2015).
Energy efcient household appliances were selected as the
focused product category of this research for four reasons. First,
energy efciency has the most potential to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions globally (Sonnenberg et al., 2011), particularly in
emerging markets like Vietnam (Taylor et al., 2010). Second, the
Vietnamese Government already promotes the use of energy ef-
cient appliances including via its National Energy Efciency
Standard and Labelling Program for all lighting and other selected
appliances (i.e. refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners,
rice cookers and cooling fans) (VNEEP, 2012). Third, skyrocketing
electricity prices should enhance consumers interest in energy
efcient appliances (Euromonitor International, 2014). Fourth, gi-
ven the long replacement cycle of many household appliances, the
purchase of energy efcient appliances is of paramount im-
portance for environmental and nancial reasons (Mills and
Schleich, 2012; Sonnenberg et al., 2014).
3.2. Research measures
The items used to operationalise the constructs of this study's
proposed conceptual framework were selected and adapted from
existing validated scales. Two focus groups, one in Hanoi and the
other in Ho Chi Minh City, were employed for the purpose of
generating possible new items, and for testing and adapting the
existing validated scales to the Vietnamese context (Nassar-
McMillan and Borders, 2002). Each focus group comprised of eight
experienced energy efcient household electrical appliances con-
sumers whose contact details were provided by the store man-
agers of large electronics and appliance specialist stores in these
two cities. A small monetary incentive and lunch were provided to
the participants of the focus groups.
Two experienced researchers conducted the focus groups using
a semi-structured interview protocol. The intention was to esh
out the constructs of the proposed conceptual model and to elicit
participant's knowledge, beliefs and attitudes, motivations, and
barriers associated with the purchasing of energy efcient appli-
ances. Following these deliberations with the focus groups, some
items of the initial survey instrument were modied.
There is some debate over the measurement of biospheric va-
lues. Some researchers suggest that explicitly measuring con-
sumers environmental views is subject to cognitive bias given the
potential impact of social desirability, and that implicit measures
should instead be used (e.g. Thomas and Walker, 2016). However,
it has also been suggested that various strategies may be employed
by researchers to minimise such biases (Podsakoff et al., 2003),
and numerous other studies have used explicit measures to assess
biospheric values.
In the proposed model of this study, moving from right to left,
the rst construct of biospheric values was operationalised using
four items. While some studies explicitly evaluate biospheric va-
lues by measuring the importance of three dimensions only re-
specting the earth, unity with nature, and protecting the en-
vironment (e.g. Stern et al., 1998; Dietz et al., 2005; Lee and Jan,
2015) this study has also elicited the participants views on the
importance of preventing pollution. This fourth dimension has
previously been identied by others as a relevant biospheric
values indicator (e.g. De Groot and Steg, 2007; De Groot and Steg
2008; De Groot et al., 2012; Nilsson et al., 2016; Ruepert et al.,
2016).
The next four constructs mediate between biospheric values
and purchase behaviour. Attitude towards environmental protection,
