Fyp - Handgesture-Wireless Robot

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Hand Gesture Based Wireless Controlled Robot

A report submitted
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of
Bachelor Of Technology
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Submitted By
Sangam Khare ( 0910331064)
Under the supervision of

Ms. Shipra Saini
Senior Lecturer
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Shobhit Institute of Engineering & Technology, Saharanpur (U.P.)
Gautam Buddh Technical University, Lucknow
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www.final-yearproject.com | www.finalyearthesis.com
UNDERTAKING
We declare that the project work presented in this report entitled Topic,
submitted to the department of electronics and communication, Shobhit Institute of
Engineering and technology, Saharanpur, for the award of Bachelor of Technology
degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Gautam Budhh
Technical University, Lucknow is our original work. The contents of the report do
not form the basis for the award of any other degree to the candidate or to anybody
else from this or any other University/Institution. Further we have not plagiarized
or submitted the same work for the award of any other degree. In this case
undertaking is found incorrect, we accept that our degree may unconditionally be
withdrawn.
May..., 2013
S.I.E.T.,Gangoh Name of students:
Sangam Khare (0910331064)
Certificate
Certified that Sangam Khare (0910331064), has carried out the project work
presented in this report entitled Hand Gesture Based Wireless Controlled Robot for
the award of Bachelor of Technology in Electronic & Communication from Gautam
Buddh Technical University, Lucknow under my supervision. The report embodies
results of original work, and studies are carried out by the student himself and the
contents of the report do not form the basis for the award of any other degree to
candidate or to anybody else from this or any other University/Institution.
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Supervisor
(Ms. Shipra Saini)
SeniorLecturer
Dept. of Electronics &CommunicationEngineering
Shobhit Institute of Engineering & Technology
Saharanpur- 247001, Uttar Pradesh, India
Date: ..
Acknowledgement
We wish to take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude and thanks
to our head of department and supervisor. We are thankful; to all faculty member
and lab staff member of the department who helped me directly or indirectly in
completing the work. Last, but not the least, We are thankful to the management
members and director of Shobhit Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Saharanpur (U.P.) who permitted and supported us for completing this project
work.
Project associates:
Sangam Khare (0910331064)
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ABSTRACT
The main objective of our project work is to control a robot with gestures of our hand.
There are two main components of our system:
Arduino microcontroller
Accelerometer
The accelerometer depends upon the gestures of our hand. Through accelerometer, a
passage of data signal is received and it is processed with the help of arduino
microcontroller. The microcontroller gives command to the robot to move in the desired
direction. The basic working principle for our robot is passage of the data signals of
accelerometer readings to the Arduino board fitted on the bot. The program compiled in
that arduino runs according to that value, which make the bot function accordingly
.While we have used two-axis accelerometer. In which, one axis will control the speed
in forward or backward direction and other axis will control the turning mechanism.
Accelerometer-based gesture control is studied as a supplementary or an alternative
interaction modality. Gesture commands freely trainable by the user can be used for
controlling external devices with handheld wireless sensor unit. Two user studies are
presented. The first study concerns finding gestures for controlling a design
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environment (Smart Design Studio), TV, VCR, and lighting. The results indicate that
different people usually prefer different gestures for the same task, and hence it should
be possible to personalise them. The second user study concerns evaluating the
usefulness of the gesture modality compared to other interaction modalities for
controlling a design environment. The other modalities were speech, RFID-based
physical tangible objects, laser-tracked pen. The results suggest that gestures are a
natural modality for certain tasks, and can augment other modalities. Gesture
commands were found to be natural, especially for commands with spatial association
in design environment control.The project consist of integration of the three
technologies as wireless,gesture & embedded.
In robotics technology we design machines to do the specified tasks and in the

advanced version of it robots are designed to be adaptive, that is, respond according to
the changing environment and even autonomous, that is, capable to make decisions on
their own. While designing a robot the most important thing to be taken in consideration
is, obviously, the function to be performed. Robots have basic levels of complexity and
each level has its scope for performing the requisite function.The levels of complexity
of robots is defined by the members number of actuators and sensors used and for
advanced robots the type and number of microprocessors and microcontrollers used.
Each increasing component adds to the scope of functionality of a robot. With every
joint added, the degrees of freedom in which a robot can work increases and with the
quality of the microprocessors and microcontrollers the accuracy and effectiveness with
which a robot can work is enhanced.
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Contents
Chapter-1: Overview of project

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Aim of our project
1.3 Components used in the project
Chapter-2: Project Technologies
2.1 Embedded system
2.1.1 Fields of embedded system
2.1.2 Characteristics of embedded system
2.1.3 Applications of embedded system
2.2 Gesture technology
2.2.1 Hand gesture system
2.2.2 Applications of gesture technology
2.3 Wireless technology
2.3.1 Wireless system
2.3.2 Applications of wireless technology
Chapter 3-Arduino board with Atmega328 microcontroller
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3.1 Introduction
3.2Characteristics of arduino board
3.3 Board description
3.4 Pin configuration of Atmega328
3.5 Pin description
3.6 Block diagram
3.7 Programming environment with Atmega 328
Chapter 4- Accelerometer (MEMs)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic principle
4.3 Structure
4.4 Types of accelerometer
4.5 ADXL335
4.6 Theory of operation of ADXL335
4.7 Pin configuaration and description
4.8 Applications of accelerometer
Chapter 5-RF-module
5.1 Introduction
5.2 RF-Transmitter
5.3 RF-Encoder (HT12E)
5.3.1 Features of HT12E
5.3.2 Pin description
5.3.3 Applications
5.4 RF-Receiver
5.5 RF-Decoder (HT12D)
5.5.1 Pin description
5.5.2 Applications
Chapter 6-Mechanical Components
6.1 Motors
6.2 Wheels
6.3 Types of wheels
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6.4 Three Wheeled robot

6.5 Chassis
Chapter 7-Processing of robot
Result
Conclusion
Future improvements
Apendix
References
List of tables
4.1 Description of ADXL335

5.1 Description of HTI2E
5.2 Description of HT12D
List of figures
1.1 Basic block diagram of project

1.2 Modules of project
2.1 Embedded system fields
2.3 Gesture movement diagram
.4 Network connection in wireless system
3.1 Simple arduino board
3.2 Pin diagram of Atmega328
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3.3 Block diagram of arduino

4.1 Block diagram of ADXL335
4.2 pin diagram of ADXL335
5.1pin diagram of RF-Encoder
5.2 pin diagram of RF-Decoder
6.1 3wheeled robot
Abbreviations
RF-Radio frequency
GPS-Global positioning system
LAN-Local area network
MEMs-Micro electromechanical system
PDA-Personal digital assistant
HMI-Human machine interface
GSM-Global service for mobile
CDMA-Code division multiple access
GPRS-Global packet radio service
QCN-Quick catcher network
INS-Inertial navigation system
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CHAPTER 01
OVERVIEW OF PROJECT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Finalizing the decision of making a gesture controlled robot that will be manoeuvred by a hand
gloved mounted with the transmission circuit assembly. The circuit assembly will consist of
accelerometer & Arduino board along with an RF transmitter, which together function as a input
device to the bot. We decided on this project because we wanted to do a basic application of
controlling a vehicle with your hand. The controls of our robot are based on gesture of hand,
which becomes simple for any person to handle it. The basic working principle for our robot is
passage of the data signals of accelerometer readings to the Arduino board fitted on the bot. The
programe compiled in that arduino runs according to that value, which make the bot function
accordingly .While we have used two-axis accelerometer. In which, one axis will control the
speed in forward or backward direction and other axis will control the turning mechanism.
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Fig no-1.1 Basic block diagram of project
1.2 AIM OF PROJECT
The purpose of our project is to control a toy car using flex sensors attached to a glove. The flex
sensors are intended to replace the remote control that is generally used to run the car.
Additionally we also created another mode which will allow us to use an accelerometer to
control the forward and backward, and left and right movements, while using a flex sensor to
control the throttle of the car. We have two gloves with one flex sensor and accelerometer,
respectively attached to it.
First of all, we do some experiments on accelerometers and flex sensors and try to get the
required results (calibration).
Then, our next task is to process the sensor data through aurdino and transmit it to
bot's aurdino which thereafter, controls the motor driver of the car. For wireless
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communication between arduino, we think of RF module so that it becomes handy to

control the car.
Then we do work of the mechanical aspects of the car so that we can easily control
through gesture
1.3 Components used in the project

