tajccH

vQyfppf ESifh tDvufxa&mepf

ocFef;pmrsm;

armifudkudkatmif ( awmifwGif;BuD; ) rS dkufESdyf? yHkrsm;a&;qGJonf/ 2002 ckESpf 'DZifbmv/

 1

vQypf pf{/foabmobm0

vQypf pfqo kd nfrmS tDvufxGerf sm; aTUvsm;rIaMumifjh zpfay:vmaom obm0 tm;

w&yfyif jzpfonf/
( t&m0w K wd k i f ; ud k armf v D u sK; rsm;ES i f h zG J U pnf ; xm;onf / armf v D u sK;rsm;ud k
tufwrfrsm;ESifhzGJUpnf;xm;onf/ )
tufwrfrsm;rSmtrIef(3)ckjzifhzGJUpnf;xm;onf/if;wdkUrSm (1) tDvufxGef
(2)y&dkwGef
(3)e,lxGef
tDvufxGef vQyfppftr(-) aqmifonf/
y&kdwGef vQyfppftzdk(+) aqmifonf/
e,lxGef vQyfppfr&Sd aom trIefjzpfonf/

umAGet
f ufwrf

omreftajctaewGit f &m0wKwikd ;f tDvufxGet

f a&twGuEf iS yhf &kw
d eG t
f a&twGuf
wlnDMuojzifh vQyfppf"mwf (okn)jzpfaeonf/

obm0vQyfppfudkvQyfppfvufjcif;ESifh rdk;BudK;ypfaomtcgwGif awGUjrifEkdifonf/

 2

vQyfppf {/fordkif;

aS ; OD ; umvuyif v l w d k U onf v Qyf p pf " mwf { /f t usKd ; ouf a &muf r I r sm;

ud k a wG U jrif c J h & onf / vQyf p pf v uf j cif ; ?rd k ; Bud K ;ypf j cif ; ?oH v d k u f " gwf ? vQyf p pf
Nidrf"gwfrsm;udkem;rvnfyJ awGUodcJh&onf/ yxrODqHk;aom vQyfppf"mwftaMumif;
prf;oyfrIudk *&dEkdifiHwGif c&pfawmfray:rD BC 600 ESpfwGif prf;oyfcJhMuonf/
ajrBuD;xJrS&&Sdaom Amber (y,if; )tacsmif;udk om;arG;jzifh yGwfwdk ufaomtcg
y,if;acsmif;onf ao;i,faom t&wKrsm;udkrsm; qGJiifaMumif;awGU&SdEdkifcJhMuonf/
(,ckacwf umvwGifwGifqGJiifrIonf vQyfppfaMumifhjzpfonf [kem;vnf Muonf/)
15 &mpkESpfwGifodyHynmSifrsm;onf vQyfppf{/foabmobm0rsm;udkteD;uyfavhvmod
&SdNyD; ed,mr oabmw&m;rsm;udkvnf;azmfxkwfEkdifchJMuonf/tvufpef'kd? Adkvfvwm?
*sdrf;0yf? a*smhtkrf;? *sdrf;*sKd;vf wdkUonf vQyfppf? oHvdkuf ESifh kyaA' taMumif;wdkU{/f
oabmw&m;rsm;udk azmfxkwfchJMuonf/ xdkaMumifh vQyfppf ESifh qdkifaom,lepfrsm;tm;
if;wkUd udk *kPjf yKaomtm;jzifh volt, ohm, joule , watt pojzifh owfrw S f ac:a0: chMJ uonf/
1752 ck E S p f wG i f bif * smrif z&ef u vif (Benjamin Fraklin ) qd k o nf
rdk;GmNyD;vQyfppfvuf aecsdefwGif avwHcGef(pGef) vTwfNyD; pGefBudK;{/f atmuftpGef;wGif
aomh w H w acsmif ; ud k c sd w f q G J x m; ygu? rk d ; Bud K ;ypf a omtcgajrBuD ; ES i f h x d a eaom
aomhtydkif;wGif vQyfppfrD;yGm;rsm;xGufvmonf udkawGU&onf/,if;tjzpftysufrS
od&Sd&onf rSm rdk;wdrf atmufajc0kdif;wGifpka0;aeaom vQyfppf"mwftrrsm;onf ajrBuD;
ay:&SdvQyfppf tzdkaqmifaom ae&m ESifh vQyfppf pD;ul;ojzifh jzifhayonf/
19 &mpk ESpw f iG f vQypf pf"mwfEiS q
hf ikd af omypn;f ud&, d mrsm;udk wDxiG v f mEkid Mf uonf/
1837 ckESpf wGif vQyfppf"mwfudk tokH;jyK
aMu;eef;ydkUpufudk wDxGif EkdifchJonf/w,fvDzkef;udk
tvuf Z ef ; 'g; ? *a&[rf b J v f u 1876 ck E S p f
wGiw f x
D iG cf o
Jh nf/
1878 ckESpf wGif aomrwftuf'DZif u vQyfppfrD;vHk;udkwDxGifEkdifchJonf/

vQyfppfwGef;tm; ((Electricmotive Force )

vQyfppfpD;aMumif; (Electric current ) pD;qif;Ekdif&eftwGuf wGef;tm;ay;aom

t&mudkvQyfppfwGef;tm; [kac:onf/
yp n f ; wpf f c k c k wG i f ; od k U electron rsm; aT v sm;pD ; qif ; oG m ;jcif ; ud k
vQypf pfaMumif;pD;qif;onf[ak c:onf/
 3

vQyfukl;ypnf;(conductor) ESifh vQyfumypnf; ((insulator))

tDvufxGef rsm; tvG,w f ul pDqif;Ekid af om ypn;f udk vQyu

f ;l ypn;f [kac:onf/
Oyrm/ /oH? aMu;eD? aiG/

tD v uf x G e f r sm;tvG , f w ul r pD q if ; Ek d i f a omyp n f ; rsm; (od k U r[k w f )

vHk;0rpD;qif;Ekdifaomypnf;rsm;udk vQyfumypnf; [kac:onf/
Oyrm/ /opfom;? puL? (rnfonfh "mwfqm;rS raysmf0ifjcif;r&Sdaom a&)

wdkufkdufvQyfpDp;D (Direct Current ) ESifh tjyeftvSefvQyfpD; (Alternating Current)

wdkufkdufvQyfpD;qdkonfrSm tzkdrStr (trrStzdk ) odkUwzufowfwnf;pD;aom

vQyfpD;(tDvufx&Gef )udkac:onf/
tjyeftvSefvQyfpD;qdkonfrS tzkdrStr (okdU) trrStzdkokdUtcsdefESifhvdkufum
tjyeftvSefpD;aom vQyfpD;[kac:onf/

vQyfppfckcHrI (Resistance)

vQyf u l ; yp n f ; wpf c k t wG i f ; od k U pD ; qif ; apaomvQyf p pf p D ; aMumif ; tvG , f

wulrpD;qif;Ekdifaom ypnf;udk vQyfppfckcHrIypnf;[kac:onf/
 4

ta&mif{/foufqdkifaom *Pef;rsm;
teufa&mif 0
tkad &mif 1 yxrt&pf yxrwefz;kd
teDa&mif 2 'kw,
d t&pf 'kw,
d wefz;kd
vdarmaf &mif 3 wwd,t&pf oknta&twGuf
t0ga&mif 4 (txyfajrmufudef;)
tpdr;f a&mif 5 pwKt&pf Tolerance
tjyma&mif 6
c&rf;a&mif 7 wwd,t&pf aTa&mif _ 0.1
rD;ckd;a&mif 8 aiGa&mif _ 0.01
tjzLa&mif 9

Tolerance qdkonfrSm ypnf;wpfck\ tenf;qHk;wefzdk; ESifhtrsm;qHk;wefzdk;

jcm;em;csuf\ xuf0ufudk &mcdkifEIef;jzifh jyqdkjcif;jzpfonf/

pwKt&pf aTa&mif 5%
aiGa&mif 10%
ta&mifryg&dSygu 20%
tkad &mif 1%
teDa&mif 2%
 5

Ohm's ed,mr

vQyf p pf y wf v rf ; wck w G i f pD ; qif ; aeaomvQyf p D ; aMumif ; ( I )onf

xdkvQyfppfywfvrf;wGifyg0ifaomvQyfppfwGef;tm;( E )ESifhwdkuf&kduftcsKd;wlonf?
,if;vQyfpD;ywfvrf;wGifyg0ifaom ckcHrI ( R )ESifh ajymif;jyeftcsKd;wlonf/