reecting concern for environmental protection, was oper-
ationalised by adapting four items from former studies performed
by McCarty and Shrum (1994) and Tanner and Kast (2003). These
items were designed to seek the participants perceptions of the
importance of environmental protection when making purchases
of household appliances, and how energy efcient appliances
contribute to environmental preservation. Four items oper-
ationalising subjective norms were also developed using inputs
from Thgersen (2008) and Wang (2014). These items sought the
participants' perceptions on the inuence of people close to them
in purchasing energy efcient household appliances. Another four
items for measuring attitudes towards personal inconvenience were
also developed using inputs from Barbarossa and De Pelsmacker
(2016) and Tanner and Kast's (2003) scales, as well as from the
focus groups. These items sought the participants perceptions on
barriers to the purchase of energy efcient appliances such as
price, time, range of product and condence in energy rating la-
bels. Environmental self-identity was also operationalised by
adapting four items from studies by Barbarossa and De Pelsmacker
(2016) and Whitmarsh and ONeill (2010).
In addition, to measure purchase intentions during the next 12
months, ve items were adapted from Wang's (2014) and Mosta-
fa's (2007) studies. Lastly, purchase behaviour was measured using
the two-item scale suggested by Li (1997), which has been used in
several studies relating to green purchase behaviour in emerging
countries (Chan and Lau, 2000; Mostafa, 2007). This scale was
designed to seek respondents acceptance or commitment to ac-
tually purchasing energy efcient household appliances.
The items operationalising all the constructs explained were
measured using 7-point Likert-type scale. The biospheric values
employed a scale ranging from
1 for opposed to my value, to
0 for not important at all, to 5 for extremely important. To
measure attitudes, subjective norms, perceived inconvenience,
self-identity and intentions, the scale was anchored at 1 for
strongly disagree and 7 for strongly agree. To measure purchase
behaviour, the scale was anchored at 1 for never to 7 for always.
In addition to the above, past purchase behaviour was mea-
sured using a single dichotomous item adapted from the study by
Whitmarsh and ONeill (2010): Have you ever purchased energy
efcient appliances? (Yes, No).
3.3. Translation and pre-testing
This study's survey instrument was initially developed in
English and then translated into Vietnamese using the prescribed
back-translation technique (Usunier, 1998). A professional trans-
lator was employed to translate the questions from English to
Vietnamese, which were later translated back to English by an-
other translator who worked independently from the rst. This
process continued until linguistic equivalence between the English
and Vietnamese versions was achieved. As a nal stage, two other
bilingual researchers then cross-checked the translated versions to
ensure reliability and validity, and approved the version for pre-
testing.
A two-round pre-test was conducted prior to data collection. To
ensure the representativeness and suitability of survey items, eight
business academics and industrial experts were invited to discuss
and scrutinise the survey instrument. This was followed by sepa-
rate in-depth interviews with six selected consumers for the
purposes of diagnosing and eliminating potential problems relat-
ing to instrument clarity, wordings of items, and time of
 T.N. Nguyen et al. / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108 103