There are mainly four components used for processing &performing the action by the robot
which are as follows-
Arduino board with atmega328 microcontroller
Micro electro mechanical device (MEMs) named as Accelerometer
RF Module
Mechanical components
Fig
no:1.2
Modules of project
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CHAPTER 02
PROJECT TECHNOLOGIES
2.1 Embedded technology
An embedded system is a computer system designed for specific control functions within a larger
system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device
often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as
a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs.
Embedded systems control many devices in common use today. Embedded systems contain
processing cores that are typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors. The key
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characteristic, however, is being dedicated to handle a particular task. Since the embedded
system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost
of the product and increase the reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-
produced, benefiting from economies of scale. Physically, embedded systems range from
portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations
like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants.
Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple
units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.
Embedded systems span all aspects of modern life and there are many examples of their
use. Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone
switches for the network to mobile phones at the end-user. Computer networking uses
dedicated routers and network bridges to route data. Consumer electronics include personal
digital assistants (PDAs), mp3 players, mobile phones, videogame consoles, digital
cameras, DVD players, GPS receivers, and printers. Many household appliances, such
as microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers, are including embedded systems to
provide flexibility, efficiency and features. Advanced HVAC systems use
networked thermostats to more accurately and efficiently control temperature that can change by
time of day and season. Home automation uses wired- and wireless-networking that can be used
to control lights, climate, security, audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded
devices for sensing and controlling.
2.1.1 Fields of Embedded System
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P AL T F O R M S : -
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M IC R O C O N T R O L L E R ,E T C .
R E SI S T O R
C A PA C I TO R
G EA R ED AS S EM B L IE S
AC T U AT O R S :-
FO R A
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R E S IS T O R
Fig no:2.1 Embedded system fields
2.1.2 Characteristics of Embedded technology
1. Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purpose
computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met,
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for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements,
allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.
2. Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems consist of
small, computerized parts within a larger device that serves a more general purpose. For
example, the Gibson Robot Guitar features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the
overall purpose of the Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music. Similarly, an embedded system
in an automobile provides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself.
3. The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and are
stored in read-only memory or Flash memory chips. They run with limited computer hardware
resources: little memory, small or non-existent keyboard or screen.
2.1.3 Applications of embedded technology
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2.2 Gesture Technology

Gesture recognition is a topic in computer science and language technology with the goal of
interpreting human gestures via mathematical algorithms. Gestures can originate from any bodily
motion or state but commonly originate from the face or hand. Current focuses in the field
include emotion recognition from the face and hand gesture recognition. Many approaches have
been made using cameras and computer vision algorithms to interpret sign language. However,
the identification and recognition of posture, gait, proxemics, and human behaviors is also the
subject of gesture recognition techniques. Gesture recognition can be seen as a way for
computers to begin to understand human body language, this building a richer bridge between
machines and humans than primitive text user interfaces or even GUIs (graphical user
interfaces), which still limit the majority of input to keyboard and mouse. Gesture recognition
enables humans to interface with the machine (HMI) and interact naturally without any
mechanical devices. Using the concept of gesture recognition, it is possible to point a finger at
the computer screen so that the cursor will move accordingly. This could potentially make
conve0ntional input devices such as mouse, keyboards and even touch-screens redundant.
Gesture recognition can be conducted with techniques from computer vision and image
processing. The literature includes ongoing work in the computer vision field on capturing
gestures or more general human pose and movements by cameras connected to a computer.
In computer interfaces, two types of gestures are distinguished: We consider online

gestures, which can also be regarded as direct manipulations like scaling and rotating. In
contrast, offline gestures are usually processed after the interaction is finished; e. g. a circle is
drawn to activate a context menu.Offline gestures: Those gestures that are processed after the
user interaction with the object. An example is the gesture to activate a menu.Online gestures:
Direct manipulation gestures. They are used to scale or rotate a tangible object.
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2.2.1 Hand Gesture system
Fig no:2.3 Gesture movement diagram
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2.2.2 Applications of Gesture technology

Gesture recognition is useful for processing information from humans which is not conveyed
through speech or type. As well, there are various types of gestures which can be identified by
computers.
Sign language recognition. Just as speech recognition can transcribe speech to text,
certain types of gesture recognition software can transcribe the symbols represented
through sign language into text.
For socially assistive robotics. By using proper sensors (accelerometers and gyros) worn
on the body of a patient and by reading the values from those sensors, robots can assist in
patient rehabilitation. The best example can be stroke rehabilitation.
Directional indication through pointing. Pointing has a very specific purpose in
our society, to reference an object or location based on its position relative to ourselves.
The use of gesture recognition to determine where a person is pointing is useful for
identifying the context of statements or instructions. This application is of particular
interest in the field of robotics.
Control through facial gestures. Controlling a computer through facial gestures is a
useful application of gesture recognition for users who may not physically be able to use
a mouse or keyboard. Eye tracking in particular may be of use for controlling cursor
motion or focusing on elements of a display.
Alternative computer interfaces. Foregoing the traditional keyboard and mouse setup to
interact with a computer, strong gesture recognition could allow users to accomplish
frequent or common tasks using hand or face gestures to a camera.
Immersive game technology. Gestures can be used to control interactions within video
games to try and make the game player's experience more interactive or immersive.
Virtual controllers. For systems where the act of finding or acquiring a physical
controller could require too much time, gestures can be used as an alternative control
mechanism. Controlling secondary devices in a car or controlling a television set are
examples of such usage.
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Affective computing. In affective computing, gesture recognition is used in the process

of identifying emotional expression through computer systems.
Remote control. Through the use of gesture recognition, "remote control with the wave
of a hand" of various devices is possible. The signal must not only indicate the desired
response, but also which device to be controlled.
2.3 Wireless Technology
Wireless telecommunications is the transfer of information between two or more points hat are
not physically connected. Distances can be short, such as a few meters for television remote
control, or as far as thousands or even millions of kilometers for deep-space radio
communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-way
radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other
examples of wireless technology include GPS units, Garage door openers or garage doors,
wireless computer mice, keyboards and Headset (audio), headphones, radio receivers, satellite
television, broadcast television and cordless telephones. Wireless operations permit services,
such as long range communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use
of wires. The term is commonly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to
telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls, computer
networks, network terminals, etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g. radio
frequency (RF),acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer information without the use of
wires. Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances. Wireless
networking (i.e. the various types of unlicensed 2.4 GHz WiFi devices) is used to meet many
needs. Perhaps the most common use is to connect laptop users who travel from location to
location. Another common use is for mobile networks that connect via satellite. A wireless
transmission method is a logical choice to network a LAN segment that must frequently change
locations
The following situations justify the use of wireless technology:
To span a distance beyond the capabilities of typical cabling,

To provide a backup communications link in case of normal network failure,
To link portable or temporary workstations,
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To overcome situations where normal cabling is difficult or financially impractical, or