^R
I = E^
I {/fwefzdk;rSm Amper (A)
E {/fwefzdk;rSm Volt (V)
R {/fwefzdk;rSm Ohm (W)

Power
ckcHrIwpftwGif;odkY vQyfpD;aMumif;pD;qif;aom tcg tylpGrf;tif
jzpfay:vmonf/
P =V x I
Power {/f,lepf rSm Watt

vQyfppf {/f ydkwifS,f

ckcHrIwpfcktwGif;odkY vQyfpD;aMumif;pD;aomtcg xdkckcHrItay:wGifAkdYtm;wpf

&yfjzpfay:vmonf/xdkjzpf ay:vmaomAdkUtm;udkvQyfppfydkwifS,f[kac:onf/
vQyfpD;0ifaom ikwfbufwGif AdkUtm;taygif;? pD;xGufaomikwfbufwGif tEkwf
jzpfay:vmonf/

txyfrsm;{/f ,lepfrsm;
109 Tera T
106 Mega G
103 Kilo K
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro m
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
 6

ckcHrIrsm;udk qufoG,fenf;rsm;

1/ wef;quf Series

R1 R2 R3

1k 1k 1k

pkpkaygif; ckcHrIwef;qufwefzdk; R = R1+R2+R3

2/ NydydKifquf Parallel
R1

1k

R2

1k
1^Rtotal=1^R1+ 1^R2+ 1^R3

vQyfppfwGef;tm; ( EMF )

vQyfpD;aMumif;jzpfay:&ef vQyfppfwGef;tm;vdkonf/xdkvQyfppfwGef;tm;udk EMF

(Electro Motive Force ) [kac:onf/ vQyfppfwGef;tm; udk "gwk"gwfajymif;vJrIrS4if;?
tylrS4if;? oHvdkuftm;vrf;ajymif;vJrIrS4if;? tvif;rS4if; &&SdEdkifayonf/

vQyfppfwGef;tm; wef;qufjcif;/ vQyfppfwGef;tm; NydKifqufjcif;/

BT1
3V
BT1 BT2
3V 3V

BT2
3V
 7

vQypf pf"gwft;kd rsm;

rlv"mwftdk; Primary cell

vQyfppfudk csufcsif;&Edkifaomypnf;

Secondary cell
jyefvnftm;oGi;f Ekid af omypn;f
Oyrm/ /"mwfcJ? bu&Dtdk;/

rSwfcsuf/ /vQyfppf"mwftdk;rS DC vQyfppf udkom&&Sdonf/

ckcrH rI sm;udw
k efz;kd owfrw
S jf cif;

E6 1 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.7 6.8

E12 1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.6 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2

E12 series udktrsm;qHk;toHk;jyKonf/

 8

Resistor trsKd;tpm;rsm;

Fixed Resistor (wef

wefzdk;rajymif;aom Resistor )
R1

1K

Variable Resistor (wefzdk;ajymif; Resistor)

ajymif

R1
POT

Trimmer Resistor ( cvkwfygaom wefzdk;ajymif; Resistor)

R1
R1
POT

S1
TRIMMER RESISTOR
SWITCH

A=Log type (volume control)

B=Linear type (tone control)

tylcsdefaMumifhwefzdk;ajymif;aom Resistor
RT1
t

THERMISTOR

tylcsdefrsm; ckcHrIenf; Negative temperture coefficient (NTC)

tylcdsefenf; ckcHrlrsm; Positive temperture coefficient (PTC)
 9

LDR Light Dependent Resistor

R1

LDR

tvif;rsm; ckcrH u I s
tvif;enf; ckcrH rI sm;

LDR onf tvif;a&mif{/f jyif;tm;ay:rlwnfckcHrIwefzdk;ajymif;vJEkdifonf/

vQyfodkypnf;)
Condenser or Capacitor (vQ

DCv Q y f p p f " m w f t m ; u d k a c w x d e f ; o d r f ; x m ; E k d i f a o m
ypn;f udv
k Qyo
f ykd pn;f [kac:onf/ xdu
k o
hJ Ukd vQypf pfukd odak vSmifxm;aom owdu v
kd Qyo
f kd
owd capacity [kac:onf/ if;udk C jzifh azmfjyNy;D ? 4if;{/f ,lepfonf farad (f) jzpfonf/

tjym;NydKifcondenser wnfaqmufyHk

vQyfodkowd capacity
C a A
C a 1
1^^d
Paper condenser
C1

Paper c ondens er

Paper condenserudkjyKvkyfyHkrSm
tvlrDeD,rf foil ESpfcsyfMum;xHwGifpuL(odkU)
yvufpwpf Mum;cHNyD; vdyf&ygonf/ 4if;\wefzdk;udk zg;&uf'f jzifhowfrSwfonf/
farad (f) {/fwefzdk;onf tvGGefBuD;aomaMumifch apacitor {/f wefzdk;udkif;xuf tq
woef;i,faom 10-6 rdkudkzg;&uf'f jzifhaz:jyonf/
 10

Ceramic condenser (a<u&nfokwf condenser)

a<u>yefuav;wpfck\ twGif;ESifhtjyifbuf rsufESmjyifrsm;udk owK&nfyg;yg;

okwfvdrf;xm;NyD; qufoG,fikwfrsm;ESifh xdqufug wnfaqmufxm;onf/
4if;wpfckvHk;tm; a<u&nfjzifhzkef;tkyfxm;onf/
C {/fwefzdk;ao;aomaMumifh pF range 10-12 rSmom&Sd onf/ Radio (RF) rSmom
toHk;jyKonf/ Volt cHEkdif&nf jrifhrm;onf/

Mica condenser

Mica condenser rSm mica jym;udk owKjym;ESpfckMum;wGif

Mum;cHxnfUxm;um a<u&nfESpfxm;onf/
uGef'ifqm {/fwefzdk;udkazmfjy&mwGif
105 10_105 pF = 1F
223 22_103pF = 0.022F

Electrolytic condenser

+ C1
Electronic condenser

owdjyK&ef taygif;ESifhtEkwf rSefuefpGmwyf&ef

Variable condenser

C? C?
CAPACITOR VAR CAPACITOR VAR
 11

vQyfppf"mwfoGif;jcif;ESifhxkwfjcif;)
Charging and Discharging (vQ S1

SW ITCH

BT1 + C1
12V CAPAC ITOR POL 220uF

vQyfppf"mwfoGif;jcif;)
Charging Voltage (vQ

vQyfppf"mwfxkwfjcif;)
Discharging (vQ

+ C? R?
CAPACITOR POL R

J?
a

vQyfkdUudGKif)
Inductor (vQ
L1
INDUCTOR

oHvdkufpufuGif;jyyHk)
Magnetic field (oH Air-core inductor (or ) coil
magnetic field

LP?