completion. Subsequent to the pre-tests, several minor changes to Table 1

the wordings of the survey instrument were made. Demographic prole of respondents.
In designing the layout of the paper-based survey instrument,
Gender %
care was taken to ensure that the presentation of each of the Female 50.7
constructs was counterbalanced to reduce the likelihood of any Male 49.3
item-context effects, such as a result of priming due to ordering of Age
items (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Additionally, the survey instrument 1829 29.6
3039 24.5
was split into two parts, to separate the exogenous variables from 4049 22.6
the endogenous. The foregoing measures are recommended as 5059 14.4
procedural remedies for dealing with common method bias and 60 and above 8.9
social desirability. Marital status
Single/never married 28.6
Currently married 62.2
3.4. Participants and procedure Widowed 5.1
Divorced/separated 4.1
The participants were Vietnamese citizens aged 18 years and Educational level
above who had been involved in purchasing electrical appliances High school or lesser 5.3
Professional degree 12.7
and had expressed interest in energy efcient electrical appliances. College degree 20.7
This ensured that participants had a certain level of knowledge University undergraduate 45.2
and interest relating to the product category; thus improving the Postgraduate 16.1
prediction of purchase intention and behaviour. Household monthly income
Under VND5,000,000 8.9
Data were collected from eligible shoppers who visited ve
VND5,000,00010,000,000 19.9
busy electronics and appliance specialist stores in Hanoi and Ho VND10,000,00120,000,000 41.1
Chi Minh City, which are located in the northern and southern VND20,000,00130,000,000 13.5
parts of Vietnam respectively. Such stores represent the main VND30,000,00140,000,000 7.5
distribution channel of electrical appliances in Vietnam and ac- VND40,000,00150,000,000 6.0
Over VND50,000,000 3.1
count for over 80% of volume sales (Euromonitor International,
Children living at home
2014). Trained interviewers were stationed at these ve stores to Yes 67.9
identify eligible respondents and distribute the questionnaires. No 32.1
Shoppers were randomly selected by approaching every fth City
Hanoi 55.6
person entering the stores. They were presented with the in-
Ho Chi Minh 44.4
formed consent statement and asked to complete the survey in
store.
For those respondents who agreed to participate, facilities were
provided for them to do so. After they had completed the rst part such as 2/df (Chi-square to degree of freedom ratio), GFI (good-
of the survey instrument which comprised of the exogenous ness-of-t index), CFI (comparative t index), TLI (Tucker and Le-
variables, they were requested to stop and take a short break. wis index), and RMSEA (root-mean-square error of approxima-
During this time, a small gift of stationery (e.g. pens, pencils, tion). According to Hair et al. (2010) and Hu and Bentler (1999),
highlighters) was offered to them in appreciation of their co- the model t is good when 2/df o3.0, the indices of GFI, CFI, TLI
operation. They then continued to respond to the second part of Z0.90, and RMSEA r 0.08.
the survey instrument which comprised of the endogenous vari-
ables and their demographic prole. Respondents anonymity and 4.1. Results of the preliminary analysis
condentiality were assured, and it was emphasised that there
were no right or wrong responses. These measures, together with Harman's single-factor test was rst conducted to assess if
the introduction of a time lag between the measurement of the there were any potential effects of common method bias on the
exogenous and endogenous variables, assisted in minimising re- measures used in this study (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Accordingly,
spondents evaluation apprehension and social desirability when all measurement items were subjected to an exploratory factor
providing answers (Podsakoff et al., 2003). analysis using SPSS 22.0. The unrotated factor solutions demon-
The data collection period in the stores lasted from October strated that the single factor explained only 30% of the variance in
2015 to February 2016, during which time a total of 703 completed the variables. Hence, common method bias was unlikely to affect
surveys were received. Subsequent data screening involved ex- the sample data (Malhotra et al., 2006; Podsakoff and Organ,
amining missing data, outliers and normality of distribution in the 1986).
dataset. Subsequently, 13 responses were removed that contained Reliability analysis demonstrated that Cronbach's alpha values
missing values. A further 8 responses were eliminated as being for constructs ranged from 0.729 to 0.868, as shown in Table 2
multivariate outliers. Hence, the nal effective sample was re- below. In addition, corrected item-to-total correlations were all
duced to 682 responses. Table 1 shows the demographic prole of greater than 0.5. Hence, it was reasonable to assume that all the
the study's respondents. measures had good internal consistency of reliability (Churchill,
1979; Hair et al., 2010).

4. Data analysis 4.2. Validity of measurement model

A preliminary analysis was conducted to assess the potential
effects of common method bias and scale reliability. Next, con-
rmatory factor analysis (CFA) was run to examine the validity of
the measurement model. The hypotheses were then tested using
structural equation modelling (SEM). An assessment of goodness-
of-t was subsequently made by using widely applied t indices,
To assess the measurement model, all constructs were sub-
jected to CFA (maximum likelihood estimation) using AMOS 22.0.
The resulting t statistics were all above the minimum acceptable
level (2 (278) 438.830, p o0.001; 2/df 1.579; GFI 0.951; CFI
0.979; TLI 0.975; RMSEA 0.029), and all factor loadings were
above 0.5 (as shown in Table 2). These indices revealed a good
104 T.N. Nguyen et al. / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108

Table 2
Reliability of scales and convergent validity.