To remotely connect mobile users or networks.
2.3.1 Wireless System
Fig no:2.4 Network connection in wireless system
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2.3.2 Applications of wireless technology
Businesses succeed today because they are fast, not vast. Instead of holding large stockpiles of
materials and finished goods inventory to meet customer commitments, companies rely on fast
information exchange to drive responsive enterprise and supply chain systems that adjust to
dynamic production, distribution and service needs.If information is old, it's wrong. And when
information is wrong, systems stop, shipments are delayed, and service and productivity suffer.
Wireless technology has become essential for getting accurate, real-time information when and
where its needed.Now companies are finding new ways to use wireless to create a competitive
advantage. Theyre leveraging legacy wireless LANs to provide automated asset tracking and to
connect their workforces with wireless voice-over-IP (VoIP). Real-time responsiveness is being
extended beyond the four walls with GPS and wide-area voice & data networks for dynamic
dispatch and remote access to enterprise information. Before starting a wireless project, make
sure your solutions provider is grounded in all the aspects required to make a system successful.
Many providers can hang access points and install radio cards, but cant make the connection
between wireless technology and business value.
Mobile telephones
One of the best-known examples of wireless technology is the mobile phone,

also known as a cellular phone, with more than 4.6 billion mobile cellular
subscriptions worldwide as of the end of 2010. ] These wireless phones use
radio waves to enable their users to make phone calls from many locations
worldwide. They can be used within range of the mobile telephone site used
to house the equipment required to transmit and receive the radio
signals from these instruments.
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Wireless data communications
Wireless data communications are an essential component of mobile computing. The various
available technologies differ in local availability, coverage range and performance, and in some
circumstances, users must be able to employ multiple connection types and switch between
them. To simplify the experience for the user, connection manager software can be used, or
a mobile VPN deployed to handle the multiple connections as a secure, single virtual
network. Supporting technologies include
Wi-Fi
It is a wireless local area network that enables portable computing devices to connect easily to
the Internet. Standardized as IEEE 802.11 a,b,g,n, Wi-Fi approaches speeds of some types of
wired Ethernet. Wi-Fi has become the de facto standard for access in private homes, within
offices, and at public hotspots. Some businesses charge customers a monthly fee for service,
while others have begun offering it for free in an effort to increase the sales of their goods.
Cellular data service

It offers coverage within a range of 10-15 miles from the nearest cell site. Speeds have increased
as technologies have evolved, from earlier technologies such as GSM, CDMA and GPRS,
to 3G networks such as W-CDMA, EDGE or CDMA2000. Mobile Satellite
Communications may be used where other wireless connections are unavailable, such as in
largely rural areas or remote locations. Satellite communications are especially important
for transportation, aviation, maritime and military use.
Wireless energy transfer
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Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power
source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of
interconnecting wires.
Computer interface devices
Answering the call of customers frustrated with cord clutter, many manufactures of computer
peripherals turned to wireless technology to satisfy their consumer base. Originally these units
used bulky, highly limited transceivers to mediate between a computer and a keyboard and
mouse, however more recent generations have used small, high quality devices, some even
incorporating Bluetooth. These systems have become so ubiquitous that some users have begun
complaining about a lack of wired peripherals. Wireless devices tend to have a slightly slower
response time than their wired counterparts, however the gap is decreasing. Concerns about the
security of wireless keyboards arose at the end of 2007, when it was revealed that Microsoft's
implementation of encryption in some of its 27 MHz models was highly insecure.
Wireless Printing
Print barcode labels on demand wherever they are needed. Because wireless printers are
independent of cabling and a wired network infrastructure, they can be used virtually anywhere
and relocated in minuteswithout incurring additional costs. Wireless printing provides the
responsiveness and flexibility that modern manufacturing and supply chain operations demand.
These benefits come without performance trade-offs or a premium price. In fact, the total cost of
ownership for wireless printing systems can be lower than traditional, wired-network
configurations
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CHAPTER 03
ARDUINO BOARD WITH ATMEGA 328 MICROCONTROLLER
3.1 Introduction of arduino board
Arduino is an open-source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible, easy-to-use

hardware and software. It's intended for artists, designers, hobbyists, and anyone interested in
creating interactive objects or environments. Arduino can sense the environment by receiving
input from a variety of sensors and can affect its surroundings by controlling lights, motors, and
other actuators. The microcontroller on the board is programmed using the Arduino
programming language (based on Wiring) and the Arduino development environment (based
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on Processing). Arduino projects can be stand-alone or they can communicate with software
running on a computer (e.g. Flash, Processing, and MaxMSP. It is a tool for making computers
that can sense and control more of the physical world than your desktop computer. It's an open-
source physical computing platform based on a simple microcontroller board, and a development
environment for writing software for the board. Arduino can be used to develop interactive
objects, taking inputs from a variety of switches or sensors, and controlling a variety of lights,
motors, and other physical outputs. Arduino projects can be stand-alone, or they can be
communicated with software running on your computer (e.g. Flash, Processing, MaxMSP.) The
boards can be assembled by hand or purchased preassembled; the open-source IDE can be
downloaded for free. The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a
similar physical computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia programming
environment.
3.2 Characteristics of arduino board
a) Inexpensive
Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller platforms.
The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and even
the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than $50
b) Cross-platform The Arduino software runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux
operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
c) Simple, clear programming environment
The Arduino programming environment is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough
for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For teachers, it's conveniently based on
the Processing programming environment, so students learning to program in that
environment will be familiar with the look and feel of Arduino
d) Open source and extensible software
The Arduino software and is published as open source tools, available for extension by
experienced programmers. The language can be expanded through C++ libraries, and
people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from Arduino to the
AVR C programming language on which it's based. SImilarly, you can add AVR-C code
directly into your Arduino programs if you want to.
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e) Open source and extensible hardware

The Arduino is based on Atmel's ATMEGA8 and ATMEGA168microcontrollers. The
plans for the modules are published under a Creative Commons license, so experienced
circuit designers can make their own version of the module, extending it and improving
it.
Fig
no:3.1 Simple
arduino board
3.3 Board
description `
The Arduino Uno is a
microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6
can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a
power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC
adapter or battery to get started. "Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming
release of Arduino 1.0.
3.4 Pin configuration of ATmega 328
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Fig no:3.2 Pin diagram of Atmega328
3.5 Pin Descriptions
VCC Digital supply voltage
GND Ground
Port B (PB7) Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected
for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high
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sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection
fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.
PB6 Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting
Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
Port C (PC5) Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running.
PC6 PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those
of the other pins of Port C.; PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than
the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running.
Port D (PD7) Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected
for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high
sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.
AVcc AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter. It should be externally connected
to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC
through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6...4 use digital supply voltage.
AREF AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.
3.6 Block Diagram
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Fig no:3.3 block diagram of arduino
3.7 Programming Environment of ATmega 328

