Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

2.18 Double Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor

Some of the discussions of off-beat applications of the wound-rotor induction motor may have appeared
remote from our everyday experiences with motors. However, it will be appreciated that some of the
behaviorisms of the wound-rotor motor bear quite-relevantly on the principles underlying operation of a
very popular motor that is extensively used in a wide variety of applications. This is the so-called double
squirrel-cage induction motor.

Fig. 2.27

Fig. 2.27 shows a basic constructional feature of the double squirrel-cage induction motor. The low-
resistance cage also has high inductive-reactance because it is surrounded by a great deal of rotor core
material. Conversely, the high resistance cage has relatively low reactance. During starting, the rotor
frequency is high so the preponderance of torque-producing current flows in the high-resistance squirrel-
cage. At higher speeds, rotor frequency decreases and induced current gradually diverts to the low-
resistance cage. This favors desirable running characteristics for the motor. Noteworthy is the fact that
no centrifugal switches are needed.
These motors usefulness stems from the fact that they combine some of the salient features of both, the
'ordinary' squirrel-cage motor and the wound-rotor squirrel-cage motor. These are predominantly poly-
phase motors. Specifically, the double squirrel-cage motor provides both high starting- torque and good
speed-regulation with respect to load. To accomplish this, two squirrel-cage structures are carried by the
rotor. Contrary to what one might expect, no centrifugal switch is used to transfer operation from one
cage to the other. Yet, between standstill and rated speed, the transfer gradually and automatically does
take place.
The two squirrel-cage structures are shown in Fig. 2.27. The inner cage features low resistance, but
relatively high inductive reactance because it is of large cross-section and is immersed deeply in the
rotor core-material. At standstill and at slow speeds when the rotor frequency is high, this cage will be
largely ignored insofar as concerns induced current. Rather, most induced current will be in the outer
cage which has high resistance, but quite low inductive-reactance. This is ideal for high starting-torque.
(In the wound-rotor motor, this was achieved via an external resistance-box.)
As the motor gains speed, the rotor frequency decreases, enabling more and more induced current to be
developed in the inner, low-resistance cage because its reactance no longer impedes such current. This
too is good news, for good speed-regulation of the running motor requires a very low resistance squirrel
cage. At operating speed, the high-resistance cage can be said to be ignored as a participant in
contributing to motor torque. This is because of the much-higher current (and better power-factor) now
carried by the low-resistance squirrel-cage.
One of the advantages of the slip-ring motor is that resistance may be inserted in the rotor circuit to
obtain high starting torque (at low starting current) and then cut out to obtain optimum running
Mandhir Verma 1
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

conditions. However, such a procedure cannot be adopted for a squirrel cage motor because its cage is
permanently short-circuited. In order to provide high starting torque at low starting current, double-cage
construction is used.

2.18.1 Construction
As the name suggests, the rotor of this motor has two squirrel-cage windings located one above the other
as shown in Fig. 2.28 (i).
(i) The outer winding consists of bars of smaller cross-section short-circuited by end rings.
Therefore, the resistance of this winding is high. Since the outer winding has relatively open
slots and a poorer flux path around its bars (Fig. 2.28 (ii)), it has a low inductance. Thus the
resistance of the outer squirrel-cage winding is high and its inductance is low.
(ii) The inner winding consists of bars of greater cross-section short-circuited by end rings.
Therefore, the resistance of this winding is low. Since the bars of the inner winding are
thoroughly buried in iron, it has a high inductance (Fig. 2.28 (ii)). Thus the resistance of the
inner squirrel cage winding is low and its inductance is high.

Fig. 2.28

2.18.2 Working
When a rotating magnetic field sweeps across the two windings, equal e.m.f.s are induced in each.

(i) At starting, the rotor frequency is the same as that of the line (i.e., 50 Hz), making the
reactance of the lower winding much higher than that of the upper winding. Because of the
high reactance of the lower winding, nearly all the rotor current flows in the high-resistance
outer cage winding. This provides the good starting characteristics of a high-resistance cage
winding. Thus the outer winding gives high starting torque at low starting current.
(ii) As the motor accelerates, the rotor frequency decreases, thereby lowering the reactance of the
inner winding, allowing it to carry a larger proportion of the total rotor current At the normal
operating speed of the motor, the rotor frequency is so low (2 to 3 Hz) that nearly all the rotor
current flows in the low-resistance inner cage winding. This results in good operating
efficiency and speed regulation.