Construct and items FL CR AVE

Biospheric values BIO 0.868 0.870 0.626

Preventing pollution 0.81
Respecting the Earth 0.76
Unity with nature 0.83
Protecting the environment 0.76
Attitude towards environmental protection ATT 0.814 0.815 0.524
Environmental protection is important to me when making purchases of appliances 0.71
Energy efcient appliances are important to reduce air pollution 0.75
Energy efcient appliances are important to save natural resources that would be used for producing energy, e.g. coal, water 0.67
If I can choose between energy efcient and conventional appliances, I prefer energy efcient 0.76
Subjective norm SN 0.831 0.831 0.552
Most of the people who are important to me think that I should buy energy efcient appliances 0.79
Most of my acquaintances expect me to buy energy efcient appliances 0.74
Most of the people who are important to me would support me buying energy efcient appliances next time 0.72
The people I listen to could inuence me buy energy efcient appliances 0.73
Perceived Inconvenience INC 0.819 0.819 0.531
I cannot afford to pay more to buy energy efcient appliances 0.70
While shopping, I cant easily distinguish between energy efcient and conventional electrical appliances 0.74
I need a lot of extra time to purchase energy efcient appliance 0.74
I am not condent about the credibility of energy rating labels 0.73
Environmental self-identity ESI 0.837 0.838 0.564
I think of myself as someone who is concerned about environmental issues 0.75
I see myself as being an environmentally friendly consumer 0.73
I would be embarrassed not to be seen as having an environmentally friendly lifestyle 0.77
Buying energy efcient appliances makes me feel that I am an environmentally friendly consumer 0.74
Intention INT 0.840 0.842 0.572
I will consider buying energy efcient appliances 0.79
I plan to switch to other brands/versions of electrical appliances that are more energy efcient 0.76
I intend to buy energy efcient appliances 0.79
I will buy energy efcient appliances in my next purchase 0.68
Purchase behaviour BHV 0.729 0.729 0.574
I (1 never; 7 always) buy energy efcient appliances 0.74
I (1 never; 7 always) switch to other versions/brands of electrical appliances that are more energy efcient 0.77

Note: FL : Standardised factor loading; : Cronbach's alpha; CR: Composite reliability; AVE: Average variance extracted.

model approximation to the sample data. Table 4

Construct validity was examined using convergent validity and Results of hypotheses testing.
discriminant validity. Convergent validity was assessed by ex-
Paths t-Value Hypotheses supported
amining that: (a) standardised factor loadings values were above
0.5; (b) CR was higher than AVE, and CR was above 0.7; and BIO - ATT 0.48 10.257** H1: Accepted
(c) AVE was above 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010). As shown in Table 2, the BIO - SN 0.59 13.158** H2: Accepted
relevant data revealed strong convergent validity. Also, as shown BIO - INC
0.66
13.167** H3: Accepted
BIO - ESI 0.48 10.523** H4: Accepted
in Table 3 below, the square root of the AVE of each measure was ATT - INT 0.16 3.445** H5a: Accepted
greater than its bivariate correlation coefcients with other con- ATT - BHV 0.24 4.667** H5b: Accepted
structs; thus discriminant validity was ensured (Fornell and SN - INT 0.21 4.383** H6a: Accepted
Larcker, 1981). Additionally, all correlations between constructs SN - BHV 0.03 0.497ns H6b: Rejected
INC - INT
0.19
3.892** H7a: Accepted
were less than 0.9, indicating that possible problems of multi- INC - BHV
0.25
4.666** H7b: Accepted
collinearity were non-existent (Grewal et al., 2004). ESI - INT 0.16 3.594** H8a: Accepted
ESI - BHV 0.18 3.700** H8b: Accepted
INT - BHV 0.19 3.620** H9: Accepted
4.3. Hypotheses testing
standardised regression coefcient of path relationship.
SEM was used to test the proposed hypotheses. The resultant **
p o 0.001.
GFI were 2 (286) 531.204, o 0.001; 2/df1.857; GFI 0.939; ns
Not signicant.
CFI 0.968; TLI 0.964; RMSEA 0.035. These indices suggested

a good tting model which explained a signicant 38% of the

Table 3
Descriptive statistics and discriminant validity. variation in purchase behaviour of energy efcient appliances.
The results of the SEM are depicted in Table 4, which suggest
Mean SD BIO ATT SN INC ESI INT PB that biospheric values had a signicant positive inuence on at-
titude towards environmental protection ( 0.48, po 0.001),
BIO 2.63 1.21 0.79
ATT 4.90 1.05 0.40 0.72 subjective norms ( 0.59, po 0.001) and environmental self-
SN 4.68 1.21 0.48 0.32 0.74 identity ( 0.48, p o0.001). They also had a signicant negative
INC 3.24 1.03
0.54
0.30
0.42 0.73 inuence on perceived inconvenience (
0.66, po 0.001).
ESI 4.79 1.04 0.38 0.19 0.33
0.38 0.75 Hence, H1, H2, H3, and H4 were all supported in this study. Fur-
INT 4.65 1.20 0.20 0.29 0.37
0.37 0.31 0.76
thermore, the standardised coefcients demonstrated that the
BHV 4.92 1.18 0.47 0.47 0.44
0.67 0.45 0.40 0.76
inuence of biospheric values on perceived inconvenience was
Note: Diagonal value indicates the square root of AVE of construct. greater than their inuence on subjective norms, attitude and
 T.N. Nguyen et al. / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108 105