Arduino programs can be divided in three main parts: structure, values (variables and
constants), and functions
3.7.1 Structure
Setup ( )
The setup () function is called when a sketch starts. Use it to initialize variables, pin modes, start
using libraries, etc. The setup function will only run once, after each powerup or reset of the
Arduino boa
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Loop ()
After creating a setup () function, which initializes and sets the initial values, the loop() function
does precisely what its name suggests, and loops consecutively, allowing your program to
change and respond. Use it to actively control the Arduino board.
3.7.2 Constants
Constants are predefined variables in the Arduino language. They are used to make the programs
easier to read. We classify constants in groups.
High
The meaning of high is somewhat different depending on whether a pin is set to an input or
output When a pin is configured as an with pinMode, and read with digitalRead, the
microcontroller will report high if a voltage of 3 volts or more is present at the pin.
Low
The meaning of low also has a different meaning depending on whether a pin is set to input or
output. When a pin is configured as an input with pin mode, and read with digital read, the
microcontroller will report low if a voltage of 2 volts or less is present at the pin.
3.7.3 Functions
Digital I/O There are basically three functions are used in digital i/o.
Pin Mode() Configures the specified pin to behave either as an input or an output.
Digital Write () Write a high or a low value to a digital pin. If the pin is configured as an iput,
writing a high value with digital Write () will enable an internal 20K pull-up resistor. Writing low
will disable the pull-up. The pull-up resistor is enough to light an led dimly, so if LEDs appear to
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work, but very dimly, this is a likely cause. The remedy is to set the pin to an output with the pin
Mode () function.
Digital Read () Reads the value from a specified digital pin, either high or low.
Analog I/O In analog i/o there are also three functions to take input from accelerometer which
are
Analog Reference () Configures the reference voltage used for analog input (i.e. the value used
as the top of the input range). The options are:
Default The default analog reference of 5 volts (on 5V Arduino boards) or 3.3 volts (on 3.3V
Arduino boards)
Internal An built-in reference, equal to 1.1 volts on the ATmega168 or ATmega328 and 2.56
volts on theATmega8 (not available on the Arduino Mega)
Internal 1V1 A built-in 1.1V reference (Arduino Mega only)
Internal 2V56 A built-in 2.56V reference (Arduino Mega only)
External The voltage applied to the AREF pin (0 to 5V only) is used as the reference.
32
CHAPTER 04
ACCELEROMETER (MEMs)
4.1 Introduction
An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration, also called the four-acceleration.
For example, an accelerometer on a rocket accelerating through space will measure the rate of
change of the velocity of the rocket relative to any inertial frame of reference. However,
the proper acceleration measured by an accelerometer is not necessarily the coordinate
acceleration (rate of change of velocity). Instead, it is the acceleration associated with the
phenomenon of weight experienced by any test mass at rest in the frame of reference of the
accelerometer device. For an example where these types of acceleration differ, an accelerometer
will measure a value of g in the upward direction when remaining stationary on the ground,
because masses on earth have weight m*g. By contrast, an accelerometer in gravitational free
fall toward the center of the Earth will measure a value of zero because, even though its speed is
increasing, it is at rest in a frame of reference in which objects are weightless.An accelerometer
thus measures weight per unit of (test) mass, a quantity of with dimensions of acceleration that is
sometimes known as specific force, or g-force (although it is not a force). Another way of stating
33
this is that by measuring weight, an accelerometer measures the acceleration of the free-fall
reference frame (inertial reference frame) relative to itself (the accelerometer). This measurable
acceleration is not the ordinary acceleration of Newton (in three dimensions), but rather four-
acceleration, which is acceleration away from a geodesic path in four-dimensional space-
time.Most accelerometers do not display the value they measure, but supply it to other devices.
Real accelerometers also have practical limitations in how quickly they respond to changes in
acceleration, and cannot respond to changes above a certain frequency of change.Single- and
multi-axis models of accelerometer are available to detect magnitude and direction of the proper
acceleration (or g-force), as a vector quantity, and can be used to sense orientation (because
direction of weight changes), coordinate acceleration (so long as it produces g-force or a change
in g-force), vibration, shock, and falling (a case where the proper acceleration changes, since it
tends toward zero). Micromachined accelerometers are increasingly present in portable
electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the device or provide for
game input.Pairs of accelerometers extended over a region of space can be used to detect
differences (gradients) in the proper accelerations offrames of references associated with those
points.
4.2 Basic Principle
An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative

to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. Put another way, at any point in
spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of a local inertial frame, and an
accelerometer measures the acceleration relative to that frame. Such accelerations are popularly
measured in terms ofg-force. An accelerometer at rest relative to the Earth's surface will indicate
approximately 1 g upwards, because any point on the Earth's surface is accelerating upwards
relative to the local inertial frame (the frame of a freely falling object near the surface). To obtain
the acceleration due to motion with respect to the Earth, this "gravity offset" must be subtracted
and corrections for effects caused by the Earth's rotation relative to the inertial frame. The reason
for the appearance of a gravitational offset is Einstein's equivalence principle, which states that
the effects of gravity on an object are indistinguishable from acceleration. When held fixed in a
34
gravitational field by, for example, applying a ground reaction force or an equivalent upward
thrust, the reference frame for an accelerometer (its own casing) accelerates upwards with
respect to a free-falling reference frame. The effects of this acceleration are indistinguishable
from any other acceleration experienced by the instrument, so that an accelerometer cannot
detect the difference between sitting in a rocket on the launch pad, and being in the same rocket
in deep space while it uses its engines to accelerate at 1 g. For similar reasons, an accelerometer
will read zero during any type of free fall. This includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space
far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic "zero-g" arc, or any
free-fall in vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a sufficiently high altitude that atmospheric
effects can be neglected. However this does not include a (non-free) fall in which air resistance
produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration, until constant terminal velocity is reached. At
terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards. For the same reason a
sky diver, upon reaching terminal velocity, does not feel as though he or she were in "free-fall",
but rather experiences a feeling similar to being supported (at 1 g) on a "bed" of uprushing air.
Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second (m/s2), in
the cgs unit gal (Gal), or popularly in terms of g-force(g).For the practical purpose of finding the
acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in an inertial navigation system,
a knowledge of local gravity is required. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at
rest, or from a known model of gravity at the approximate current position.
4.3 Structure of Accelerometer
Conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring. When the accelerometer

experiences an acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is able to accelerate
the mass at the same rate as the casing. The displacement is then measured to give the
acceleration.In commercial devices, piezoelectric, piezoresistive and capacitive components are
commonly used to convert the mechanical motion into an electrical signal. Piezoelectric
accelerometers rely on piezoceramics (e.g. lead zirconate titanate) or single crystals (e.g. quartz,
tourmaline). They are unmatched in terms of their upper frequency range, low packaged weight
and high temperature range. Piezoresistive accelerometers are preferred in high shock
35
applications. Capacitive accelerometers typically use a silicon micro-machined sensing element.

Their performance is superior in the low frequency range and they can be operated in servo mode
to achieve high stability and linearity. Modern accelerometers are often small micro electro-
mechanical systems (MEMS), and are indeed the simplest MEMS devices possible, consisting of
little more than a cantilever beam with a proof mass (also known as seismic mass). Damping
results from the residual gas sealed in the device. As long as the Q-factor is not too low, damping
does not result in a lower sensitivity. Under the influence of external accelerations the proof mass
deflects from its neutral position. This deflection is measured in an analog or digital manner.
Most commonly, the capacitance between a set of fixed beams and a set of beams attached to the
proof mass is measured. This method is simple, reliable, and inexpensive.
Integrating piezoresistors in the springs to detect spring deformation, and thus deflection, is a
good alternative, although a few more process steps are needed during the fabrication sequence.
For very high sensitivities quantum tunneling is also used; this requires a dedicated process
making it very expensive. Optical measurement has been demonstrated on laboratory scale.
Another, far less common, type of MEMS-based accelerometer contains a small heater at the
bottom of a very small dome, which heats the air inside the dome to cause it to rise. A
thermocouple on the dome determines where the heated air reaches the dome and the deflection
off the center is a measure of the acceleration applied to the sensor.
Most micromechanical accelerometers operate in-plane, that is, they are designed to be sensitive
only to a direction in the plane of the die. By integrating two devices perpendicularly on a single
die a two-axis accelerometer can be made. By adding an additional out-of-plane device three
axes can be measured. Such a combination may have much lower misalignment error than three
discrete models combined after packaging. Micromechanical accelerometers are available in a
wide variety of measuring ranges, reaching up to thousands of g's. The designer must make a
compromise between sensitivity and the maximum acceleration that can be measured.
4.4 Types of Accelerometer
Bulk micromachined capacitive
36
Bulk micromachined piezoelectric resistive

Capacitive spring mass base
DC response
Electromechanical servo (Servo Force Balance)
High gravity
High temperature
Laser accelerometer
Low frequency
Magnetic induction
Modally tuned impact hammers
Null-balance
Optical
Pendulous integrating gyroscopic accelerometer
Piezoelectric accelerometer
Resonance
Seat pad accelerometers
0
4.5 ADXL335 Accelerometer
This is the latest in a long, proven line of analog sensors - the holy grail of accelerometers. The
ADXL335 is a triple axis accelerometer with extremely low noise and power consumption - only
320uA! The sensor has a full sensing range of +/-3g.There is no on-board regulation, provided
power should be between 1.8 and 3.6VDC. The ADXL335 is a small, thin, low power, complete
3-axis accelerometer with signal conditioned voltage outputs. The product measures acceleration
with a minimum full-scale range of 3 g. It can measure the static acceleration of gravity in tilt-
sensing applications, as well as dynamic acceleration resulting from motion, shock, or vibration.
37
The user selects the bandwidth of the accelerometer using the CX, CY, and CZ capacitors at the
XOUT, YOUT, and ZOUT pins. Bandwidths can be selected to suit the application, with a range
of 0.5 Hz to 1600 Hz for the X and Y axes, and a range of 0.5 Hz to 550 Hz for the Z axis. The
ADXL335 is available in a small, low profile, 4 mm 4 mm 1.45 mm, 16-lead, plastic lead
frame chip scale package (LFCSP_LQ).
4.6 Theory of operation of adxl335