2.18.3 Characteristics
Fig. 2.29 shows the operating characteristics of double squirrel-cage motor. The starting torque of this
motor ranges from 200 to 250 percent of full-load torque with a starting current of 4 to 6 times the full-
load value. It is classed as a high-torque, low starting current motor.

Mandhir Verma 2
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

Fig. 2.29

2.18.4 Equivalent Circuit of Double Squirrel-Cage Motor

Fig. 2.30 shows a section of the double squirrel cage motor.

Fig. 2.30

Here Ro and Ri are the per phase resistances of the outer cage winding and inner cage winding whereas
Xo and Xi are the corresponding per phase standstill reactances. For the outer cage, the resistance is
made intentionally high, giving a high starting torque. For the inner cage winding, the resistance is low
and the leakage reactance is high, giving a low starting torque but high efficiency on load. Note that in a
double squirrel cage motor, the outer winding produces the high starting and accelerating torque while
the inner winding provides the running torque at good efficiency.
Fig. 2.31 (a) shows the equivalent circuit for one phase of double cage motor referred to stator. The two
cage impedances are effectively in parallel. The resistances and reactances of the outer and inner rotors
are referred to the stator. The exciting circuit is accounted for as in a single cage motor. If the
magnetizing current (Io) is neglected, then the circuit is simplified to that shown in Fig. 2.31 (b).

Fig. 2.31
Mandhir Verma 3
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

From the equivalent circuit, the performance of the motor can be predicted.
Total impedance as referred to stator is
1 Z Z
Z 01 R1 jX 1 R1 jX 1 i o (2.100)
1 1 Z i Z o
Z i Z o

2.19 Starting Methods of Three-Phase Induction Motor

In a three phase induction motor, the induced e.m.f in the rotor circuit depends on the slip of the
induction motor and the magnitude of the rotor current depends upon this induced e.m.f. When the
motor is started, the slip is equal to 1 as the rotor speed is zero, so the induced e.m.f in the rotor is large.
As a result, a very high current flows through the rotor. This is similar to a transformer with the
secondary coil short circuited, which causes the primary coil to draw a high current from the mains.
Similarly, when an induction motor starts, a very high current is drawn by the stator, on the order of 5 to
9 times the full load current. This high current can damage the motor windings and because it causes
heavy line voltage drop, other appliances connected to the same line may be affected by the voltage
fluctuation. To avoid such effects, the starting current should be limited. A soft start starter is a device
which limits the starting current by providing reduced voltage to the motor. Once the rotor speed
increases, the full rated voltage is given to it.
Following are the methods for starting of induction motor:
1) Direct On Line Sarting
2) Stator Resistance Starting
For Squirrel Cage Induction M otor
3) Auto Transformer Starting

4) Star Delta Starting
5) Rotor Resistance Starting For Slip Ring Induction M otor

In all these methods (from 2 to 4) the applied voltage to the squirrel cage induction motor is reduced
during starting.

2.19.1 Direct On-line Starting

Rotor Input 2N sT (2.101)

=KT (2.102)
The rotor copper losses are given by
Pcu I 22 R2 (2.103)
or Pcu s Rotor Input (2.104)
or Pcu s KT (2.105)
Comparing equations (2.103) and (2.105) we get
I 22 R2 sKT (2.106)
As rotor resistance R2 in case of squirrel cage induction motor is constant hence
I2
or T 2 (2.107)
s
Now at starting moment, slip s = 1, and as I1 = I2
Hence Tst I 22 I12 I st2 I sc2 (2.108)
And at full load let the
Full-load current = If
Full-load slip = sf
Mandhir Verma 4
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

Full load torque = Tf

I 2f
Tf (2.109)
sf
Dividing equation (2.108) by equation (2.109) we get
2
Tst I sc
sf (2.110)
T f I f
Now taking an example when slip is 4% or
s = 0.04
I sc 7 I f
Then from equation (2.110) we have
7 0.04 1.96
Tst 2

Tf
or Tst 1.96 T f
Hence it is clear that when the starting current (or Isc) is 7 times the full load current, the motor develops
a starting torque which is only 1.96 times the full load value. There fore this method is useful for small
motors only.

2.19.2 Stator Resistor Starting

This method is also known as primary resistors or primary rheostat or primary reactor starting.
By using external primary resistors, the applied voltage can be reduced. Hence the initial current drawn
by the motor is reduced. However it should be noted that the current varies direct as the voltage, where
as the torque varies square of the applied voltage. This is because when the applied voltage is reduced,
the rotating flux is reduced which in turn, decreases rotor e.m.f and hence rotor current I2.
Starting torque, which depends both on and I2 suffers on two counts when applied voltage is reduced.