environmental self-identity. In addition, by examining the squared Table 6

multiple correlations, biospheric values explained 23%, 35%, 43% Results of measurement invariance test.
and 23% of respondents attitude, subjective norm, perceived in-
2 df 2/df GFI CFI TLI RMSEA 2 p-value
convenience and environmental self-identity, respectively.
Interestingly, attitude exerted a signicant positive inuence CI 751.977 556 1.352 0.921 0.973 0.968 0.023
on both purchase intention ( 0.16, p o0.001) and purchase be- MI 784.885 582 1.349 0.918 0.972 0.968 0.023 32.904 0.165
haviour ( 0.24, p o0.001). Hence, H5a and H5b were both
supported. Furthermore, subjective norms had a signicant posi-
tive inuence on purchase intention ( 0.21, p o0.001); thus H6a Table 7
was also accepted. However, the direct inuence of subjective Results of structural invariance test for moderation.
norms on purchase behaviour was not signicant ( 0.03,
Paths Unconstrained Constrained 2 Standardised ()
p 40.05); thus H6b was rejected. That is, subjective norms in- 2 (df) 2 (df) Purchased Not
directly inuenced purchase behaviour via purchase intention. As purchased
expected, perceived inconvenience signicantly reduced purchase
intention (
0.19, p o0.001) and purchase behaviour ATT - BHV 862.975 (572) 868.686 (573) 5.711* 0.082 0.328
SN - BHV 862.975 (572) 863.447 (573) 0.472ns 0.003 0.024
(
0.25, p o0.001). Thus, H7a and H7b were supported. Fur- INC - BHV 862.975 (572) 862.985 (573) 0.010ns
0.291
0.274
thermore, the inuence of environmental self-identity on pur- ESI - BHV 862.975 (572) 868.686 (573) 6.518* 0.014 0.302
chase intention ( 0.16, p o0.001) and purchase behaviour INT - BHV 862.975 (572) 868.686 (573) 5.294* 0.275 0.040
( 0.18, p o0.001) was found to be positive and signicant. *
p o0.05.
Hence, H8a and H8b were also accepted. As expected, the path ns
Not signicant.
between purchase intention and purchase behaviour ( 0.19,
p o0.001) was signicant and positive; thus H9 was supported.
Table 5 below summarises the effects of determinants on pur- the path of interest was constrained to ensure equality between
chase behaviour. As the results indicate, the total effects of bio- the two groups. Paths under investigation are statistically different
spheric values, attitude, subjective norms, perceived incon- if the group model ts differ signicantly (i.e. the Chi-square dif-
venience, environmental self-identity and purchase intention on ference (2) is signicant). The results of this test are depicted in
purchase behaviour were 0.460, 0.266, 0.065,
0.290, 0.21 and Table 7 below.
0.189, respectively. According to Table 7, while the three paths (attitude, self-
identity and intention on purchase behaviour) signicantly dif-
4.4. Testing for moderating effects fered, the remaining paths (subjective norms and perceived in-
convenience on purchase behaviour) did not signicantly differ
To test the moderating effects of past behaviour on the impact across the two consumer groups. These results imply that past
of various determinants on purchase behaviour, multi-group SEM behaviour moderated the relationship between purchase beha-
was employed (Hair et al., 2010). Such technique consists of two viour and the three variables (i.e. environmental attitude, self-
main steps: measurement invariance; and structural model esti- identity and intention). Hence, H10a, H10d and H10e were ac-
mate (i.e. structural invariance). While measurement invariance cepted, while H10b and H10c were rejected. Specically, en-
examines whether relationships between latent constructs and vironmental attitude exerted a stronger inuence on purchase
measured variables are invariant between groups, structural behaviour for consumers who had not purchased energy efcient
model estimate tests whether regression weights for each of the appliances ( 0.328) compared with those who purchased the
structural paths are statistically invariant between the groups product ( 0.082). Furthermore, consumers who had never per-
(Byrne, 2004; Hair et al., 2010). In this study, the corresponding formed the purchase behaviour ( 0.302) were more affected by
data were divided into two consumer groups: those who had environmental self-identity than those who had made the pur-
purchased energy efcient appliances (n 382); and those who chase ( 0.014). In contrast, intention had a stronger inuence on
had never purchased the products (n 380). purchase behaviour for consumers who had purchased energy
The results of the measurement invariance analysis are shown efcient appliances ( 0.275) than those who had not purchased
in Table 6 below. According to Table 6, congural invariance (CI) the product ( 0.040). Finally, past behaviour had no signicant
