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Broad nation - Cognition is what cognitive agents to (or ar capable to do): attention, memory,
learning, reasoning, problem solving and aspects of motivation theory, action theory, perception,
language processing
Narrow nation Cognition is mental manipulation (creation, transformation and deletion) of
mental representations.
9. Find the elements of behaviorism within contemporary cognitive theory of mind (either
symbolic or connectionist).
Behaviorism uses the stimulus and response metaphor to interpret exhibited behavior in the world
and sets it`s inquiry according to the affordances of the metaphor. Similiray, cognitivism uses
information processing as a way to explain how humans perceive, remember and understand the
world around them. Because cognitive science bases it`s inquiry within the information processing
metaphor, the conclusions about mental processes are only as objective to the level that metaphor is
subjective.
15. What is the main difference between a McC-P neuron and a perceptron?
- Neuron has many inputs, but only one output.
- Perceptron consists only of the input layer and output
- Perceptron is the most popular example of a one-way networks
21. What does it mean that some part of our body has a topographic representation in the
brain?
Topographic organization in the cerebral cortex: a map of the body is represented in a particular
corical area.
Lesions on the right side of the brain affect visual-spatial processes more than od lesions on the left
side. Many regions of the brain contibute to a given behavior. One has to distinguish between
evidence for localization of symptoms and the idea of localization of a function.
Behaviors are constellations of independent activites, not a single whole unit.
22. The consequences of Broca's and Wernicke's discoveries for a cognitive view on a brain.
Broca the patient after the stroke that could understand language but couldn`t speak except the
sound "tan".
Wernicke reported a stoke victim who could talk quite freely, but what he said made little sense:
he couldn`t understand spoken or written language.
We have conclusion that focal desease causes specific deficits.
24. What did Golgi invent? What consequences had his discovery?
He developed a stain that impregnated individual neurons with silver it allowed for a full
visualization of single neurons.
27. Characterize the structure of a neuron and describe the functions of its main parts.
Neuron the principle of functioning: for taking information in, decidin according to some simple
rules about the information and passing it along to other neurons.
It has three main parts:
- A cell body (soma) that contains metabolic machinery that maintains the neuron
- Dendrites: treelike processes that receive inputs from other neurons at locations called synapses
- Axons: represent the output side of the neuron, down which electrical sygnals can travel to the
axon terminals
32. Areas of the brain involved in visual processing and disorders of vision.
Parietal cortex: BA5, BA7: orientation, geometrics
Occipital cortex: BA17: luminosity; shape/size; colour
inferotemporal cortex: BA18, BA19: itegrating visual informations
33. The idea of a grandmother cell in contrast to the idea of complex feature detectors
//compare with localized/distributed representations in AI.
- Hierarchical theories of object perception
- A gnostic unit: at the top of hierarchy, the cell that can signal the
presence of a known stimulus (e.g. selective for specific shapes)
- The question: how specific the responsiveness of an individual cell is?
- Assumption of GCH: the final percept of an object is coded by a
single cell, but:
- Spontaneous firing of neurons; the death of neurons
- The possibility of perception of novel objects
34. Cognitive architectures: enumerate the elements (if applicable) and describe the flow of
information within:
(a) the Atkinson-Shiffrin model The model asserts that human memory has three separate
components: sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory.
(b) Levels-of-processing model 2 Non-structured approach; memoty is just a by-product of
processing of information.
We can process information in 3 ways:
- Shallow processing structural processing (appearance) and phonemic processing (encoding of
sound)
- Deep processing involves semantic processing (encoding of meaning)
- Deepest level activation of associations
Key assumptions: the level of depth of processing has a large effect on its memorability; Deeper
levels of analysis more elaborate, longer lasting and stronger memory traces
2 kinds of cognitive processes:
- Maintenance rehearsal repeating analyses that have previously been carried out
- Elaborative rehearsal deeper or more semantic analysis of the learning material (improves LTM)
(c) Modular model - 3 kinds of psychological systems: transducers, input systems, central systems
- Transducers: devices that convert the energy impinging on the body's sensory surface into a
computationally usable form
- Input systems: a computational mechanism that presents the world to a thought
- Central systems: are responsible for higher cognitive functions (belief fixation)
Key claim: input systems are modular, whereas central systems are not
(d) Pandemonium model - model of letter recognition
Bottom-up, sequential processing
Consists of:
- Image demon: receives sensory input; iconic memory
- Feature demons: decode specific features
- Cognitive demons: activated by the representations of letters with above features; shout when
receive combinations of features
- Decision demon: listens for loudest shout in pandemonium; decides what eye sees
(e) Connectionist models - Implicit rules and symbols (distributed patterns of activation of a
network)
Able to program themselves (learn to produce specific outputs);
CNs typically have the following characteristic:
- The network consists of elementary (neuron-like) units (nodes) connected together
- Units affect other units by exciting or inhibiting them
- The unit usually takes the weighted sum of all of the input links and produces a single output to
another unit
35. What is a mental module (according to Fodor)? Can you give an example of a modular
faculty?