BT?
BATTERY
LAMP
 12

oHtlwdkif vQyfkdUudGKif)
Iron-core inductor(oH
L1
INDUCTOR

trIefUrsm;udktawmifhjyKvkyfxm;aom)
Ferrite-core Inductor (ferric oxidetrI

L1
INDUCTOR

udGKif {/f *kPfowdudkavhvmjcif;

S1

SW SPST

L1
BT1
9V INDUCTOR

cvkwfudkzGifhvdkufaomtcg wGif "mwfcJrSvQyfpD;aMumif; pD;qif;NyD; udGKifteD;

w0dkufwGif oHvdkufpufuGif;jzpfay:vmonf/
cvkwu f &kd w
k w
f &ufyw
d vf u
kd af omtcgwGiv
f Qypf ;D aMumif;&yfwefUoGm;ayrnf/
odkU&mwGif oHvdkufpufuGif;rSm&kwfw&uf rukefqHk;oGm;yJwjznf;jznf;jzifhomavsmhoGm;
onf/
xdktcgwGifuGdKifay:wGifoHvdkuftm;vrf;aMumif;ajymif;vJrIaMumifh dKUjcif;jzpfay:NyD;
vQyfppf"gwftm;w&yf udk uGdKiftpESpfzufwGif xGufay:vmaponf/
# jzpfay:vmaom dKU&vQyfppf"gwftm;onfrlvtm;oGif;xm;aom AdkUtm;( 9 AdkU )
xuf tqrwefrsm;jym;ojzifh? eD,GefrD;oD; vif;&jcif;jzpfonf/
S1

SW SPST

LP? L1
BT1 LAMP NEON
9V INDUCTOR

prf;oyfcsuf/ /cvkwfudkzGifhpOfrvif;yJ ydwfvdkufaomtcgrSomvif;vmonf/

 13

AC vQyfppf"gwf{/foabmobm0

tcdsefudkvdkufNyD;? vm;&majymif;vJpD;qif;aomvQyfppfudk jyefvSefvQyfpD;aMumif;

Alternating current [kac:onf/

1s wGif 1 ywfvnf ygu 1cycle^sec

1s wGif 50 ywfvnf ygu 50cycle^sec
1c^s udk wenf;tm;jzifh [mhZf Hertz (Hz) jzifhjyoMuonf/
jrefrmEkdifiH\ tdrfoHk;vQyfppf AC 220V , 50Hz (single phase)

3phase system (generator tBuD;pm;

pm;)

line to line voltage > line to neutral voltage

line to line voltage = line to neutral voltage 1.732----- ( 1.732 = sqrt (3) )
Single line voltage 220V AC L-N
Line to Line 220V 1.732

Single Phase 230 V

Line to Line 230V 1.732 = 398.3V
= 400V
 14

rDwmjzifhwdkif;wm &aom ACAdkUtm;onf peak wefzdk; r[kwfyg/ tusKd; ouf

a&mufrI wefzdk; effective value omjzpfonf/ Veff [kac:onf/
(wrsKd; RMS value [kac:onf/ Root Mean Square )
Veff = 1.414 Vpeak
220 V peak value =1.414 220V = 311V AC
Effective value {/f t"dyg,frSm DC 220 AdkUtm; jzifh? rD;zdkwpfvHk;udkoHk; 10 min
ESifh a&aEG;tdk;qllvQif? AC jzifhtoHk;jyKygu 311V ( peak-to-peak ) AdkU(1.414220V)
jzifhom a&aEG;tdk;udk 10 min ESifhqlapEdkifayonf/ 1.414 onf ESpf\ESpfxyfudef;&if;
jzpfonf/ square roots of 2 ( or ) SQRT(2)

Frequency ( BudrfEIef; )

f = 1/T ( Hz ; sec ) : T onf atpDvIdif;\ Mumcsdef (puefU) jzpfonf/

DC AdkUtm;aMumifhDCvQyfpD;aMumif;wpfckonf ckcHrIwpfcktwGif;odkU pD;qif;oGm;tcg
ydkwif&S,f jcm;em;jcif;jzpfay:vmonf/

I ESifhVwdkonf wxyfwnf;usaeonfudk awGU&SdEkdfifonf/

wenf;tm;jzifh I ESifh V wdkUtMum;&Sdaoma'gifhonf phase angle =0 (okn)jzpfonf/
DC ywf v rf ; rsm;wG i f ck c H r I o uf o uf o mygaomaMumif h ? vQyf p D ; aMumif ; ES i f h
jzpf a y:vmaom(od k U )ay;oG i f ; xm;aom DC Ad k U tm;onf Auf w mtm;jzif h
wxyfwnf;usonf/
Voltage ESifh current wdkUMum;&Sda'gifhudk Phase angle ()[kac:onf/
DC circuit wGif Phase angle ()= 0jzpfonf/
 15

AC AdkUtm;onf ckcHrIoufouf (pure resistive) twGif;odkU ACvQyfpD;aMumif;

pD ; qif ; apaomtcgwG i f v nf ; jzpf a y:vmaom vQyf p D ; aMumif ; ES i f h Ad k U tm;wd k U
tMum;&Sdaxmifhonf vnf; (okn) yifjzpfonf/

Power = Voltage Current -------- VA

AC AdkUtm;w&yfudk uGdKifwpfcktwGif; (odkU) x&efpazmfrm wpfcktwGif;odkU

ay;oGif;vdkufonf qdkygpdkU/
vQyfpD;aMumif;onf &kwfw&uf rpD;0ifEkdfifay/xdkUaMumifh udGKifay:wGif AdkUtm;OD;pGm
jzpfay:aernf/ NyD;rS vQyfpD;aMumif; pD;qif;onf/
Coil (or) Inductor twGif;odkU pD;0ifaom vQyfpD;aMumif;onf ay;oGif;vdkufaom
AC AdkUtm;xuf tNrJaemufusonf/
In Inductor, Voltage lead the current (or ) current lags the voltage

Voltage
Phase Angle

Current

AdkUtm; ESifh vQyfpD; tMum;wGif a'gifhwpfck &Sdaernf/ wxyfwnf; rusay/

Phase angle &Sdaernf/
xdkUaMumifh Power udk wGufrnfqdkygu

Power P= Voltage current cos

cos f {/fwefzdk;udk Power factor [kac:onf/ ( cos 0 = 1) jzpfonf/

P= VA cos watt

rSwfcsuf/ / cos {/f wefzdk;onf b,fawmhtcgrS 1 xufrBuD;/

armfwm -wenf;tm;jzifh Inductive load ( kdUowd&Sdaom0ef)

xdkarmfwm{/f trnfuyfjym; Name Plate wGif
220V AC, 50Hz 0.9 Hp , cos = 0.85
[ka&;xm;ygu Power factor onf 0.85om&SdaMumif;odEkdifonf/
0.746 kwatt = 1Hp( jrif;aumifa& Horse Power )
 16

uGef'ifqm wpfcktwGif; vQyfppfwGef;tm; ay;oGif;vdkufaomtcg vQyfpD;aMumif;

onf OD;pGm pD;qif;oGm;NyD;rS AdkUtm;onf wjznf;jznf;wuf vmonf/
In capacitor Voltage lags the current ( or ) current leads the Voltage

AC ESifh DC uGmjcm;csufrSm AC wGif c ^ s or Hz ac: BudrfEIef; &Sdonf/

DC wGif BudrfEIef;r&Sdyg/ ( 0 Hz)
BudrfEIef; qdkonfrSm wpuefUtwGif; jzpfay:vmaom vdIif;ta&twGuf (odkU )
Cycle per second jzpfonf/ if;udk Hertz ( Hz ) jzifhazmfjyonf/

Inductive Reactance and Capacitive Reactance

( dKUrsKd;wkefUjyefrI ESifh odkrsKd;wkefUjyefrI )

Inductive Reactance
AC AdkUtm;wpf&yfudk udGKif(tif'ufwm ) wpfcktwGif; ay;oGif;vdkufygu
if;tif'ufwmonf dkUrsKd;wkefUjyefrI jzifhckcHwm;qD;onf/
AC vQyfpD;aMumif; pD;qif;oGm;jcif;udk ckcHwm;qD;rIudk Reactance [kac:onf/

Inductive Reactance X L = 2 Pi f L Ohms

f =frequency in Hz (Hertz) ; Pi = 3.14159

L = Inductance in H (Henry)
XL onf f ay:wGif rSDcdkonf/ f BuD;&if XL BuD;rnf/ f i,f&if XL i,frnf/

Capactive Reactance
AC AdkUtm;w&yfudk
uGef'ifqm (odkU)capacitor wpfcktwGif; ay;oGif;xm;
aomtvdkufaomtcg xdkuGef'ifqmonf odkrsKd;wkefUjyefrIjzifh ckcHwm;qD;onf/

Capacitive Reactance XC = 1^ 2 Pi f C Ohms

f = frequency in Hz (Hertz) ; Pi = 3.14159

C = Capacitance in F ( Farrad)
XC onf f ay:wGif rSDcdkonf/ f BuD;&if XC i,f/ f ao;&if XC BuD;

