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Surface Mines
Highwall Hazards and Remediation
5
Highwall hazards are created when workers
are exposed to highwalls with the potential
for failure.
6
Eliminating Highwall Hazards
Recognizing the hazard - through a
better understanding of highwall
geometry, highwall composition, and
highwall failure modes.
Remediating the hazard through the
application of protective measures
intended to either prevent exposure or
prevent failure.
7
Recognizing the
Hazard
Highwall Composition
(Intact Rock vs. Rock Mass)
Highwalls are composed of rock masses that
consist of intact blocks of rock separated by
structural (geological) discontinuities.
10
Discontinuities
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Effect of Discontinuities on Rock Mass
12
Common Types of Discontinuities
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Bedding
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Joints
15
Thrust Fault
16
Fractures
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Properties of Discontinuities
Orientation
Spacing
Persistence
Roughness
Aperture
Infilling
Seepage
Number of Sets
18
(USDOT 1998)
Discontinuity Orientation
Dip angle at which a discontinuity is
included from the horizontal, measured
normal to the direction of strike.
Dip Direction the bearing of the dip,
measured perpendicular to the
direction of the strike.
Strike the bearing of the outcrop of a
discontinuity.
19
Orientation Diagram
20
(USDOT 1998)
Bedding Relative to the
Highwall Face
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Favorable Orientation
Beds Dipping Into Highwall
Crest
Bench
22
Unfavorable
Unfavorable Orientation
Orientation
Beds
Beds Dipping
Dipping Out Into Pit
of Highwall
Top
Crest
Bench
Bench
23
Favorable Dip
Unfavorable Dip
24
Dipping Bedding
25
Joints Relative to the
Highwall Face
26
2 joint sets
Widely Spaced
45 to face 27
2 joint sets.
Closely Spaced
Perpendicular and
Sub-parallel to face. 28
Structure Parallel to Face
29
Two Sets of Vertical Joints
30
Intersecting Discontinuities
31
Obtaining Data on
Discontinuities
Field
mapping
Core drilling
32
Points to Remember
Discontinuities can occur at any orientation
and spacing.
The way in which discontinuities intersect
each other and the highwall face contribute
to the failure potential and the damage
potential.
Knowledge of discontinuity properties in the
mine environment allows for anticipation,
and often the prediction, of hazards.
Hazards can be reduced or eliminated with
good pit layout design.
33
Seepage
Seepage is often a contributing
factor to highwall failures.
Effects of seepage:
creates driving force in joints
erodes supporting material
reduces strength of soil/rock
adds weight to the potential sliding
mass.
34
Seepage on Highwall Face
35
Water Issues
36
Water Pressure
in Joints
F
d/3
P max = 62 . 4 x depth
F = 0.5( P max x depth) / 2000
Depth (ft) 5 ft 10 ft
Pmax (psf) 312 624
Force (tons) 0.4 1.6
37
Water in Joint
38
Ice is a
Common Sight
on Highwalls in
Cold Climates
Ice can cause
freeze/thaw
damage, restrict
water flow to
increase pressure,
and increase the
weight of sliding
masses.
39
Highwall Failure Modes
What is a highwall failure?
A highwall failure is generally the unintended
loss of material from a highwall.
Basically two types of highwall failures:
Rock Mass Failures involve a relatively large
amount of material on a large portion of a
highwall. Material or structure controlled.
Rock Falls involve a discrete number of
individual rocks on a small portion of a highwall.
Volume of material involved and exposure
contributes to hazard.
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Rock Mass Failure
42
Rock Falls
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Some Factors That Contribute to
Highwall Instability
Rock mass properties (strength, structure,
etc.); highwall geometry (angles, heights,
etc.); face orientation
Precipitation (rain, snow)
Ground water
Freeze Thaw Cycles
Equipment Vibrations and Blasting
Soil Decomposition
Burrowing Animals, Tree Roots
Wind
44
Rock Mass Failure Modes
Planar
Wedge
Toppling
Circular
45
Planar Failures
Involve sliding movement along a single
discontinuity surface; however,
additional discontinuities typically define
the lateral extent of the failures.
46
Planar Failure
47
Wedge Failures
Involve sliding movement along two
discontinuity surfaces that intersect at
an angle forming a wedge shaped block
in the highwall face.
48
Wedge Formation
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Toppling Failures
Involve buckling or rotational
movement around the base of a slab or
column formed by steeply dipping
discontinuities oriented parallel or sub-
parallel to the highwall face.
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Toppling Failure
51
Toppling Failure
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Circular Failure
Involve rotational and sliding movement
along a failure surface that occurs along
numerous discontinuities and often
approximates the arc of a circle.
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Circular Failure
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Circular Failure - Before
55
Circular Failure - After
56
Highly Fractured Rock Mass
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Rock Falls
Intact blocks of
rock on the
fragmented
highwall are
susceptible to
falling since they
are unconfined.
58
Rock Falls (contd)
Exposure, block weight, drop height,
and highwall geometry are critical in
evaluating rock fall hazards.
Block weight and drop height will
determine the damage potential of a
falling rock when it strikes.
Geometry of the highwall will affect
how a rock falls and where it lands.
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Energy of a Rock Fall
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What About a 230-foot Fall?
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(Ritchie 1963)
Highwall Geometry
63
Launch Feature
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Loose Material
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Risks to Vehicular Traffic
66
Underground Mine Workings
Underground mine workings in close
proximity to a highwall, especially those that
daylight in the highwall face, can cause
instability.
