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CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Contents
vii
viii Contents
Problems............................................................................................................................... 212
References............................................................................................................................. 213
6. Short Circuit of Synchronous and Induction Machines ............................................ 215
6.1 Reactances of a Synchronous Machine ................................................................. 216
6.1.1 Leakage Reactance XI ................................................................................. 216
6.1.2 Subtransient Reactance Xd00 ......................................................................... 216
6.1.3 Transient Reactance Xd0 .............................................................................. 216
6.1.4 Synchronous Reactance Xd ........................................................................ 216
6.1.5 Quadrature Axis Reactances Xq00 , Xq0 , and Xq .......................................... 217
6.1.6 Negative Sequence Reactance X2 .............................................................. 217
6.1.7 Zero-Sequence Reactance X0 ..................................................................... 218
6.1.8 Potier Reactance Xp .................................................................................... 218
6.2 Saturation of Reactances ......................................................................................... 218
6.3 Time Constants of Synchronous Machines .......................................................... 219
0
6.3.1 Open Circuit Time Constant Tdo .............................................................. 219
6.3.2 Subtransient Short-Circuit Time Constant Td00 ......................................... 219
6.3.3 Transient Short-Circuit Time Constant Td0 .............................................. 219
6.3.4 Armature Time Constant Ta ...................................................................... 219
6.4 Synchronous Machine Behavior on Terminal Short Circuit .............................. 219
6.4.1 Equivalent Circuits during Fault .............................................................. 223
6.4.2 Fault Decrement Curve .............................................................................. 226
6.5 Circuit Equations of Unit Machines ...................................................................... 230
6.6 Parks Transformation ............................................................................................. 234
6.6.1 Reactance Matrix of a Synchronous Machine......................................... 234
6.6.2 Transformation of Reactance Matrix........................................................ 236
6.7 Parks Voltage Equation.......................................................................................... 238
6.8 Circuit Model of Synchronous Machines ............................................................. 240
6.9 Calculation Procedure and Examples ................................................................... 242
6.9.1 Manufacturers Data ................................................................................... 249
6.10 Short Circuit of Synchronous Motors and Condensers...................................... 251
6.11 Induction Motors...................................................................................................... 251
6.12 Practical Short-Circuit Calculations....................................................................... 255
Problems............................................................................................................................... 255
References............................................................................................................................. 256
Bibliography......................................................................................................................... 257
Contents xi
21.5 Duration of an Arc Flash Event and Arc Flash Boundary................................. 841
21.5.1 Equipment Labeling ................................................................................... 842
21.6 Protective Relaying and Coordination.................................................................. 843
21.6.1 Unit Protection Systems, Differential Relaying ...................................... 844
21.6.2 Arc Flash Detection Relays........................................................................ 846
21.7 Short-Circuit Currents ............................................................................................. 847
21.7.1 Reducing Short-Circuit Currents .............................................................. 847
21.8 Arc Flash Calculations in Medium-Voltage Systems.......................................... 848
21.8.1 Reduction of HRC through a Maintenance
Mode Switch ................................................................................................ 850
21.8.2 Arc Resistant Switchgear ........................................................................... 853
21.9 Arc Flash Calculations in Low-Voltage Systems................................................. 854
21.10 Accounting for Decaying Short-Circuit Currents................................................ 864
Problems............................................................................................................................... 872
References............................................................................................................................. 873
Power engineering is the oldest and most traditional of the various areas within electrical
engineering, yet no other facet of modern technology is currently undergoing a more
dramatic revolution in both technology and industry structure. But none of these changes
alter the basic complexity of electric power system behavior, or reduce the challenge that
power system engineers have always faced in designing an economical system that operates
as intended and shuts down in a safe and noncatastrophic mode when something fails
unexpectedly. In fact, many of the ongoing changes in the power industryderegulation,
reduced budgets and stafng levels, and increasing public and regulatory demand for
reliability among themmake these challenges all the more difcult to overcome.
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Therefore, I am particularly delighted to see this latest addition to the Power Engineering
series. J.C. Dass Power System Analysis: Short-Circuit Load Flow and Harmonics provides
comprehensive coverage of both theory and practice in the fundamental areas of power
system analysis, including power ow, short-circuit computations, harmonics, machine
modeling, equipment ratings, reactive power control, and optimization. It also includes an
excellent review of the standard matrix mathematics and computation methods of power
system analysis in a readily usable format.
Of particular note, this book discusses both ANSI=IEEE and IEC methods, guidelines,
and procedures for applications and ratings. Over the past few years, my work as vice
president of technology and strategy for ABBs global consulting organization has given
me an appreciation that the IEC and ANSI standards are not so much in conict as they are
slightly different but equally valid approaches to power engineering. There is much to be
learned from each, and from the study of the differences between them.