Condenser ( or ) capacitor onf DC vQyfpD;aMumif;udk ckcHwm;qD;onf/ wenf;

rjzwfpD;Ekdif/ AC vQyfpD;aMumif;om jzwfoef;pD;qif;Ekdifonf/
 17

Fluorescent Lamp( rD;acsmif;)

vQyfppfrD;acsmif; wpfckwnfaqmufyHk ESifh tvkyfvkyfyHk

rD; Zm

Terminals Terminals

twGi f; wGi f a&mifajy mif; awmufaq; okwfxm;aom zef>y ef

csKyf u d G K if t wG i f ; vQyf p D ; aMumif ; pD ; qif ; aomtcg ud G K if t eD ; w0d k u f w G i f

oHvdkufpufuGif;w&yf jzpfay:vmonf/
STARTER

pwmwmtwGif;wGif avudkxkwfxm;NyD; eD,Gef"mwfaiGUudk xnfUxm;onf/

pwmwm{/f ikwfESpfckwGif AC AdkUtm; 90 V 50Hz xufausmfaeygu "mwfaiGUonf Ion-
ized jzpfNyD; tvif;a&mif xGufvmNyD; tylcdsefwufvmonf/
Thermo carple( owKtquf) jym;rSm auG;qefUvmNy;D wzuf&i dS w
k f ESihf xdomG ;onf/
rsdK;rwlaom owKjym; 2 jym; udk yl;uyfNyD; wGJqufxm;onfudk Thermo couple
[kac:onf/
twGif;zuf eH&Hudk rD;cdk;jzLa&mif&Sdaom Fluorescent phosphar trIefrsm; okwf
xm;onf/
twGi;f &Sd avudx
k w
k x
f m;Ny;D eD,eG f (odUk ) tm*Gef ponf "mwf aiGUukd xnfx h m;onf/
jy'g; mercuary tenf;i,fudkvnf; xnfhxm;onf/
 18

AC
L1 220V
S1

ON - OFF
CHOKE COIL

1 3

2 4

Fluorescent Lamp Tube

LP1

Starter

vQyfpD;aMumif;onf csKyfudGKifudk jzwf rD;acsmif;wpfck{/f rD;pmtwGif; jzwfoef;

oGm;um Stater {/f ikwfwzufodkU a&mufoGm;onf/
xdt
k cdsew f iG f Stater onf rxdaeojzifh AC 220V vQypf pfweG ;f tm; w&yf vH;k onf
if;tay:a&muf&Sdaeayonf/ "mwfaiGUonf ionized jzpfoGm;ojzifh tvif;a&mif ESifh
tyljzpf vmonf/
xdktcg thermo carple onf yGvmNyD;? auG;qefUvmum starter \ tjcm;wzuf
ESifh xdoGm;onf/
xd k t cg vQyf p D ; aMumif ; onf tjcm;wzuf & S d rD ; pmtwG i f ; od k U pD ; 0if u m
vQypf ;D ywfvrf;wGif wpfywfjynfh oGm;aponf/xdt k cg rD;pmESpcf ok nf ylvmNy;D eD&v J monf/
wNydKifeufwnf;rSmyif starter ikwfESpfck xdaeojzifh "mwfaiGUonfvnf; ionized
jzpfEkdifawmhojzifh tvif;a&mif rSdwfum at;vmonf/
od k U vG w f o G m ;onf ES i f h csKyf u d G K if t wG i f ; vQyf p D ; aMumif ; ud k k w f w &uf
tjzpfoGm;onf/xdktcdsKefwGif csKyfuGdKifay:wGif dKU&AdkUtm;BuD;w&yfjzpfay:vmonf/
4if;KdU&AdkUtm;onf rD;acsmif;\ rD;pmrsm;tMum;wGif vQyfpD;aMumif;w&yfudk
jzpfay:apavonf/ xdktcsdefwGif rD;acsmif;twGif; c&rf;vGefa&mifjcnf Ultra violet
vGwfxkwfrIjzpfay:vmonf/ 4if; UV onf zefacsmif;\ twGif;eH&HwGif okwfxm;onfh
Phosphor trIefrsm; ESifh xdawGUNyD; tjzLtvif;a&mif xGufay:vmonf/
rSwf&ef/ / rD;acsmif;onf oufwrf;Mumjrifhonf ESifh trsSab;ESpfbufrJvmonf/
tcsi;f t&mrSm jy'g; rmusK&D onf? tylaMumifh rD;acsmif;twGi;f &St d enf;i,f use&f pfaom
Oxygen ESifh "mwfjyKaygif;um rmusK&pfatmufqdk'f jzpfoGm;onf/
,ckacwfwGif auto - choke [kac:aom csKyfudGKifrsm;udk toHk;jyKMuonf/
 19

Transformer (vQyfwmajymif;)

AC AdUk tm;udk vdo

k vdk twif? tcs jyKvyk af y;Ekid af omypn;f jzpfonf/ t"du tm;jzifh
udGKifESpfck yg0ifonf/ rlvt&pfywf Primary coil ESifh wqifhcHt&pfywf Secondary coil
wdkUjzpfMuonf/ Iron core \ yHkoPmef ay:rlwnfNyD;tac:a0:trsKd;rsKd;&Sdonf/

oHtlwdkfif twHk;tcJjzifhrjyKvkyfyJ oHjym;uav;rsm;tm;jzifh aq;tMunfokwfNyD; ( lami-

nated iron sheets ) xyfxm;um toHk;jyKxm;onf/
4if;\tlqH ay:wGif udGKifrsm;udk wzufowfywfumxm;&onf/ oHjym;tlqHonf
av;axmifhyHkpH r[kwfbJ? puf0dkif;yHkpH jzpfaeygu? 4if;udk Ring Trasformer ( Toroidal
core) [kac:onf/

Vp^Vs = Ns^Np
Vp= Primary voltage
Vs= Secondary voltage
Ns= Secondary turms
Np= Primary turms
 20

x&efpazmfrmwpfc\
k cHEidk &f nfukd 4if;\ vQypf ;D ESihf AdUk tm;ajrm uf&ude;f ESihf azmfjyonf/
Vp x Ip = Vs x Is --------------- ( VA ) volt-ampere rating

x&ef p azmf r m wpf c k w G i f primary VA onf Secondary VA ES i f h

twlwjl zpfonf/
rSwf&ef/ / oHjym;yg;yg;jzifh txyfvdkufjyKvkyf&jcif;rSm oHvdkuftm;vrf;aMumif;
jzpfay:rIaMumifh ? oHjym;twGif;wGif 0JvQyfpD; eddy current rsm; jzpfay:&jcif;udk
avsmhyg;atmifxdef;csKyfxm;Ekdifonf/ xdkUtwl oHtlwdkiftpm; Ferrite core udkvnf;
toH;k jyKEidk o
f nf/

Primary and secondary coil oD;jcm;pDjzpfaeaom x&efpazmfrm rsm;udk isotating

transformer [kac:onf/

Primary and secondary coil udk wpfckwnf; vkyfxm;aom x&efpazmfrmudk

auto-transformer [kac:onf/
 21

Semiconductor (wydkif;vQyful;ypnf;)

t"du yg0ifaomypnf;rSm silicon( Si ) ESifh geraminium ( Ge ) wdkUjzpfonf/ Si

ESifh Ge wdkUonf omref tm;jzifh vQyfumypnf;rsm;jzpfMuonf/
4if;wdkUtwGif;odkU tmpif;epf As ? tifwDrdkeD Sb ponfh j'yfpifrsm; ESifh
a&mvdkufaomtcg vQyfppftuefUtowfjzifh pD;Ekdifaom ypnf;rsm; jzpfvmonf/4if;udk
wydkif;vQyful;ypnf; [kac:onf/
tDvufx&Gef ydk&aom Semiconductor N type
tDvux&Gef vdkaeaom Semiconductor P type

N type rSm t"du o,faqmifaom t&m ( majority carrier ) rSm electron jzpfonf/
( hole - minority carrier )
P type rSm t"du o,faqmifaom t&m( majority carrier ) rSm hole jzpfonf/
(electron - minority carrier )