The ADXL335 is a complete 3-axis acceleration measurement system. The ADXL335 has a
measurement range of 3 g mini-mum. It contains a poly silicon surface-micro machined sensor
and signal conditioning circuitry to implement open-loop acceleration measurement architecture.
The output signals are analog voltages that are proportional to acceleration. The accelerometer
can measure the static acceleration of gravity in tilt-sensing applications as well as dynamic
acceleration resulting from motion, shock, or vibration. The sensor is a polysilicon surface-
micromachined structure built on top of a silicon wafer. Polysilicon springs suspend the structure
over the surface of the wafer and provide a resistance against acceleration forces. Deflection of
the structure is meas-ured using a differential capacitor that consists of independent fixed plates
and plates attached to the moving mass. The fixed plates are driven by 180 out-of-phase square
waves. Acceleration deflects the moving mass and unbalances the differential capacitor resulting
in a sensor output whose amplitude is proportional to acceleration. Phase-sensitive demodulation
techniques are then used to determine the magnitude and direction of the acceleration.
Fig no:4.1 Block diagram of ADXL335
38
The demodulator output is amplified and brought off-chip through a 32 k resistor. The user
then sets the signal bandwidth of the device by adding a capacitor. This filtering improves
measurement resolution and helps prevent aliasing.
4.7 Pin Configuration of ADXL335
Fig no:4.2 pin diagram of ADXL335
Pin description
1 NC No Connect.1
2 ST Self-Test.
3 COM Common.
4 NC No Connect.1
5 COM Common.
6 COM Common.
7 COM Common.
8 ZOUT Z Channel Output.
9 NC No Connect.1
10 YOUT Y Channel Output.
11 NC No Connect. 1
39
12 XOUT X Channel Output.

13 NC No Connect. 1
14 VS Supply Voltage (1.8 V to
3.6 V).
15 VS Supply Voltage (1.8 V to
3.6 V).
16 NC No Connect. 1
EP Exposed Pad Not internally connected.
Solder for mechanical
integrity.
Table no 4.1:Description of ADXL335
4.8 Applications of Accelerometer
Engineering
Accelerometers can be used to measure vehicle acceleration. They allow for performance
evaluation of both the engine/drive train and the braking systems.Accelerometers can be
used to measure vibration on cars, machines, buildings, process control systems and
safety installations. They can also be used to measure seismic activity, inclination,
machine vibration, dynamic distance and speed with or without the influence of gravity.
Applications for accelerometers that measure gravity, wherein an accelerometer is
specifically configured for use ingravimetry, are called gravimeters. Notebook computers
equipped with accelerometers can contribute to the Quake-Catcher Network (QCN),
a BOINC project aimed at scientific research of earthquakes.
Biology
40
Accelerometers are also increasingly used in the biological sciences. High frequency
recordings of bi-axial or tri-axial acceleration (>10 Hz) allows the discrimination of
behavioral patterns while animals are out of sight. Furthermore, recordings of
acceleration allow researchers to quantify the rate at which an animal is expending energy
in the wild, by either determination of limb-stroke frequency or measures such as overall
dynamic body acceleration Such approaches have mostly been adopted by marine
scientists due to an inability to study animals in the wild using visual observations,
however an increasing number of terrestrial biologists are adopting similar approaches.
This device can be connected to an amplifier to amplify the signal.
Industry
Condition monitoring
Accelerometers are also used for machinery health monitoring to report the vibration and
its changes in time of shafts at the bearings of rotating equipment such as
turbines, pumps, fans, rollers, compressors, and cooling towers.
Vibration monitoring programs are proven to warn of impending failure, save money,
reduce downtime, and improve safety in plants worldwide by detecting conditions such
as wear and tear of bearings, shaft misalignment, rotor imbalance, gear failure or bearing
fault which, if not attended to promptly, can lead to costly repairs. Accelerometer
vibration data allows the user to monitor machines and detect these faults before the
rotating equipment fails completely. Vibration monitoring programs are utilized in
industries such as automotive manufacturing, machine tool applications, pharmaceutical
production, power generation and power plants, pulp and paper, sugar mills, food and
beverage production, water and wastewater, hydropower, petrochemical and steel
manufacturing.
Building and structural monitoring
41
Accelerometers are used to measure the motion and vibration of a structure that is
exposed to dynamic loads. Measuring and recording how a structure responds to these
inputs is critical for assessing the safety and viability of a structure. This type of
monitoring is called Dynamic Monitoring.
Medical applications
Zoll's AED Plus uses CPR-Dpadz which contains an accelerometer to measure the depth
of CPR chest compressions. Within the last several years, Nike, Polar and other
companies have produced and marketed sports watches for runners that includefootpods,
containing accelerometers to help determine the speed and distance for the runner
wearing the unit.In Belgium, accelerometer-based step counters are promoted by the
government to encourage people to walk a few thousand steps each day.Herman Digital
Trainer uses accelerometers to measure strike force in physical training.
Navigation
Inertial navigation system
An Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a computer and motion
sensors (accelerometers) to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position,
orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without
the need for external references. Other terms used to refer to inertial navigation systems
or closely related devices include inertial guidance system, inertial reference platform,
and many other variations.An accelerometer alone is unsuitable to determine changes in
altitude over distances where the vertical decrease of gravity is significant, such as for
aircraft and rockets. In the presence of a gravitational gradient, the calibration and data
reduction process is numerically unstable.
42
Transport
Accelerometers are also being used in Intelligent Compaction rollers. Accelerometers are
used alongside gyroscopes in inertial guidance systems. One of the most common uses
for MEMS accelerometers is in airbag deployment systems for modern automobiles. In
this case the accelerometers are used to detect the rapid negative acceleration of the
vehicle to determine when a collision has occurred and the severity of the collision.
Another common automotive use is in electronic stability control systems, which use a
lateral accelerometer to measure cornering forces. The widespread use of accelerometers
in the automotive industry has pushed their cost downdramatically. Another automotive
application is the monitoring of noise, vibration and harshness (NVH), conditions that
cause discomfort for drivers and passengers and may also be indicators of mechanical
faults.Tilting trains use accelerometers and gyroscopes to calculate the required tilt.
Vulcanology
Modern electronic accelerometers are used in remote sensing devices intended for the
monitoring of active volcanos to detect the motion of magma.
Consumers Electronics
Accelerometers are increasingly being incorporated into personal electronic devices.
43
Motion input
Some smartphones, digital audio players and personal digital assistants contain
accelerometers for user interface control; often the accelerometer is used to
presentlandscape or portrait views of the device's screen, based on the way the device is
being held.
Automatic Collision Notification (ACN) systems also use accelerometers in a system to