was met, conrming that the same number of constructs and bearing on the inuence of both subjective norms and perceived
items associated with each construct existed in the two groups. inconvenience on purchase behaviour towards energy efcient
Furthermore, metric invariance (MI) was ensured, indicating that appliances.
the factor loadings were equivalent across both groups.
Given the measurement invariance that was established, a
structural model estimate was assessed to test the hypotheses 5. Discussion of ndings and implications
relating to moderation. This test began with estimation of a fully
unconstrained model in which all paths were set free across both In this research, the main aim was to improve understanding of
groups, followed by estimation of a constrained model in which the determinants of pro-environmental consumption behaviour
by examining the inuence of biospheric values on the purchase of
Table 5 energy efcient appliances. Encouraging and accelerating the
Effects of determinants on purchase behaviour. adoption of these type of products has been identied as an urgent
global imperative in responding to climate change and the need to
Direct Effect Indirect Effects Total Effect
reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Specically, this study sought to
BIO - BHV 0.460 0.460 better understand how consumers biospheric values inuence
ATT - BHV 0.236 0.030 0.266 their environmental attitude, subjective norms, perceived incon-
SN - BHV 0.025 0.040 0.065 venience and environmental self-identity, all of which in turn in-
INC - BHV
0.254
0.037
0.290 uence their purchase behaviour. The moderating effects of con-
ESI - BHV 0.181 0.031 0.211
INT - BHV 0.189 0.189
sumers past behaviour on the relationship between their pur-
chase behaviour and its determinants was also examined.
106 T.N. Nguyen et al. / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33 (2016) 98108
Furthermore, given the paucity of knowledge relating to pro-en-
vironmental behaviour in developing countries (Ramayah et al.,
2010), this study was conducted in Vietnam in an attempt to plug
this literature gap. The potential beneciaries of this research
therefore include consumers as well as those interested in un-
derstanding the drivers of sustainable consumption including
various stakeholders in Vietnam and other emerging markets, and
international governments and agencies.
The rst key nding of this study reveals that consumers
biospheric values positively inuence their attitudes towards en-
vironmental protection, which in turn translates into positive
purchase behaviour of energy efcient appliances. This nding is
similar to that of De Groot and Steg (2008) and Soyez (2012).
Environmental and sustainability campaigners may therefore want
to target consumers who have strong biospheric values to accel-
erate the uptake of energy efcient appliances. In addition, efforts
should be made to enhance biospheric values among the younger
generation by increasing awareness and knowledge about the
benets of pro-environmental purchase behaviour. This will cer-
tainly be advantageous to the environment and society in the long
run.
The second key nding of this study demonstrates that bio-
spheric values inuence their consumers subjective norms.
However, interestingly, this did not directly support the purchase
behaviour of energy efcient appliances. This nding extends that
obtained by Soyez (2012). Essentially, Vietnamese consumers feel
that the approval of signicant others is not an important factor
that is, their family, friends and peers do not generally encourage
them to purchase energy efcient appliances. This nding may be
due to the apparently low levels of awareness and knowledge of
sustainable consumption in Vietnam. Policymakers should there-
fore consider running campaigns which endeavour to convert
these signicant others via communications about the long-term
sustainability benets to future generations that are achieved
through pro-environmental purchase behaviour.
The third main nding in this study demonstrates that bio-
spheric values strongly negate consumers perceived incon-
venience associated with purchasing eco-friendly products, which
in turn has a positive inuence on their purchase behaviour of
energy efcient appliances. This nding validates the arguments
elicited by Steg et al. (2014) and Perlaviciute and Steg (2014, 2015).
Essentially, consumers harbouring strong biospheric values are
more willing to accept the perceived inconvenience caused by
non-availability, higher costs and more effort in purchasing energy
efcient appliances. However, despite this general prioritisation of