PN junction
 22

xd k U aMumif h 'd k i f t k y f o nf vQyf p D ; aMumif ; ud k Anode rS Cathode wd k U om

pD;qif;EdkifNyD;cathode rS anode rpD;qif;Ekdifay/
'dkiftkyfonf atpD rS 'DpD vQyfpD;aMumif;odkU ajymif;vJ&mwGif toHk;jyKonf/ 4if;udk
vQyfpD;jyif Rectifier [kac:onf/

Half wave rectifier (vIdif;0uf vQyfpD;jyif)

AC vdi
I ;f wpfck oGi;f vdu
k af omygu DC vIid ;f w0ufom &&So
d jzifh 4if;udk half wave
rectifier[kac:onf/

Full wave rectifier (vIdif;jynfU vQyfpD;jyif)

AC vdi
I ;f wpfck oGi;f vdu
k yf gu DC vdIif;tjynfh&&Sdojzifh 4if;udk full wave rectifier
[kac:onf/
txufyg vQyfpD;jyifywfvrf;rsm;udk atpD rS 'DpD odkUajymif;&ef twGufomrubJ
'DpD vQyfppfoHk;aom ypnf;rsm;tm;? battery "mwfcJ ajymif;jyefwyfrdygu rysufpD;atmif
xdef;odrf;onfU trSm;cH ypnf;tjzpfvnf; toHk;jyKEdkifonf/
 23

Diode (trsKd;tpm;rsm;)

PointContact Diode toHvIdif;rsm;udk ppf&m wGiftoHk;jyKonf/1N 914, OA 70J

Signal Diode ( switching diode ) Forward vQyfpD;aMumif; tenf;i,fom cHEdkifNyD;

tzGifhtydwfEIef;jrefonf/ 1N 4148, 1N914
PowerDiode BuD;rm;aom vQyfpD;aMumif; ESifh BuD;rm;aom ajymif;jyefoufa&muf AdkU
tm;udk cHEdkif&nf &Sdaom diode 1N 4001----------500V
1N 4002----------100V
1N 4001---------4007----------1A 50V to 1000V 1N 4003----------200V
1N 4004----------400V
1N 5401--------5407----------3A 50V to 1000V 1N 4005----------600V
1N 4006----------800V
1N 4007----------1000V
'dkiftkwf ydwfaeaom tcsdefwGif reverse biased 'dkiftkwfay:wGif
ajymif;jyefoufa&mufaeaom AdkUtm;onf VPRVonf VPEAK \ eSpfq &Sdaernf/

Diode (tjyifyef;yHkoPmeftrsdK;rsKd;)

Zener Diode
omref 'dkiftkwfrsm; ESifh rwl reverse biased ay;xm;csdefwGif brake down voltage
wpfae&mwGif wnfNidrfaeaom AdkUtm;w&yfudk &&SdaponfU 'dkiftkwf jzpfonf/
 24

Light Emiting Diode (LED)

Forward biased ay;xm;cse

d w
f iG f junction tquf rS tvif;a&mifxu
G af y:vmonf/
teDa&mif Vf = 1.7----2.2V
tpdrf;a&mif ESifh vdarmfa&mif Vf =2.7V jrifEkdifaom tvif;udkom xkwfay;onf/

a&mifjcnfckESpfrsdK;
c&rf;vGefa&mifjcnf------VIBGYOR--------teDatmufa&mifjcnf(Infra Red (IR)
teDatmufa&mifjcnf xkwfay;Ekdifaom LED &Sdonf/ tjyma&miftMunf Remote rsm;rSmom toHk;jyKonf/

Laser Diode (tNrJwrf; ta&mifwnfNidrfaeaom'dkiftkyf)

vIdif;tvsm; wnfNidrfpGmjzifh teD&ifha&mif tvif;wef;xkwfvTwfonf/ jyif;tm;

rsm;pGm&Sdaom avqma&mifjcnf vdktyfygu ywjrm; udk tDvufxa&mepf tultnD
ESifh toHk;jyKum xkwf,lEdkifayonf/
 25

ywjrm;avqm xkwf,lyHk

Photo Coupler ( Opto-coupler )

tvif;a&mif udktoHk;jyK? AdkUtm;tcsufjyrsm; udk [efUwm;qD;rI Impedance

Bu;D rm;pGmjzif?h wzufrw
S zufoUkd wdu
k f u
kd rf qufo,
G b
f J ay;ydUk Edik o
f nfU u&d,mjzpfonf/
uGefjyLwmrsm;? txdef;ywfvrf;rsm;? wDAGD AdkUtm;ay;ydkif;rsm; wGif toHk;jyKonf/

Capacitance Diode

bdkif;,yfpf AdkUtm;tenf;trsm; ay:rlwnf

ikwfESpfcktMum; vQyfodkwefzdk; ajymif;vJ Edkifaom
'dkiftkwf jzpfonf/ vIdif;xkwfu&d,mrsm;? wDADGzrf;
onfU usLem Tuner rsm;wGif toHk;jyKonf/
 26

Relay (qifhurf;)

&Dav; qdkonfrSm
vQypf pfov H ukd q
f t
JG m;udk
toHk;jyK cvkwf (rsm;)
udk tzGifh tydwf jyKvkyf
Edkifaom u&d,mjzpf\/
yHkwGifawGU& onfU
t wdkif; qvif'gyHk oH
acsmif; ay: wGif 0g,m
BudK;&pfyw fxm;NyD; vQyf
pp foHvdkuf jyKvky fxm;
onf/ oHvdkufrjzpfcsdefwGif py&defqGJtm;jzifh? contact 3 ESifh contact 1 wdkU xdaeayrnf/
oHvdkufjzpfaecsdefwGif armature onf py&def\qGJtm;udk qefUusifum oHacsmif;
odkUuyfoGm;ojzifh contact 3 ESifh contact 2 wdkU xdoGm;avonf/
Contact 1 udk Normally Close ( NC) cvkwf [l4if;? Contact 2 udk Normally
Open ( NO) cvkwf [l4if;? owfrSwfac:a0:Muonf/
uGKd iu
f kd oHvu kd "f gwfjzpfay:&ef ay;&aom vQypf pfyrmP? trsKd ;tpm;ay:rlwnf
12V AC, 24V AC, 24V DC, 220V AC pojzifh &Dav; trsdK;tpm; rsm;pGm&Sdavonf/

Relay Control Circuit &Dav; txdef;ywfvrf;

&Dav; ywfvrf;rsm; a&;qGJ&mwGif ,aeUacwfay: enf;t&? Ladder Diagram

[kac:onfU avScg;xpfyHkpH a&;qGJavh&Sdonf/
wzufygyHkwGif armfwmwpfvHk;udk tzGifhtydwf xdef;ausmif;ay;onfU ywfvrf;udk
az:jyxm;onf/
Rung 1, 2, 3, 4 wdUk onf AdUk tm;ay;ydik ;f ESppf ESi?hf tNyKd iq
f uf xm;aom ywfvrf;rsm;
jzpfMuonf/ cvkwfrsm;? &Dav;rsm;? &Dav;\ contact point rsm;? tcsufjyrD;vHk;rsm;udk t
qdkyg Rung rsm;ay:wGif wyfqif&ayonf/
CR1 onf &Dav;uGdKif jzpfNyD; cvkwfudk zGifhygu 4if;\ contact rsm;udk xdap?
uGmap onf/
Rung 2, 3 wdUk wGif NO cvkwr f sm; ESihf Rung 4 wGif NC cvkwf udw k yfqifxm;onf/
vkyfaqmifyHkudk vG,fulpGmyif avhvmEdkifayonf/
 27

&Dav;txdef;ywfvrf; Ladder Diagram

Switches (cvkwfrsm;)

OFF ON
Slide Switch wGef;cvkwf vkyfaqmifyHk/

Single Pole - Single Throw (SPST ) Double Pole - Single Throw ( DPST )