Fig. 2.32
Mandhir Verma 5
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

Now the voltage across winding of the stator and the external primary resistor connected in series with
the winding be V (Fig 2.32). There will be a voltage drop across resistor and hence a reduced voltage
will appear across the winding which is say xV. Hence the starting current will be
xV
I st 1 (2.111)
Z sc
and the short circuit current will be
V
I sc 1 (2.112)
Z sc
From equation (2.111) and (2.112) we have
I st xI sc (2.113)
From equation (2.113) equation (2.110) will become
2 2
Tst I st xI
s f sc s f (2.114)
T f I f I
f
2
Tst I
or x 2 sc s f (2.115)
Tf I
f

Hence it seen from the above expression that the short circuit current Isc decreases by same fraction x
at which the applied voltage V decreases. As the external resistor is cut out of the circuit, the motor
will speed up.

2.19.3 Auto Transformer Starting

Auto transformer starting method can be used both for star and delta connected motors. With direct on
line starting, the starting current is given by
V
I sc 1 (2.116)
Z sc
or I st xI sc (2.117)
Now in a transformer, the ratio of current is inversely proportional to the voltage ratio i.e.,
I1 V2
(2.118)
I 2 V1

Fig. 2.33

or I1V1 I 2V2 (2.119)

or V1 I L ( xI sc )( xV1 ) (2.120)
or I L x 2 I sc (2.121)

So with the help of auto transformer starting, the line current is reduced by x2 fraction.

Mandhir Verma 6
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

Fig. 2.34

2 2
Tst I st xI
Now s f sc s fl (2.121)
T fl I fl I
fl
2
Tst I
or x 2 sc s fl (2.122)
T fl I
f
IL
From equation (2.121) putting I sc we get
x2
2
Tst I
or x2 2 L sf (2.123)
T fl x I
fl
2
Tst 1 I
or 2 L sf (2.124)
T fl x I fl

So it is clear from the equation (2.124) that the starting torque are reduced to x2 times to their
corresponding values with direct on line (DOL) method.

2.19.4 Star-Delta Starting

A star-delta starter is used for a squirrel-cage motor designed to run normally on delta connected stator
winding.

Mandhir Verma 7
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

Fig. 2.35

It consists of a two-way switch which connects the motor in star for starting and then in delta for normal
running.
In Star Connection

Fig. 2.36

Line Voltage 3 Phase Voltage

or VL 3 V ph (2.125)
Vp VL
and I st I ph (2.126)
Z 3Z
VL 1
or I st I sc (2.127)
3Z 3
I
or I st sc (2.128)
3
From the torque ratio expression
2 2
Tst I st 1 I sc
s fl s (2.129)
T fl I fl 3 I fl
fl

Mandhir Verma 8
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

2
Tst 1 I sc
or s fl (2.130)
T fl 3 I fl
i.e., the starting torque is reduced 1/3rd and the starting current also decreases 1/3rd.

2.19.5 Rotor Resistance Starting

Slip ring induction motors are started by rotor resistance starting. In this method, a variable star-
connected rheostat connected in the rotor circuit through slip rings and full voltage is applied to the
stator winding (Fig. 2.37).

Fig. 2.37

In starting, full resistances are connected and thus the supply current to the stator is reduced. The rotor
begins to rotate and the external resistances are gradually cut out of the circuit.

2.20 Power Flow Diagram

An induction motor can be basically described as a rotating transformer. Its input is a 3 phase system of
voltages and currents. For an ordinary transformer, the output is electric power from the secondary
windings. The secondary windings in an induction motor (the rotor) are shorted out, so no electrical
output exists from normal induction motors. Instead, the output is mechanical. The relationship between
the input electric power and the output mechanical power of this motor is shown in the flow diagram of
Fig. 2.38.

Fig. 2.38

The input power to an induction motor Pin is in the form of 3-phase electric voltages and currents.

Mandhir Verma 9
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

The first losses encountered in the machine are I2R losses in the stator windings (the stator copper loss
PSCL).
Then, some amount of power is lost as hysteresis and eddy currents in the stator (Pcore).
The power remaining at this point is transferred to the rotor of the machine across the air gap between
the stator and rotor. This power is called the air gap power PAG of the machine.
After the power is transferred to the rotor, some of it is lost as I2R losses (the rotor copper loss PRCL),
and the rest is converted from electrical to mechanical form (Pconv).
Finally, friction and windage losses PF&W and stray losses Pmisc are subtracted.
The remaining power is the output of the motor Pout.