Mental modules are:
1. Domain specific, i.e. They have restricted subject matter (the range of questions for which a
device provides answers)
- More fine-grained than sensory modalities
- Example systems: color perception, shape analysis, sentence parsing, face and voice recognition
2. Informationally encapsulated: in the course of processing a given set of inputs a module cannot
access information stored elsewhere
Example.: Mller-Lyer illusion; grammar parsers
3. Inaccessible to central monitoring: intermediate-level representations are (relatively) inaccessible
to consciousness (opaque to introspection)
4. Mandatoriness, i.e. the operation of an input system is not under conscious control (switched on
by presentation od stimuli and run to completion)
5. Fast processing: relatively high speed
6. Shallowness of output:
- Computationally cheap
- Informationally general
7. Dissociability: such a system can be selectively impaired (little or
no effect on the operation of other systems)
8. (Neural) localizability: the system in question is implemented in neural circuitry (delimited and
dedicated)
Basic level (natural level) of specificity: preferred to other levels (Rosch 1978)
...an object a fruit an apple a Delicious apple...
- A level that has the largest number of distinctive features that set it off from other concepts at the
same level (Rosch 1976)
- Objects: more quickly identified, first recognized
Depends on context and expertise
43. Schemas (and scripts) as forms of psychological representations: their structure and
features.
Schema: a mental framework for organizing knowledge; it creates a meaningful structure of related
concepts
Several characteristics (Rumelhart 1977, Thorndyke 1984)
Schemas can include other schemas (subschemas)
Schemas encompass typical, general facts that can vary slightly from one specific instance to
another
Schemas can vary in their degree of abstraction
Schemas encode: typical situations and typical behavior in the situations
- Early conceptions of schemas: representing information in
memory; cognitive development of children
Key terms
(to be explained): association, stimulus, response, a symbol, symbol manipulation, -
representation(s), cognition, computation, cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, articial
intelligence, Turing Machine, psychon, threshold, perceptron, open/closed system, model,
phrenology, localizationist view, lesion, holistic view, dendrite, axon, synapse, cytoarchitectonics, a
neuron, a glial cell, myelin, nodes of Ranvier, CT, PET, MRI, fMRI, retina, rods, cones, temporal
lobe, frontal lobe, occipital lobe, parietal lobe, agnosia, achromatopsia, akinetopsia, short-term
memory, long-term memory, attention, rehearsal, Fodorian module (an input system), declarative
knowledge, procedural knowledge, concept, category, semantic network, node, link, script,
production, cognitive architecture, program, algorithm, computational architecture, von Neumann
machine, symbolic architecture, connectionist architecture, frame, action frame, an operator, unit (of
the articial network), connection, weight of connection, input vector, output vector, distributed
representations.
You should remember and associate with particular theories/approaches/notions the following
names: William James, Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Burrhus Skinner, Alan Turing, Warren
McCulloch, Walter Pitts, Marvin Minsky, Norber Wiener, Ludwig van Bertalanffy, Kenneth Craik,
Franz J. Gall, Johann Spurzheim, John H. Jackson, Paul Broca, Karl Wernicke, Korbinian
Brodmann, Camillo Golgi, Ramon y Cajal, Karl Lashley, Stephen Kosslyn, Noam Chomsky,
Herbert Simon, Alan Newell, Jerome Bruner, George Miller, Jerry Fodor, Richard Atkinson,
Richard Shiffrin, James McClelland, David Rumelhart, Oliver Selfridge, Eleonor Rosch, John von
Neumann, Ross Quillian, John Anderson