This is due to pre-existing subsidence
damage or the potential for subsidence
damage in the overlying rock strata.
Unstable highwall conditions in the vicinity
of underground mine workings should be
anticipated.
Shorter highwalls and wider benches can
improve the stability of the highwall by
reducing overburden load as well as the
amount of material that could become
unstable. 67
Highwall with Underground Mining Failure, MD. (4 slides)
Approximate Equipment
Location after Removing a Large
Volume of Failed Rock
68
Perimeter of highwall failure that
caused the fatalities.
71
Remediating the
Hazard
Measures Intended to Prevent
Failure and Exposure
Rock Cut Stabilization and Protection
74
Rock
reinforcement
methods for
highwall
stabilization.
75
(TRB 1996)
Rock Bolting
76
Shotcrete Face
77
Drainage
If a water problem is expected,
defensive measures can be taken:
Grouting to prevent infiltration,
Diversion ditches above the highwall
to prevent surface runoff,
Vertical wells behind the highwall
crest, and
Horizontal drains in the highwall face.
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Rock Removal
The goal of rock removal is to remove
potentially loose rock from the face of
the highwall.
79
Rock removal
methods for
highwall
stabilization.
80
(TRB 1996)
Pre-Splitting Highwall
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Mechanical Scaling
Mechanical scaling is generally
considered to be scaling by heavy
equipment.
It is not very selective and will generally
only remove excessively loose material.
It may also cause damage to the
highwall, creating more loose material in
the process.
Dragging the face of the highwall with a
chain or similar object is marginally
effective at best. 82
Scaling Chain
83
Dragging the Face
84
Scaling with Crane
85
Scaling with Excavator
Can be more effective with good communication between
operator and person directing. But still for relatively small areas.
Be aware of equipment
positioning. Wall must be
stable under equipment.
86
Manual Scaling
Manual scaling is generally considered
to be scaling with hand tools.
It is very selective and can be very
effective with trained scalers.
However, it can be labor intensive
depending on the condition of the face.
The positioning of personnel and
equipment must be carefully
considered.
87
Scalers Supported by Ropes
88
Rock Catch Ditches
Ritchie 1963
Methodology can
also be used to
Ritchie 1963
design berms.
89
Wire Mesh
on Highwall
90
Catch Fence
91
Protection Measures More
Commonly Used in Mining
Examination
Restrict
Access
Equipment
Position
Benches
Berms
Computer
Modeling
Monitoring 92
Examination of Ground Conditions
A critical step in protection.
Regular, thorough examinations help
identify potentially hazardous areas
and developing conditions.
Conditions should be examined from
all possible angles.
Particular attention should be paid to
the toe and crest areas.
Fallen rock at the toe and cracks
behind the highwall crest are often
signs of developing stability problems.
93
Warning Signs and Barriers to
Restrict Access
94
Equipment Position Relative to
the Highwall Face
95
Equipment Position Relative to Highwall Face
96
Benches reduce the distance a rock can fall
97
Full Benches
98
The Problem of Full Benches
99
Berms
Berms can effectively be used to
control rock fall hazards.
Berms create a catch basin to contain
falling material.
Berms are also an effective barrier to
keep personnel out of area.
Berms must be properly sized and
located.
Berms must be maintained.
100
Berm Containing Material
101
Berm Not Containing Material
102
Is Berm Properly Sized and Located?
103
Computer Modeling
Computer models such as the Colorado
Rockfall Simulation Program (CRSP)
can be used to design rockfall
protection measures.
Computer programs:
model field conditions,
apply random affects,
run many simulations, and
analyze patterns.
104
90-Degree
Face, 50-
foot face
heights
with 20-
foot-wide
bench
105
70-degree vs. 80-degree
slope angles
70 degree 80 degree
60 feet 25 feet
106
Highwalls with a Ledge
70 degree 80 degree
107
Highwalls with a Berm
108
Highwall Monitoring
Monitoring is surveillance of the
highwall either visually or with the aid
of instruments.
Objectives of monitoring:
Maintain a safe operation.
Provide advance notice of instability
allowing for the timely evacuation of
personnel.
Provide information on the extent and
rate of failure to help identify appropriate
remedial measures, modify the mining
plan, or redesign the slope. 109
Visual Monitoring
(aka Spotters)
Visual monitoring of a highwall often
has limited value.
Visual monitoring is often not
sufficiently consistent or quantitative
for informed decision making.
Spotter reaction time, as well as means
of sounding alarm are critical
considerations.
110
Example of
Spotter Log
An accurate
historical
movement vs.
time record of
highwall behavior
is critical in
evaluating the
hazard potential.
112
(Broadbent and Zavodni 1982)
Monitoring with Instruments
Monitoring with instruments provides
quantitative information on minute
highwall movements.
New technologies can provide this
information in real time, all the time.
Example of new technologies include:
Wireline Extensometers;
Prism Surveying;
Global Positioning Systems (GPS);
Laser Imaging; and
Slope Scanning Radar.
113
Manual Crack Growth Monitoring
114
Wireline Extensometers
115
Prism Surveying Robotic Theodolite
116
GPS Receiver
117
Slope Stability Radar
118
For Additional Assistance
Contact Your Local MSHA Office
Or
Stan Michalek
Chief, Mine Waste and Geotechnical Engineering Division
Pittsburgh Safety and Health Technology Center
Mine Safety and Health Administration
(412) 386 - 6974