S1 S1

SPST

DPST
 28

Single Pole - Double Throw ( SPDT ) Double Pole - Double Throw (DPDT )
S1
S1

SPDT

DPDT

&Dav; Contact Point trsdK;rsdK;/

 29

REED Contact Switch ( oHvdkuf cvkwf )

zef>yefi,f twGif;wGif contact point xm;&SdNyD;? jyifyrS vQyfppfoHvdkufuGdKif (odkU)

tNrw J ef;oHvu kd f jzif?h xduyfapjcif;jzifh tzGit
hf ydwf vkyaf qmifEikfd o
f nf/ ,aeUacwfay:
N*dKvfwkpavmif; tvdktavsmuf ae&majymif;&SmazG&mwGif? position sensor tjzpf toHk;
jyKxm;onf/
 30

Transistor (x&efppwm)

x&efppwm onf PN Junction ESpfckyg0ifaom wpfydkif;vQyful;ypnf;jzpfonf/

ikwf oHk;acsmif; yg0ifNyD;? ywfvrf;rsm;wGif pD;qif;onfU vQyfpD;aMumif;rsm;udk xdef;odrf;
ay;Edkifonf/ Transistor [laom pum;vHk;onf Current-transfering Resistor rS rSnfU
ac:xm;jcif;jzpfonf/ t0ifikwf udk vQyfpD;aMumif; tenf;i,f ay;oGif;vdkufygu? t
xGufikwfwGif BuD;rm;aom vQyfpD;aMumif;ajymif;vJapojzifh? x&efppwmonf vQyfpD;
aMumif;udk csJUay;Edkifayonf/ Amplification trfyvDzDau;&Sif; [kac:onf/

wpfydkif;vQyful; tvTmoHk;vTmyg0if
NyD;? wpfvTmpDwGif ikwfwpfckpD xkwf
xm;onfudk Bi-polar Transistor
[k ac:a0:onf/ ikwfwpfckpDudk
Base, Emitter ESifh Collector ac:\/
toH;k jyKaomtvTmrsm;ay:rlwnf
NPN ESifh PNP x&efppwmrsm; jzpf
ay:vmonf/
4if;ESpfrsdK;onf oauFwtm;
jzifh jcm;em;onf udk owdjyK&rnf/
'dkiftkwfrSmuJhodkUyif yHkrSeftvkyfvkyf
aqmif&eftwGuf junction rsm;tm;
bdkif;,yfpf AdkUtm;ay;&mwGifvnf;
jcm;em;ayonf/
Base ESifh Emitter udk t0if
ikwftjzpf toHk;jyKEdkifNyD; Emitter
ESifh Collector udk txGufikwf tjzpf toHk;jyKEdkifayonf/ x&efppwmwGif PN tquf
ESpfckyg0ifojzifh? Bi-polar Transistor [kvnf;ac:qdkayonf/ Base - Collector Junc-
tion ESifh Emitter - Base Junction wdkUjzpfMuonf/ Base - Collector Junction udktNrJ
wef; Reverse Biased ay;&NyD;? Emitter - Base Junction udk tNrJwef; Forward Bi-
ased ay;&onf/
Emitter wGif rQm;OD; \vm;&mudk txl;owdxm;&ayrnf/ Never Points iN [k
rSwfom;xm;Edkifonf/ oabmrSm NPN x&efppwmwGif rQm;OD;onf rnfonfUtcgrQ
txJr0if [kqdkvdkonf/
 31

x&efppfwm \ tjyifyef; ykHoPmef ESifh ikwfrsm;

Japanese Type
2SA-------- 2SC--------
2SB--------
}PNP Transistor 2SD-------- }NPN Transistor
2SJ-------- 2SH-------- UJT Transistor
2SK--------
}FET Transistor

NPN udk biased ay;yHk

VEC >> VBE BuD;&rnf/

B ESifh E junction udk Forward Biased
B ESifh E junction udk Reverse Biased
PNP ywfvrf;wGif vQyfpD;aMumif;onf B rS E odkUvnf;aumif; Collector rS
Emitter odkUvnf;aumif; pD;qif;onf/

PNP udk biased ay;yHk

NPN ywfvrf;wGif vQyp

f ;D aMumif;onf E rS B odUk vnf;aumif; Emitter rS Collec-
tor odkUvnf;aumif; pD;qif;onf/
# B ESifh E onf Forward biased ay;xm;ojzifh Vbe =0.7V cefU jzpfaeonf/

Aproximate Transistor Equivalent Circuit

 32

hie ESifh hfe udk hybrid Parameter rsm;[kac:onf/

hie onf Base ESifh Emitter tMum;&Sd ckcHrI jzpfonf/
hfe onf vQyfpD;aMumif; csJUudef; Current Gain jzpfonf/

Current Gain =Output current ^ Input current

x&efppfwmudk cvkwfwck ozG,ftoHk;jyKyHk/

x&efppfwm wpfvHk;udk biased ay; vQyfppfypnf;rsm;udk tzGifhtydwfcvkwf

tjzpftoH;k jyKEikd o
f nf/

txufygyHkwGif x&efppfwmwpfvHk;\ Collector ESifh Emitter udk cvkwfae&mwGif

xm;onf/
Base odUk + Voltage wpfck ay;vkud af omtcg x&efppfwmonf yGio hf mG ;Ny;D Buzzer
jrnfvmonf/
xkdtcsdefwGif Collector ESifh Emitter Mum;&SdAdkUtm;onf 0.2V om&Sdonf/

x&efppfwmudk toHcsJU&mwGifoHk;yHk ( Transistor Amplifier configuration )

Common Emitter ( CE )
 33

Common Base (CB )

Q1
PNP

Input Output

Common Collector ( CC )
R?
RESISTOR

Q?
PNP

Input output

Common Emitter Amplifier tm; biased ay;yHk

( 1 ) Fixed biased
RL << RB + Vcc

R1
R L
R1
R B

Input Q? Output
NPN

+ V BE

( 2 ) Collector to Base biased

+ Vcc

R1
R V

R1
R B

Input Q1 Output
NPN

( 3 ) Self biased method

+ Vcc
R L
R V C2
R1
C1 R B
CAP NP
Q1
NPN
+ V be Output
CAP NP
R2
Input R
R e
R
 34

C 1 , C 2 toHvdIif;udkul;qufay;aom condenser jzpfonf/

R 1 ESifh R 2 onf Voltage divider jzpfonf/ Base udk biased ay;onf/
R e onf Emitter Resistor jzpfonf/
RLonf Load Resistor onf/

Voltage divider

R1 10K
VRL
BT1
BATTERY

R25K V R 2
VR2 Output

V out = V R 2 = I R 2
E = V R 2+ V R 2
E = ( I R 1 + V R 2)

V R 2 = E - ( I R 1)
=E-(E/R1+R2)R1
= E - ( R 1 + R 2 ) - E R1 / ( R 1 + R 2 )
= E R 1 + E R 2 - E R 2/ R 1+ R 2
=E.R2/R1 +R2
=I.R2
VR2=E.R2/R1+R2
VR1=E.R1/R1+R2

txufyg ywfvrf;wGif R 1 ESihf R 2 yg0ifaom Voltage divider ywfvrf;udk toH;k jyK

R 2 ay:wGif jzpfay:vmaom AdkUtm;udk biased ay;xm;jcif; jzpfonf/

CE circuit udk tao;pdwf avhvmjcif;

V
cc
R1
RL

Q1 Output
Intput NPN

Input Resistance Output Resistance

 35

gain = output / input = A

Voltage gain = output voltage / Input voltage = V o / V in
A V = V o / V in
Current gain = Output current / Input current = I o / I i
Ai=Io/Ii
R i = V i / I i = I B . h ie / I B = h ie
R i = h ie

Equivalent circuit qGJ wGufcsufvQif Voltage Source , Current Source

rsm;yg0ifvmu
Voltage Source udk Short Circuit vkyfyg/
Current Source udk Open Circuit vkyfyg/
R o onf a jzpfaernf/ ( tb,fhaMumifhqdkaomf Current Source udk open
xm;jzpfonf/ )

Ro = R o // R L
= a // R L = R L
[ 1/ R o' = 1 / a + 1 / R 1 = 1 / R L
1/ R o ' = 1 / R L
R o' = R L
A V = V o / V in = I e R L / I B . h ie
= h fe . I B . R L / I B . h ie
= h fe . R L / h ie
A I = I o / I i = h fe . I B / I B = h fe
A I = h fe

toHvdIif;wpfckudk base odkUoGif;vdkufaomtcg Collector rSxGufvmaom

toHvdIif;\ Phase ( toGif ) onf 180 H e uGmjcm;aernf/ Emitter rS xGufvmvQif In
Phase jzpfaernf/