green products over convenience, pro-environmental marketers
must endeavour to reduce or eliminate consumers perceived in-
conveniences, so that such appliances are sought after by others
whose biospheric values are relatively weak. In this respect, re-
tailers could make it easier for consumers seeking energy efcient
appliances by providing more attractive and conspicuous signage
at the point of purchase, and by also providing more accessible
shelng.
The fourth nding relates to the strong positive inuence of
biospheric values on consumer environmental self-identity, which
in turn translates into positive inuence on their purchase beha-
viour of energy efcient appliances. This nding is consistent with
those of Whitmarsh and ONeill (2010) and Van der Werff et al.
(2013, a, b). That is, the more strongly consumers endorse bio-
spheric values, the more strongly they see themselves as persons
who act pro-environmentally. This signicant role of environ-
mental self-identity in the purchase of energy efcient appliances
should therefore be leveraged by policymakers, marketers and
pro-environmental campaigners. It is possible that interventions
targeting consumers self-identity might be more feasible and
cost-effective than trying to enhance their biospheric values. In
doing so, consumers could be inuenced by their past behaviour,
or by reminding them of their past pro-environmental actions.
The fth and nal main nding in this study relates to the
moderating effects of consumers past purchase behaviour. That is,
consumers who have never purchased energy efcient appliances
tend to rely more on their evaluative beliefs about the benets and
importance of such products for environmental protection (i.e.
environmental attitude) when considering such purchases. They
also strongly associate purchasing energy efcient appliances with
being environmentally friendly consumers. These ndings extend
on those of Dean et al. (2012) and Terry et al. (1999); suggesting
that potential purchasers could be motivated by a compelling
message that purchasing energy efcient appliances contributes to
environmental protection as well as being a green consumer. It is
interesting to note that past behaviour strengthens the intention-
behaviour relationship. This nding supports the argument that
persons who have performed a particular behaviour may better
understand external barriers and the actual scenario relating to
that behaviour. Hence, their intentions are more likely to be
eventually transformed into actual buying behaviour (Carrington
et al., 2010). This nding once again emphasises the importance of
providing a convenient and easily accessible retail shopping en-
vironment for consumers, especially for rst-time buyers.
6. Limitations and future directions
The limitations of this study can be classied into three broad
areas. First, other relevant personal values in addition to bio-
spheric values might be included as exogenous variables in the
proposed model. These could include, inter-alia, consumers al-
truistic and egoistic values; such additional personal values could
be added to test and improve the model's sufciency in predicting
consumers purchase behaviour of energy efcient appliances.
Second, this study is conned to energy efcient appliances. Fu-
ture research could test the proposed model in other areas of
sustainability, such as the consumption of organic and biode-
gradable products, as well as other environmentally friendly retail
and service delivery contexts. Third, this study was undertaken
with shoppers inside electronic stores who had or were con-
templating purchasing energy efcient appliances. The study's
respondents included consumers who actually made a purchase,
as well as those contemplating consumption decisions. While in-
cluding those who were only considering purchasing was con-
sistent with other studies (e.g. Chan and Lau, 2000; Mostafa,
2007b), future research could contemplate only including those
who made an actual purchase, which might further strengthen the
relationship between intention and behaviour.
This study's proposed model presents a wide variety of future
research possibilities. Future studies could investigate whether
this model stands up to scrutiny in other emerging markets like
Malaysia, China and India. Additionally, it would be benecial to
investigate changes in consumers attitudes and their behavioural
intentions over time by conducting a longitudinal study. Finally,
while not the intent of this paper, the dataset lends itself to ex-
ploring the impact of the different segmentation and socio-
demographic variables of the respondents.
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