call for help in event of a vehicle crash. Prominent ACN systems include Onstar AACN
service,Ford Link's 911 Assist, Toyota's Safety Connect, Lexus Link, or BMW Assist.
Many accelerometer-equipped smartphones also have ACN software available for
download. ACN systems are activated by detecting crash-strength G-
forces.Nintendo's Wii video game console uses a controller called a Wii Remote that
contains a three-axis accelerometer and was designed primarily for motion input. Users
also have the option of buying an additional motion-sensitive attachment, the Nun chuk,
so that motion input could be recorded from both of the user's hands independently. Is
also used on the Nintendo 3DS system.The Sony PlayStation 3 uses the Dual Shock
3 remote which uses a three axis accelerometer that can be used to make steering more
realistic in racing games, such as Motorstorm and Burnout Paradise. The Nokia
5500 sport features a 3D accelerometer that can be accessed from software. It is used for
step recognition (counting) in a sport application, and for tap gesture recognition in the
user interface. Tap gestures can be used for controlling the music player and the sport
application, for example to change to next song by tapping through clothing when the
device is in a pocket. Other uses for accelerometer in Nokia phones include Pedometer
functionality in Nokia Sports Tracker. Some other devices provide the tilt sensing feature
with a cheaper component, which is not a true accelerometer. Sleep phase alarm
clocks use accelerometric sensors to detect movement of a sleeper, so that it can wake the
person when he/she is not in REM phase, therefore awakes more easily.
44
Orientation sensing
A number of 21st century devices use accelerometers to align the screen depending on the
direction the device is held, for example switching between portrait and landscape modes.
Such devices include many tablet PCs and some smartphones and digital cameras. For
example, Apple uses an LIS302DL accelerometer in the iPhone, iPod Touch and the 4th
and 5th generation iPod Nano allowing the device to know when it is tilted on its side.
Third-party developers have expanded its use with fanciful applications such as
electronicbobbleheads. The BlackBerry Storm phone was also an early user of this
orientation sensing feature. The Nokia N95 and Nokia N82 have accelerometers
embedded inside them. It was primarily used as a tilt sensor for tagging the orientation to
photos taken with the built-in camera and later became available to other applications
through a firmware update.As of January 2009, almost all new mobile phones and digital
cameras contain at least a tilt sensor and sometimes an accelerometer for the purpose of
auto image rotation, motion-sensitive mini-games, and to correct shake when taking
photographs.
Image stabilization
Camcorders use accelerometers for image stabilization. Still cameras use accelerometers
for anti-blur capturing. The camera holds off snapping the CCD "shutter" when the
camera is moving. When the camera is still (if only for a millisecond, as could be the case
for vibration), the CCD is "snapped". An example application which has used such
technology is the Glogger VS2, a phone application which runs on Symbian OS based
phone with accelerometer such as Nokia N96. Some digital cameras, contain
accelerometers to determine the orientation of the photo being taken and also for rotating
the current picture when viewing.
45
Device integrity
Many laptops feature an accelerometer which is used to detect drops. If a drop is

detected, the heads of the hard disk are parked to avoid data loss and possible head or
disk damage by the ensuing shock.
Gravimetry
A gravimeter or gravitometer, is an instrument used in gravimetry for measuring the

local gravitational field. A gravimeter is a type of accelerometer, except that
accelerometers are susceptible to all vibrations including noise, that cause oscillatory
accelerations. This is counteracted in the gravimeter by integral vibration isolation
and signal processing. Though the essential principle of design is the same as in
accelerometers, gravimeters are typically designed to be much more sensitive than
accelerometers in order to measure very tiny changes within the Earth's gravity, of 1 g. In
contrast, other accelerometers are often designed to measure 1000 g or more, and many
perform multi-axial measurements. The constraints on temporal resolution are usually
less for gravimeters, so that resolution can be increased by processing the output with a
longer "time constant"
CHAPTER 05
RF-MODULE (RF TRANSMITTER & RECEIVER)
5.1 Introduction
An RF Module is a (usually) small electronic circuit used to transmit, receive, or transceive radio
waves on one of a number of carrier frequencies. RF Modules are widely used in consumer
application such as garage door openers, wireless alarm systems, industrial remote controls,
46
smart sensor applications, and wireless home automation systems. They are often used instead
of infrared remote controls as they have the advantage of not requiring line-of-sight operation.
Several carrier frequencies are commonly used in commercially-available RF modules, including
433.92MHz, 315MHz, 868MHz and 915MHz. The RF module, as the name suggests, operates at
Radio Frequency. The corresponding frequency range varies between 30 kHz & 300 GHz. In
this RF system, the digital data is represented as variations in the amplitude of carrier wave. This
kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).Transmission through RF is
better than IR (infrared) because of many reasons. Firstly, signals through RF can travel through
larger distances making it suitable for long range applications. Also, while IR mostly operates in
line-of-sight mode, RF signals can travel even when there is an obstruction between transmitter
& receiver. Next, RF transmission is more strong and reliable than IR transmission. RF
communication uses a specific frequency unlike IR signals which are affected by other IR
emitting sources. This RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver. The
transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. An RF transmitter receives
serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF through its antenna connected at pin4. The
transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps - 10Kbps.The transmitted data is received by an RF
receiver operating at the same frequency as that of the transmitter. The RF module is often used
along with a pair of encoder/decoder. The encoder is used for encoding parallel data for
transmission feed while reception is decoded by a decoder. HT12E-HT12D, HT640-HT648, etc.
are some commonly used encoder/decoder pair ICs.
5.2 RF-Transmitter
Radio transmitter design is a complex topic which can be broken down into a series of smaller
topics. A radio communication system requires two tuned circuits each at the
transmitter and receiver, all four tuned to the same frequency. The transmitter is
anelectronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an
electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications.
Arrangement of RF-Transmitter
The transmitting system consists of two tuned circuits such that the one containing the
spark-gap is a persistent oscillator; the other, containing the aerial structure, is a free
47
radiator maintained in oscillation by being coupled to the first (Nikola

Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi).
The oscillating system, including the aerial structure with its associated inductance-coils
and condensers, is designed to be both a sufficiently persistent oscillator and a
sufficiently active radiator (Oliver Lodge).
The transmitting system consists of two electrically coupled circuits, one of which,
containing the air-gap, is a powerful but not persistent oscillator, being provided with a
device for quenching the spark so soon as it has imparted sufficient energy to the other
circuit containing the aerial structure, this second circuit then independently radiating the
train of slightly damped waves at its own period (Oliver Joseph Lodge and Wilhelm
Wien).
5.3 RF-Encoder (HT12E)
The HT12E encoder is designed for remote control system applications. It will interface to RF
transmitter modules to create a secure single or multiple channel RF remote control transmitter.
The oscillator is configured simply with the addition of a resistor. It is capable of encoding
information which consists of N address bits and 12-N data bits. Each address/data input can be
set to one of the two logic states. The programmed addresses/data are transmitted together with
the header bits via an RF transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal. HT12E is
an encoder integrated circuit of 212 series of encoders. They are paired with 212 series of
decoders for use in remote control system applications. It is mainly used in interfacing RF and
infrared circuits. The chosen pair of encoder/decoder should have same number of addresses and
data format. Simply put, HT12E converts the parallel inputs into serial output. It encodes the 12
bit parallel data into serial for transmission through an RF transmitter. These 12 bits are divided
into 8 address bits and 4 data bits. HT12E has a transmission enable pin which is active low.
When a trigger signal is received on TE pin, the programmed addresses/data are transmitted
together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared transmission medium. HT12E begins a 4-
word transmission cycle upon receipt of a transmission enable. This cycle is repeated as long as
TE is kept low. As soon as TE returns to high, the encoder output completes its final cycle and
then stops.
5.3.1 Features of HT12E
48
Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V

Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology
Low standby current: 0.1uA (typ.) at VDD=5V
Built-in oscillator, needs only 5% resistor
Compatible with the HT12D decoder IC
18-pin DIP
Fig no:5.1 pin diagram of RF-Encoder
5.3.2 Pin Description
Pin No Function Name
1 8 bit Address pins for A0

2 input A1
3 A2
49
4 A3
5 A4
6 A5
7 A6
8 A7
9 Ground (0V) Ground
10 AD0
11 4 bit Data/Address AD1
12 pins for input AD2
13 AD3
14 Transmission enable; TE
active low
15 Oscillator input Osc2
16 Oscillator output Osc1
17 Serial data output Output
18 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc

(2.4V-12V)
Table 5.1 Description of HTI2E
5.3.3 Application of HT12E

Burglar alarm system
Smoke and fire alarm system
Garage door controllers
Car door controllers
Car alarm system
Security system
Cordless telephones
5.4 RF-Receiver
50
The RF receiver is specially degined to receive the signal from the rf transmitter to demodulate
or decode the original signal.for receiving we use receiver and for decoding we use the IC
HT12D.The description of HT12D are as under as follows-
5.5 RF-Decoder (HT12D)
HT12D is a decoder integrated circuit that belongs to 212 series of decoders. This series of
decoders are mainly used for remote control system applications, like burglar alarm, car door
controller, security system etc. It is mainly provided to interface RF and infrared circuits. They
are paired with 212 series of encoders. The chosen pair of encoder/decoder should have same
number of addresses and data format. In simple terms, HT12D converts the serial input into
parallel outputs. It decodes the serial addresses and data received by, say, an RF receiver, into
parallel data and sends them to output data pins. The serial input data is compared with the local
addresses three times continuously. The input data code is decoded when no error or unmatched
codes are found. A valid transmission in indicated by a high signal at VT pin.HT12D is capable
of decoding 12 bits, of which 8 are address bits and 4 are data bits. The data on 4 bit latch type
output pins remain unchanged until new is received. The decoders receive serial addresses and
data from a programmed 212 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an
IR transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their
local addresses. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes are decoded and
then transferred to the output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission.
The 212 series of decoders are capable of decoding informations that consist of N bits of address
and 12-N bits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged to provide 8 address bits and 4 data
bits, and HT12F is used to decode 12 bits of address information.
51
Pin Configuration
Fig no:5.2 pin diagram of RF-Decoder
52
5.5.1 Pin Description
Pin Function Name

No
1 A0
2 A1
3 A2
4 A3
8 bit Address pins for input
5 A4
6 A5
7 A6
8 A7
9 Ground (0V) Ground
10 D0
11 D1
4 bit Data/Address pins for output
12 D2
13 D3
14 Serial data input Input
15 Oscillator output Osc2
16 Oscillator input Osc1
17 Valid transmission; active high VT
18 Supply voltage; 5V (2.4V-12V) Vcc
Table 5.2 description of HT12D
5.5.2 Application
53
RF Modules are used in applications where size, price and power consumption coupled with long
range are important parameters. RF Module integration with MCU, memory and ADC, will fit
almost all applications.
Industrial Automation
In Industrial automation there is an ever-increasing need to monitor and analyse the status or
wear and tear of machines and sensors. Using the low power wireless connectivity of the RF
Module is a low high reliability method of getting access to this data.
Remote Meter Reading

With the extremely high integration of the RF Module, its high output power and sensitivity can
be used to make a single chip long range solutions for remote meter reading.
Security
Frequency hopping and short time on air increases security in applications using the RF module.
In Remote Keyless Entry systems the low voltage operation, internal voltage regulator and low
current operation of the RF Module increases the battery life time.
CHAPTER 06
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
54
6.1 Introduction
When I first started building my first robot, someone much more experienced than me once said
paraphrased, "if you build a mechanically crappy robot with expert programming and control,
you will only get a crappy robot; build a mechanically professional robot with crappy
programming and control, you will still get a well built robot." Its very good advice which I still
use today.Planning. Would you say someone who plans his future will have a better future? YES!
I cannot emphasize any more for you to design your robot out on paper (or computer) first. This
means plan out everything, such as what material to build your robot out of<, where to put every
screw, how you will attach your sensors - EVERYTHING. You will save money and time, and
will have a better constructed robot too. To do this, you should draw all your parts out to
dimension, mark your holes, and understand how all your parts connect.There are mainly three
mechanical components are used in the project which are as
6.2 Motors
There are several different types of motors. Each motor type has several advantages as well as
disadvantages depending on a particular robots design. In our project we use the D.C motors
which are very easy to use, but like most other motors their usefulness for robotics is very
dependent on the gearing available. DC-motors are made much more effective if they have an
efficient gear ratio for a particular task. If your priority is to have a fast spinning motor and
torque is of little concern a low gearing or even no gearing may be what you need; however,
most motors used in robots need torque over top speed so a motor with a high gear ratio could be
more useful. The control of a DC motor can be split into two parts: speed and direction.
6.3 Wheels
Wheeled robots are robots that navigate around the ground using motorized wheels to propel
themselves. This design is simpler than using treads or legs and by using wheels they are easier
55
to design, build, and program for movement in flat, not-so-rugged terrain. They are also better
controlled than other types of robots. Disadvantages of wheeled robots are that they cannot
navigate well over obstacles, such as rocky terrain, sharp declines, or areas with low friction.
Wheeled robots are most popular among the consumer market, their differential steering provides
low cost and simplicity. Robots can have any number of wheels, but three wheels are sufficient
for static and dynamic balance. Additional wheels can add to balance; however, additional
mechanisms will be required to keep all the wheels in the ground, when the terrain is not flat.
When buying (or making) your wheels you want to put your motor into consideration. For a start,
there is torque and velocity. Large diameter wheels give your robot low torque but high velocity.
So if you already have a very strong motor, then you can use wheels with larger
diameters. Servo's already have good torque, so you should use larger diameter wheels. But if
your motor is weak (such as if it does not have any gearing), you want to use a much smaller
diameter wheel. This will make your robot slower, but at least it has enough torque to go up a
hill! Another dumb mistake someone can make is buying a wheel that has a diameter close to or
less than the motor diameter. For example, if you have a 1" diameter motor, and a 1.5" diameter
wheel, you have a .25" ground clearance ( (1.5"-1")/2=.25" ). How high is the tallest object you
want to go over?
6.4 Types of wheels
2 wheeled robot
3 wheeled robot
4 wheeled rbot
5 or more wheeled robot
NOTE-In our project we use 3 wheeled robots.
3-Wheeled robot
56
3-wheeled robots may be of two types: differentially steered (2 powered wheels with an
additional free rotating wheel to keep the body in balance) or 2 wheels powered by a single
source and a powered steering for the third wheel. In the case of differentially steered wheels, the
robot direction may be changed by varying the relative rate of rotation of the two separately
driven wheels. If both the wheels are driven in the same direction and speed, the robot will go
straight. Otherwise, depending on the speed of rotation and its direction, the center of rotation
may fall anywhere in the line joining the two wheels.
Fig no:6.1 3wheeled robot
The center of gravity in this type of robot has to lay inside the triangle formed by the wheels. If
too heavy of a mass is mounted to the side of the free rotating wheel, the robot will tip over.
6.5 Chassis
57
A chassis consists of an internal framework that supports a man-made object. It is analogous to

an animal's skeleton. An example of a chassis is the under part of a motor vehicle, consisting of
the frame (on which the body is mounted) with the wheels and machinery. we use the chassis to
maintain the bot of robot which is made of the aluminum sheet and the rf receiver is mounted on
it to receive the signal.
CHAPTER-07
PROCESSING OF ROBOT
Calibaration of sensor
The accelerometer has been calibrated to get it maximum and minimum value.this depends upon
the external environmental conditions.this also gives the closure sensitivity.The process can be
understood by the help of flow chart.
58
Transmission of data
The input is given by the accelerometer that has been analog in the nature.its has been digitally
coded by the input A/D converter.the A/D converter is in built in the arduino board that is of 8
bit and output goes to the digital pins of the arduino board
59
Receiving the data

The receiving data on the digital pins is sent to the L293D.According to the output the motors it
will run in forward,backward,left and right.so the output depends upon the directly to the
accelerometer input that can be used for the robot controlling and accelerometrer input depends
upon the movement of the gestures.
60
Circuit diagram
Accelerometer circuit diagram
61
Connectiobn diagram
Result
The bot uses differential turning mechanism, which helps the bot precise to turn. The bot uses
rotational axes to accelerate or to de-accelerate. Its entire motion is controlled by arduino which
62
extracts readings from accelerometer (ADXL335) and transmits calculated data via arduino
board and processed with RF module which in turn consists of similar mechanism. The bot
works properly because of its low weight, and preciseness with help of the mechanix kit.
Actual v/s Theoretical
Theoretically we wanted precision in the angle mapping versus bot speed, failing to which, we
developed the alternative of angle ranges versus bot speed. Similar mechanism is followed in bot
banking where logistic data is feed to the receiving bot and the bank angle is calculated
accordingly. Logistical problem is faced when decoding ASCII value, which is primarily
transmitted via Xbee. To overcome the above we modulated the primary data source and changed
it to a range of values that are eventually understood by the receiver and gradually interpreted.
One other major overcome that the all the set up are affected by the environmental conditions. so
there is no significant accuracy. so the calibration is necessary at every measurement.its also
result that a small application of accelerometer.
63
Conclusion
This project taught us Arduinos coding which we can use in the further future as the Arduino is
useful in various instruments and also very important electronics equipment as well as about the
basics of arduino.
We learnt about the transmission of the signals through RF module and also the use of
accelerometer.
The project also cultivated dedication, team work and the division of labour amongst us made
this project to succeed.
We had a great pleasure working on this project and working as a team.this project also provide
the basic introductional review of accelerometer.
Future Improvements
Currently we are working on improving serial communication between the Arduions.