The core losses do not always appear in the power-flow diagram at the point shown in the figure above.
Because of the nature of the core losses, where they are accounted for in the machine is somewhat
arbitrary. The core losses of an induction motor come partially from the stator circuit and partially from
the rotor circuit. Since an induction motor normally operates at a speed near synchronous speed, the
relative motion of the magnetic fields over the rotor surface is quite slow, and the rotor core losses are
very tiny compared to the stator core losses. Since the largest fraction of the core losses comes from the
stator circuit, all the core losses are lumped together at that point on the diagram.
The higher the speed of an induction motor, higher will be the friction, windage, and stray losses. On
the other hand, the higher the speed of the motor (up to synchronous speed), the lower its core losses.
Therefore, these three categories of losses are sometimes lumped together and called rotational losses.
The total rotational losses of a motor are often considered to be constant with changing speed, since the
component losses change in opposite directions with a change in speed.

2.21 Induction Motors Tests

The parameters of the equivalent circuit R1, X1, R2, X2, Ro and Xo can be determined from the results of
no-load test, block rotor test and from the measurement of the DC resistance of the stator winding. The
results obtained from the no load test and block rotor test are also useful for drawing the circle diagram
of three phase induction motor for calculating the performance of the motor. The circuit diagram for
performing the no load test and block rotor test is shown in Fig. 2.1.

2.21.1 Block Rotor Test

The block rotor test on an induction motor is similar to the short circuit test on a transformer. It is
performed to calculate the leakage impedance of the stator and rotor windings. In this test, the rotor is
blocked, that is the motor remains stand still and a reduced voltage is applied to the stator terminals at
rated frequency, so as to circulate the rated current in the stator.

Fig. 2.39
Mandhir Verma 10
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

Under the rated current condition, the reading of the line current, the applied line voltage and the power
input by using two watt meters are taken. Since the applied voltage is considerably lower then the rated
voltage and the rotor circuit impedance is relatively small under block rotor condition (s = 1), hence the
excitation current is very small and the excitation branch can be neglected. With this assumption, the
approximate equivalent circuit of the motor under block rotor condition is shown in Fig. 2.40. Let Vb, Ib
and Wb be the per phase voltage, current and power under block rotor condition.

Impedance under block rotor conditions,

V
Zb b (2.131)
Ib
Resistance under block rotor conditions,
W
Rb 2b (2.132)
Ib
Reactance under block rotor conditions,
X b (Z b ) 2 ( Rb ) 2 (2.133)

Fig. 2.40
W1 W2
Where Wb (2.134)
3
W W2
Power factor angle, b tan 1 3 1 (2.135)
W1 W2

W1 and W2 are the readings of two wattmeters.

Since the resistance of the stator winding is known, the rotor resistance referred to the stator is given by,
R2 Rb R1 (2.136)
As it is difficult to isolate the leakage reactances X1 and X 2 , they are assumed to be equal and given by,
X
X 1 X 2 b (2.137)
2

2.21.2 No Load Test

Under no load test, rated voltage is applied to the stator winding at rated frequency. The motor rotates
freely without any load with very small slip, almost nearing zero. The no load test on an induction motor
is similar to the open circuit test on a transformer. The per phase approximate equivalent circuit of the
motor under no load test is shown in Fig. 2.41, where rotor circuit is shown open, as the rotor impedance
is quite high at very low slip.
Let Io and Vo be the per phase values of the no load current and applied voltage and Wo1, Wo2 be the
readings of two watt meters under the no-load conditions.
Mandhir Verma 11
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

Fig. 2.41

Total power drawn under no load condition,

Wo Wo1 Wo 2 (2.138)

Power factor angle under no-load condition,

W Wo 2
o tan 1 3 o1 (2.139)
Wo1 Wo 2
The components of no load current is given by,
I I o cos o (2.140)
I I o sin o (2.141)
Vo I o ( R1 jK1 )
Ro (2.142)
I
V I o ( R1 jK 1 )
Xm o (2.143)
I
The power factor under no-load condition is much less than 0.5, hence when two wattmeter method is
used to measure the power, the reading of one wattmeter is negative.

2.21.3 Efficiency
The efficiency of a 3-phase induction motor is given by
Psh
100 (2.144)
Psh Pf Pcu
Where
Psh = Shaft power (or output mechanical power)
Pf = Fixed losses
= Core losses + Friction and Windage losses
Pcu = Total copper losses
= Stator copper losses + Rotor copper losses + Brush contact loss

2.22 Speed Control by Conventional Methods

Induction motors are not good machines for applications requiring considerable speed control. The
normal operating range of a typical induction motor is confined to less than 5% slip, and the speed
variation is more or less proportional to the load.