Microphone

( 1 ) Moving Coil Microphone

 36

( 2 ) Condenser Microphone
R1
R
Aluminium
Plate R1
R

Q1 Output
JFET N

vIyfSm;Edkifaom tvlrDeD,rfjym;xnfhxm;onfh rdkufukdzkef;onf toHvdIif;udk

vQyfppfvdIif;odkU ajymif;ay;aom ud&d,mjzpfonf/

vufawGUrdkukdzkef; csJUpufwnfaqmufyHk

txufyg ywfvrf;onf rdu k zdk ek ;f wpfv;kH rS ao;i,faom toHvifId ;f udk csUJ ay;onfh
tBudKtoHcsJUpuf ( Pre amplifier )
Condenser Mic udk R 6 ( 2.7K ) jzifh AkdUtm;ay;onf/
rdkukdzkef;rS toHtcsufjyKvdIif;onf ( 3 ) ikwfrS xGufvmNyD; Condenser C 6 udk
jzwfum T 1 \ base udk 0ifoGm;onf/
T 1 rS csJUay;vdkufaom toHvIdif;onf 4if;\ Collector rSwqifh T 2 \
base odkU 0ifoGm;onf/
T 2 u 4if;vdIif;udk xyfrHcsJUay;um Collector rSwqifh V R odkU0ifa&mufum C 4
rSwqifh Power amplifier odkU ay;ydkUEdkifayonf/
T 2 tm; biased ay;yHkrSm T 2 \ Load Resistor jzpfaom R 4 ( 47k ohm ) rSwqifh
ay;xm;jcif;jzpfonf/
T 2 \ Emitter Resistor ( R 1) wGif jzpfay:aeaom AdkUtm;udk R 5 rSwqifh T 1 \
base odkU biased ay;oGif;vdkufonf/
C 3 ESifh C 5 udk By pass capacitor rsm;[kac:onf/
tjrifhqHk;twGuf AdkUtm;onf 600 mv jzpfonf/ 4if;ywfvrf;wpfckvHk; 9 V battery rS
toHk;jyKaom vQyfpD;aMumif;rS 650 uA jzpfonf/
 37

Amplifier wpfvHk;wnfaqmufyHk ( Block Diaphragm )

Base

Pre anplifier Tone control circuit

MICROPHONE
Trable

Driver amplifier Volume

Pow er supply

Pow er amplifier

SPEAKER

Tone Control ( toHMoZmxdef;aom cvkwfrsm; )

Input

Output
Volume
VR1
10k Ohm C1
0.1 uF

R2

50 k Ohm
Tone

toHvIdif;rsm;wGif vlem; ESifh Mum;aom Frequency (audible frequency )

5 Hz -------- 20 KHz Mum;rSm

20 Hz -------- 10KHz omref
1 KHz or 1000 Hz centre frequency ( mid frequency )

Condenser \ Capacitive Reactance taMumif;

uGef'ifqmwpfvHk;onf AC vQyfppf"mwfudk wkefUjyefonf/ 4if;wkefUjyefrIudk

odkrsKd;wkefUjyefrI Capacitive Reactance Xc [kac:onf/
Xc = 1/ 2pfc , f = Hz ( Hertz )
C = F ( farrad )
F i,f&if Xc BuD;
F BuD;&if Xc i,f
 38

Speaker

Woofer - abhpf oHxGuf&ef oufoufoHk;

Squacker - tv,ftvwforH sm;xGuf
Tweeter- toHp;l awGxu
G f

Piezo Speaker

Piezo
Speaker

Frequency Spectum

Audible Frequency 20 Hz ------20KHz AF

Law Frequency 30 KHz-----300KHz LF
Middle Frequency 300KHz-----3MHz MF
Hight Frequency 3MHz--------30MHz HF
Very Hight Frequency 30MHz-------300MHz VHF
Utra Hight Frequency 300MHz------3000MHz UHF
Super Hight Frequency 3000MHz-----300GHz SHF Microwave

Short Wave Radio SW --------3MHz-------30MHz

Medium Wave Radio MW --------500KHz----1600KHz
Long Wave Radio LW----------200KHz---- 500KHz

FM Radio 88-----108MHz
CDMA Phone 800MHz

Modulation ( vdIif;ojcif;)

toHvdIif; ESifh a&'D,dkvdIif; ESpfckudk aygif;pyfapjcif;udk ac:onf/

 39

Modulation (vdIif;ojcif; )

Amplitude Modulation ( AM ) Frequency Modulation ( FM )

vGu
J s,v
f iId ;f ojcif; Burd Ef eI ;f vdiI ;f ojcif;

AM modulator

Demodulation

Resonaut Frequency ( cGifus BudrfEIef; )

cGifus BudrfEIef; qdkonfrSm Wave trap wGifyg0ifaom Capacitior ESifh Inductor
wdUk \ X c ESihf X L Capacitive Reactance ESihf Inductive Reactance wdUk wlnaD om tcsed w
f iG f
Sm&aom BudrfEIef;udk ac:onf/

At Resonsut Xc = XL
2pfc=1/2pfc
22 p2 (f L . f c )=1
22 p2 f2 . Lc =1
f 2= 1/ 22 p2 Lc
f2 = 1/ 22 p 2 L c
f = 1 / 2 p L c
 40

xkdUaMumifh Wave trap wGifyg0ifaom tif'ufwm udGKifudktaomxm; Capaci-

tor \ wefzdk;udk ajymif;vJay;aomtcg Frequency wefzdk;ajymif;vJonf/
4if; Frequency onf rdrd zrf;,laom AM modulation Wave ESifh wlnDygu
4if;vdIif;onf udGKifrS wqifh 'dkiftkyf odkU0ifa&mufvmonf/
'd k i f t k y f o nf Point Contact Diode trsd K ;tpm; jzpf N yD ; *smareD , rf
jzifhjyKvkyfxm;&rnf/ Oyrm/ / In 60, ponfh 'dkiftkyfrsm;
BudrfEIef;jrifhaom RF vdIif;onf Conductor udk jzwf Ground xJodkU0ifonf/

AM modulation pepfwGif toHvdIif;udk 5 KHz txdom modulation vkyfay;Edkifonf

xdkUaMumifh AM pepfjzifh toHvTifh&mwGif 0.5KHz om&Sdaom toHvdIif;jzifhom

toHk;jyKojzifh toHMunfvifaomfvnf; jrifhaom toHvdIif;rsm; aysmufaeonfudk
awGU&rnf/
Frequency domain wGif jyxm;aom yHkudkMunfhyg/
RF ( 1000KHz ) xuf 5 KHz avsmhaeaom ae&mwGif&Sdonfh toHvdIif;udk LSB
[kac:onf/
RF (1000KHz ) xuf 5KHz jrifhaom ae&mwGif&Sdonfh toHvdIif;udk USB
[kac:onf/
USB ESifh LSB Mum;&Sd Frequency udk Band Width (BW ) [kac:onf/
Band Width = 10KHz &Sdonf/
AM vdIif; -----500KHz to 1650 KHz
pkpkaygif; BW = 1650 - 500 = 1150KHz
toHvTifhvdIif;wpfck ------10 KHz
AM -----1150 / 10 = 115 Station toHvTifhEdkif/
 41

Typical Resistance of Humanbody

65V for Human
24V for domentic animals

80
460 Ohm Ohm

460 Ohm
125 Ohm

125 Ohm
15 Ohm
840 Ohm

840 Ohm

Electromotive Series under normal condition

Substance Electronper atom Electric produce V

Potassium 1 2.92
Sodium 1 2.71
Managanese 2 2.37
Aluminium 3 1.66
Zinc 2 0.76
Iron 2 0.44
Nickle 2 0.25
Tin 2 0.14
Lead 2 0.13
Hydrogen 1 0
Copper 2 0.34
Silver 1 0.8
Mescury 2 0.85
Platinum 2 1.2
Gold 1 1.68
Carbon - 0.74