We are planing to install a LCD panel on the gloves so that when the glove module run
on the battery, then we can see the reading of the accelerometer (real time) and it is
helpful in debugging operation.
We are also working on improvising our GUI in the processing applet so that we have
duplex communication management between devices.
We are also install a joystick shield.
64
APENDIX
Input Declaration
const int sensorPiny = A0;
const int sensorPinx = A1;
const int motor1 = 2;
/*const int ledPin1 = 3;
const int ledPin2 = 11;*/
int sensorValuey = 0;
int sensorValuex = 0;
int yAxis = 0;
int xAxis = 0;
Output Declaration
void setup()
{
pinMode(motor1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(13, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(13, HIGH);
65
while (millis() < 5000)

{
}
digitalWrite(13, LOW);
}
Calibration of sensor
void loop()
{
sensorValuey = analogRead(sensorPiny);
sensorValuex = analogRead(sensorPinx);
if (sensorValuey < 310)
{
// yAxis = (370-sensorValuey);
digitalWrite(motor1, LOW);
digitalWrite(motor2, HIGH);
/* analogWrite(ledPin1, yAxis*1.77);
digitalWrite(ledPin2, LOW);*/
}
if (sensorValuey > 360)
{
// yAxis = (sensorValuey-418);
/* analogWrite(ledPin2, yAxis*1.77);
}
if (sensorValuex < 310)
66
{
// xAxis = (330-sensorValuex);
/* analogWrite(ledPin1, xAxis*1.75);
}
if (sensorValuex > 360)
{
// xAxis = (sensorValuex-373);
/* analogWrite(ledPin2, xAxis*1.75);
}
67
References
1. ^ Michael Barr. "Embedded Systems Glossary". Neutrino Technical Library. Retrieved
2007-04-21.
2. ^ Heath, Steve (2003). Embedded systems design. EDN series for design engineers (2
ed.). Newnes. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7506-5546-0. "An embedded system is a microprocessor based
system that is built to control a function or a range of functions."
3. ^ Michael Barr; Anthony J. Massa (2006). "Introduction". Programming embedded
systems: with C and GNU development tools. O'Reilly. pp. 12. ISBN 978-0-596-00983-0.
4. ^ Giovino, Bill. "Micro controller.com - Embedded Systems supersite".
5. ^ Embedded.com - Under the Hood: Robot Guitar embeds autotuning By David Carey,
TechOnline EE Times (04/22/08, 11:10:00 AM EDT)Embedded Systems Design -
Embedded.com
6. ^ Matthias Rehm, Nikolaus Bee, Elisabeth Andr, Wave Like an Egyptian -
Accelerometer Based Gesture Recognition for Culture Specific Interactions, British Computer
Society, 2007
7. ^ Pavlovic, V., Sharma, R. & Huang, T. (1997), "Visual interpretation of hand gestures for
human-computer interaction: A review", IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.,
July, 1997. Vol. 19(7), pp. 677 -695.
8. ^ R. Cipolla and A. Pentland, Computer Vision for Human-Machine Interaction,
Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-521-62253-0
9. ^ Ying Wu and Thomas S. Huang, "Vision-Based Gesture Recognition: A Review", In:
Gesture-Based Communication in Human-Computer Interaction, Volume 1739 of Springer
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 103-115, 1999, ISBN 978-3-540-66935-
7,doi:10.1007/3-540-46616-9
68
10. ^ Alejandro Jaimesa and Nicu Sebe, Multimodal humancomputer interaction: A survey,
Computer Vision and Image Understanding Volume 108, Issues 1-2, OctoberNovember 2007,
Pages 116-134 Special Issue on Vision for Human-Computer
Interaction,doi:10.1016/j.cviu.2006.10.019
11. ^ "ATIS Telecom Glossary 2007". atis.org. Retrieved 2008-03-16.

12. ^ Tsai, Allen. "AT&T Releases Navigator GPS Service with Speech Recognition".
Telecom Industry News. Retrieved 2 April 2008.
13. ^ a b Story, Alfred Thomas (1904). A story of wireless telegraphy. New York, D. Appleton
and Co..
14. ^ a b "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz". chem.ch.huji.ac.il. Retrieved 2008-03-16.
15. ^ J.C. Bose, Collected Physical Papers. New York, N.Y.: Longmans, Green and Co., 1927
69

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www.final-yearproject.com | www.finalyearthesis.

Hand Gesture Based Wireless Controlled Robot

Sangam Khare ( 0910331064)

Under the supervision of

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Shobhit Institute of Engineering & Technology, Saharanpur (U.P.)

Gautam Buddh Technical University, Lucknow

In robotics technology we design machines to do the specified tasks and in the

Chapter-1: Overview of project

6.4 Three Wheeled robot

4.1 Description of ADXL335

1.1 Basic block diagram of project

3.3 Block diagram of arduino

6.1 3wheeled robot

Fig no-1.1 Basic block diagram of project

1.2 AIM OF PROJECT

communication between arduino, we think of RF module so that it becomes handy to

1.3 Components used in the project

2.1 Embedded technology

2.1.1 Fields of Embedded System

MCD IAI COP RDA OEC CIT OO NR T R O L E R , E TC .

Fig no:2.1 Embedded system fields

2.1.2 Characteristics of Embedded technology

2.1.3 Applications of embedded technology

2.2 Gesture Technology

In computer interfaces, two types of gestures are distinguished: We consider online

2.2.1 Hand Gesture system

Fig no:2.3 Gesture movement diagram

2.2.2 Applications of Gesture technology

Affective computing. In affective computing, gesture recognition is used in the process

2.3 Wireless Technology

The following situations justify the use of wireless technology:

To span a distance beyond the capabilities of typical cabling,

To overcome situations where normal cabling is difficult or financially impractical, or

2.3.1 Wireless System

Fig no:2.4 Network connection in wireless system

2.3.2 Applications of wireless technology

One of the best-known examples of wireless technology is the mobile phone,

Wireless data communications

Cellular data service

Wireless energy transfer

Computer interface devices

Arduino is an open-source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible, easy-to-use

3.2 Characteristics of arduino board

e) Open source and extensible hardware

3.4 Pin configuration of ATmega 328

Fig no:3.2 Pin diagram of Atmega328

3.5 Pin Descriptions

VCC Digital supply voltage

3.6 Block Diagram

Fig no:3.3 block diagram of arduino

3.7 Programming Environment of ATmega 328

Internal 1V1 A built-in 1.1V reference (Arduino Mega only)

Internal 2V56 A built-in 2.56V reference (Arduino Mega only)

4.2 Basic Principle

An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative

4.3 Structure of Accelerometer

Conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring. When the accelerometer

applications. Capacitive accelerometers typically use a silicon micro-machined sensing element.

4.4 Types of Accelerometer

Bulk micromachined capacitive

Bulk micromachined piezoelectric resistive