There are basically two general methods to control induction motors speed:
Mandhir Verma 12
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

a) Varying stator and rotor magnetic field speed

b) Varying slip

a) Varying the magnetic field speed may be achieved by

Changing the number of poles or
Varying the electrical frequency

(b) Varying slip may be achieved by

Varying rotor resistance or
Varying the terminal voltage.

2.22.1 Speed Control by Changing number of poles

There are two approaches possible:
Method of consequent poles (old method)
Multiple stator windings method

Consider one phase winding in a stator. By changing the current flow in one portion of the stator
windings as such that it is similar to the current flow in the opposite portion of the stator will
automatically generate an extra pair of poles.

Fig. 2.42

In Fig 2.42 (a) the 2-pole configuration is shown in which one coil is a north pole and the other a south
pole.

Mandhir Verma 13
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

In Fig 2.42 (b), when the connection on one of the 2 coils is reversed, they are both north poles and the
south poles are called consequent poles and the windings is now a four-pole windings.
By applying this method, the number of poles may be maintained (no changes), doubled or halved,
hence would vary its operating speed.
In terms of torque, the maximum torque magnitude would generally be maintained.
This method will enable speed changes in terms of 2:1 ratio steps, hence to obtained variations in speed,
multiple stator windings has to be applied. Multiple stator windings have extra sets of windings that may
be switched in or out to obtain the required number of poles. Unfortunately this would an expensive
alternative.

2.22.2 Speed Control by Changing the Line Frequency

Changing the electrical frequency will change the synchronous speed of the machine.
Changing the electrical frequency would also require an adjustment to the terminal voltage in order to
maintain the same amount of flux level in the machine core. If the terminal voltage and hence the flux is
not maintained the machine will experience:
Core saturation (non linearity effects)
Excessive magnetization current.

Varying frequency with or without adjustment to the terminal voltage may give 2 different effects:
Vary frequency, stator voltage adjusted generally vary speed and maintain operating torque.
Vary Frequency, stator voltage maintained able to achieve higher speeds but a reduction of
torque as speed is increased.

There may also be instances where both characteristics are needed in the motor operation; hence it may
be combined to give both effects.
With the arrival of solid-state devices/power electronics, line frequency change is easy to achieve and it
is more versatile to a variety of machines and application.

2.22.3 Speed Control by Changing the Line Voltage

Varying the terminal voltage will vary the operating speed but with also a variation of operating torque.
In terms of the range of speed variations, it is not significant hence this method is only suitable for small
motors only.
In this method the frequency is kept constant and the voltage applied to the motor is varied. Obviously
the voltage should be only be reduced below the rated value. During running conditions, the rotor
current is given by
sE2
Ir [Eqn. (2.35)]
R22 (sX 2 ) 2
E2
or Ir (2.145)
2
R2
X2
2

s
3 sE22 R2
Tr [Eqn. (2.40)]
2N s R22 ( sX 2 ) 2

3 E22 R2 / s
or Tr (2.146)
2N s R2 2
X2
2

s
Mandhir Verma 14
Chapter II Three-Phase Induction Motor

around the rated speed or full load speed, the slip of the induction motor is so small that
R2
>> X2
s
So that X2 can be altogether neglected in a simplified analysis. Equation (2.145) and (2.146) then
simplify to
sE
Ir 2 (2.147)
R2
sE22
Tr K (2.148)
R2
For a motor operating at full load slip, if the slip is to be doubled for constant load torque, it follow from
1
equation (2.147) and (2.148) that the voltage must be reduced by a factor of and the corresponding
2
current (Ir) rises to 2 times of the full load value.
The motor therefore tends to get overheated. This method, therefore, not suitable for speed control. With
decrease in the supply voltage, the torque-speed characteristics are shown in fig. 2.43.

Fig. 2.43 Fig. 2.44

2.22.4 Speed Control by Changing the Rotor Resistance

This type of speed control is only possible for slip ring induction motors. The torque-slip ( or torque-
speed) characteristics with increasing value of rotor resistance is shown in Fig. 2.44.
For a fixed load torque, as the rotor resistance increases
the motor slip increase and
the motor speed falls.
The stator current varies to a limited extent as the effect of change in slip and rotor resistance tends to
cancel out (refer to equation (2.145)) for small value of slip.
The input power however increases. The power will be lost in the additional resistance provided in the
rotor circuit. The operating motor efficiency, of course, decreases sharply. This method of speed control
therefore is adopted for a narrow speed range and usually for short-time duration.

Mandhir Verma 15