Carbon + 0 . 74 V
"mwfcJ 1.5 V jzpfay:vmyHk

Zinc - 0 . 76 V
 42

umAGef ESifh oGyfcGufMum; ydkwifS,fjcm;em;jcif; = VumAGef - V oGyfcGuf

= + 0.7 - ( - 0.76 )
= + 0.74 + 0.76
= 1.5 V

Superhetrodyune Radio Receiver Superhet Radio

ANTENNA Block Diaphragm

Volume

455 KHz Output Amplifier

Conventor If amplifier Detector Driver Amplifier

455 KHz

Oscillator
Power Supply SPEAKER

Conventor----- 0ifvmonfh udk zrf;NyD;csJUay;onf/NyD;vQif tv,ftvwf

RF
BuDrfEIef;vdIif; Intermediate frequency odkUajymif;ay;onf/

Oscillator------ 0if v maom RF vd I i f ; xuf + 455 KHz rsm;aom

vdiI ;f udx
k w
k af y;onf/

IF amplifier------- tv,ftvwfvi
Id ;f Intermediate frequency vdiI ;f udk csUJ ay;onf/
wcgw&H tqifhESpfqifh rS oHk;qifh xdcsJUay;onf/

Detector --------RF vdIif;rS toHvdIfif;udk csJUay;onf/

Driver Stage------- toHvdIif;udk csJUay;onf/

Output-------pyDum rS toHxGufEdkifatmif xyfqifh csJUay;onf/

twGif; yg0ifonfh tqifhqifhaom tydkif;rsm;odkU

Power Supply------ Radio
vdktyfaom Biased AdkUtm;ay;onf/
 43

Conventor ( Osicillator )

+ Vcc
If coil T3
ANTENNA
R1
R C5
Yellow
T2
T1 Q1
NPN C2 C?
C1 C?

C4
Ferrite Intenna coil
R2 Red
R3 Oscillator coil
R C3 R

Fo - Fc = Fif
Fo = Fc + 455KHz

Conventor Stage onf avvdIif;xJrS RF Wave udk Antenna Coil rS C 1 wdkUrS

a&T;cs,fay;vdkufonf/ 4if;onf Antenna Coil rSwqifhcH tywfx&efppfwm\
abhpfodkU0ifonf/
x&efppfwm T 1 \ base udk ckcHrI R 1 ESifh R 2 wdkUrSwqifh biased ay;xm;onf/ C
3
onf by pass condenser jzpfonf/
x&efppfwm T 1 \ Collector ESifh qufoG,fxm;aom Oscillaor Coil onf
tifwifemrS 0ifa&mufvmaom RF xuf 455KHz ydkaom vdIif;udkxkwfay;onf/
4if;vdiI ;f onf udKG i\
f tv,fp ( Centre tape ) rS Condernser C 4 jrifh x&efppfwm T 1 \
Emitter udk 0ifa&mufvmonf/
Base ESifh Emitter wdkUrS 0ifa&mufvmaom Single ESpfckonf Collector rS wqifh
IF x&efazmfrm\ t0ifoUkd a&muf&o dS mG ;onf / IF Transformer t0ifukd 455KHz vdiI ;f wGif
cGifusatmif csdefxm;onf/( Resonant jzpfatmif )
xdkUaMumifh IF Transformer txGufrS 455KHz vdIif; ESifh 4if;ay:wGif pD;arQaom
toHviId ;f wdUk yg0ifvmonf/
 44

IF Stage
D? R6
T?
455KHz
R1 R4 C4
DIODE R
R R
C1 C6 C6
CAP NP Q2
!st NPN
Q1
NPN

C3 R5
R C5
IF Transf ormer
R2 R3 C2
R R

1St IF Stage rSxGufvmaom 455KHz IF Wave udk T 2 ESifh T 3 wdkUrS wqifhpD

csJUay;NyD; 3rd IF Transformer ( teuf Core ) rS wqifh xGuf&Sdonf/
IN 60 odkU OA 70J ponf dector diode rsm;jzifh vdIif;ppfay;onf/
Diode twGufwGif ajcoHk;acsmif;&Sdaom RC filter wpfckyg&dSonf/
4if;twGufonf toHvdIif;twGuf jzpfNyD;toHwdk;us,fxdef; Volume Control
odUk 0ifa&mufomG ;avonf/
4if;rS wqifh driver ESifh Power amplifier odkU 0ifa&mufoGm;um pyDum rS
toHxu G vf monf/

Hytrodyning
Hytrodyning qdkonfrSmRF frequency wpfckudk Local Osillator rS xGufaom frequency
wpfck ESifh aygif;pyfapvQyf 4if;wdkUrS Inductor frequency wpfck &&Sdjcif;udk hydrodyne
vkyfjcif;[kac:onf/
( e*drk v
l RF wave ay:wGif arQmpD;vmaom toHviId ;f onf rajymif;vJyJ IF Wave
ay:wGif qufvufarQmpD;oGm;onf/)
Fo - Fc = FIF

Frequency Modulation ( FM )
Bud r f E I e f ; vd I i f ; ojcif ; qd k o nf r S m o,f a qmif v d I i f ; \ Bud r f E I e f ; onf
toHvdIif;twuftus ( vTJus,f ) wenf; Amplitude ay:wGifrlwnfNyD; tenf;trsm;
ajymif;vJapaom vdIfif;ojcif;jzpfonf/
 45

A = sine modulating single

qdkif;vdIif;yHk&Sdaom vdIif;ornfh tcsufjyvdIif;
B = Frequency modulated wave
BudrfEIef; vdIfif;oNyD;aomvdIif;
AM pepfwGif toHvdIif;udk 0 Hz rS 5 KHz txdom vdIif;o&efoHk;onf/
( wu,fMum;Edkifaom toHvdIif; 0 Hz ----- 20 KHZ )

FM pepfwGif toHvdIif;udk 0 ----- 15 KHz txdom vdIif;oEkdifonf/

FM Radio 0 ---- 15KHz
TV Radio 0 ---- 25 KHz
xdkUaMumifh FM pepfjzifh toHvTifhjcif;onf AM pepfjzifh toHvTifhjzif;xuf
Munfvifjywfom;onf/

FM Radio Receiver
FM Radio toHzrf;puf tydkif;onf AM uJhodkU Oscillator - Mixter - IF Stages
ponfhwdkUyg0ifonf/ odkU&mwGif Sletector vdIif;ppf tydkif;onf AM pepf ESifh rwlnDay/
FM detector rsm;wGif Limiter, descriminator , ratio detector tqifr
h sm;yg0ifonf/
FM Radio \ block diaphragm

RF IF
amplifier Conventor amplifier

Limiter Descriminator Output amplifier

SPEAKER

Radio delector
Output amplifier
SPEAKER
 46

Wire \ t&G,ftpm;udk Circular mils jzifhwdkif;wmonf/ odkUr[kwf Wire gauge

jzifh wdkfif;wmonf/
mils qdkonfrS wpfvufr\ tyHkwpfaxmifyHk wpfyHkudk ac:onf/
1 mils = 1 / 1000 inch
BudK;\ tcsif;udk mils jzifhwdkfif;wmNyD; 4if;wefzdk;udk ESpfxyfudef;wif
Wire
&&Sdvmaom wefzdk;udk Circular mils [kac:onf/
Oyrm / / 0g,mBuKd ; wpfacsmif;\ tcsi;f onf 0.1 inch &Syd gu Circular mils ud&k mS yg/
0.001 inch = 1 mils
0.01 inch = 10 mils
0.1 inch = 100 mils
xdkUaMumifh circular mils qdkvQif mils 100 udk ESpfxyfjyKaomf 10000 &onf/ xkdUaMumifh
circular mils onf 10000 jzpfonf/

Bu;D rm;aom 0g,mBuKd ;rsm;udk wdik ;f wmonft

h cgwGif eHygwftvGerf sm;vmvdrrhf nf/
xdktcgwGif circular mils wefzdk;udk 1000 ESifh xyfpm;NyD; 1 Thousand of circular mils
jyqdo
k nf/
*Pef;rsm;udk a&mr vdkjy&mwGif
1=I
10 = X
50 = L
100 = C
1000 = M
1985 = MCM LXXXV