As the editor of the Power Engineering series, I am proud to include Power System
Analysis among this important group of books. Like all the volumes in the Power Engin-
eering series, this book provides modern power technology in a context of proven,
practical application. It is useful as a reference book as well as for self-study and advanced
classroom use. The series includes books covering the entire eld of power engineering, in
all its specialties and subgenres, all aimed at providing practicing power engineers with the
knowledge and techniques they need to meet the electric industrys challenges in the
twenty-rst century.
H. Lee Willis
xxi
Preface to the Second Edition
In recent times, two new aspects of power system analysis have emerged: (1) the arc
ash hazard analysis and reduction of hazard risk category (HRC) in electrical systems
and (2) the wind power generation and its integration in utility systems. Maintaining
the structure and order of the rst edition of the book, two new chapters, Chapters 21
and 22, have been added to address these new technologies. The ANSI=IEEE rating
structures of the high-voltage circuit breakers have undergone many changes in an
attempt to harmonize with IEC standards. Chapters 7 through 9 have been revised to
reect these changes and current ANSI=IEEE and IEC standards. New material has been
added to practically each chapter, for example, Chapters 12 through 15 on load ow
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and Chapters 17 through 20 on harmonic analysis and harmonic lter designs. Errata of
the rst edition have been taken care of. New gures and supporting mathematical
equations have been added where required.
This new edition should prove all the more popular with the academia and practicing
power system engineers as it enhances the technical content and the presentation of the
subjects covered in this book.
I would like to thank Nora Konopka of CRC Press for all her help and cooperation in
publishing this second edition.
J.C. Das
xxiii
Preface to the First Edition
Power system analysis is fundamental in the planning, design, and operating stages, and
its importance cannot be overstated. This book covers the commonly required short-circuit,
load ow, and harmonic analyses. Practical and theoretical aspects have been harmoni-
ously combined. Although there is the inevitable computer simulation, a feel for the
procedures and methodology is also provided, through examples and problems. Power
System Analysis: Short-Circuit Load Flow and Harmonics should be a valuable addition to the
power system literature for practicing engineers, those in continuing education, and
college students.
Short-circuit analyses are included in chapters on rating structures of breakers, current
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interruption in ac circuits, calculations according to the IEC and ANSI=IEEE methods, and
calculations of short-circuit currents in dc systems.
The load ow analyses cover reactive power ow and control, optimization techniques,
and introduction to FACT controllers, three-phase load ow, and optimal power ow.
The effect of harmonics on power systems is a dynamic and evolving eld (harmonic
effects can be experienced at a distance from their source). The book derives and compiles
ample data of practical interest, with the emphasis on harmonic power ow and harmonic
lter design. Generation, effects, limits, and mitigation of harmonics are discussed, includ-
ing active and passive lters and new harmonic mitigating topologies.
The models of major electrical equipmenti.e., transformers, generators, motors, trans-
mission lines, and power cablesare described in detail. Matrix techniques and symmet-
rical component transformation form the basis of the analyses. There are many examples
and problems. The references and bibliographies point to further reading and analyses.
Most of the analyses are in the steady state, but references to transient behavior are
included where appropriate.
A basic knowledge of per unit system, electrical circuits and machinery, and matrices is
required, although an overview of matrix techniques is provided in Appendix A. The style
of writing is appropriate for the upper-undergraduate level, and some sections are at
graduate-course level.
Power Systems Analysis is a result of my long experience as a practicing power system
engineer in a variety of industries, power plants, and nuclear facilities. Its unique feature is
applications of power system analyses to real-world problems.
I thank ANSI=IEEE for permission to quote from the relevant ANSI=IEEE standards. The
IEEE disclaims any responsibility or liability resulting from the placement and use in the
described manner. I am also grateful to the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) for permission to use material from the international standards IEC 60660-1 (1997)
and IEC 60909 (1988). All extracts are copyright IEC Geneva, Switzerland. All rights
reserved. Further information on the IEC, its international standards, and its role is
available at www.iec.ch. IEC takes no responsibility for and will not assume liability
from the readers misinterpretation of the referenced material due to its placement and
context in this publication. The material is reproduced or rewritten with their permission.
Finally, I thank the staff of Marcel Dekker, Inc., and special thanks to Ann Pulido for her
help in the production of this book.
J.C. Das
xxv
Author
J.C. Das is currently staff consultant, Electrical Power Systems, AMEC Inc., Tucker, Georgia.
He has varied experience in the utility industry, industrial establishments, hydroelectric
generation, and atomic energy. He is responsible for power system studies, including short
circuit, load ow, harmonics, stability, arc-ash hazard, grounding, switching transients,
and protective relaying. He conducts courses for continuing education in power systems
and has authored or coauthored about 60 technical publications. He is the author of the book
Transients in Electrical SystemsAnalysis Recognition and Mitigation, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 2010. His interests include power system transients, EMTP simulations, harmonics,
power quality, protection, and relaying. He has also published 190 electrical power system
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xxvii