Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Sino-Roman
Trade
Relations
from Pre-
History to
the
Western
Roman
Empire
An evaluation of the development of the silk
road from an eastern and western historical
perspective
Audrey Higgins
1
Introduction
The Silk Road, a name derived from the lucrative Chinese silk trade
carried out along the length of the highway, was one of the main reasons
that transcontinental exchange of ideas and goods was possible between the
Far East and West in ancient times. The route, which extended over 4,000
miles as far east as modern day Indonesia and as far west as modern day
soldiers, nomads, and other folk across the Eurasian continent for a period of
nearly a thousand years. The Silk Roads name comes from the German
a period most notable for the creation and standardization of the basic
wooden cart and then caravan increased the capacity of early people to
domesticated goods became more popular, so too did the complexity of the
economic and sociopolitical structure of the tribal nations that began to crop
Arguably the most important product of this time, however, was the
the Chinese Way. This perception revolved heavily around the ancient
ruler, who is chosen by god, Tian (,) is granted the right to rule based on
the Emperors effective capacity to justly govern the people and their lands.
Chinese belief, as the fact that a ruler was overthrown was seen by itself to
be an indication that the prior ruler had fallen out of the grace of god, thus
suggesting that all of earth and the mortal realm belonged to the Son of
Heaven, titles synonymous for the most current ruler of the day, to whom
Of the earliest, there are several of particular note: Zhao, Wei, Han, Song, Qi,
Yan, Chu, Lu, and Zhou.3 Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han emerged from these
early city-states with Emperors who, most peculiarly when compared to their
i Literally means: beneath heaven
3
rule. Dynastical rulers were often people of common birth, and the Mandate
of Heaven had no time limitations. Instead, the justice of each Chinese ruler
which the legendary Xia, Shang, Zhou, and Qin Dynasties all rose and fell
Age of Ancient China: the Hn Cho (, Han Dynasty.) The Han Dynasty,
which was preceded by the viciously infamous Qin Dynasty, endured for a
period of more than four hundred years, from 206 BC to 220 AD. This was
Dynasty, under the leadership of Liu Bang Ji (,) a rebel leader who was
became known in that short time as the age of prosperity for the ancient
economic policies.
ii , literally means: Emperor Gao It was common for new emperors to assume
new temple names at the time of their ascension, especially for those of
common birth in this case, the name [Goz] was the name of the temple
that had allegedly shown Emperor Gao favor.
4
Huangdis economic reforms that the establishment of the Silk Road was
even possible.
the Chinese empire. At the fall of the savagely notorious Qin Dynasty, the
states of Han and Chu both emerged as the super-powerful states that would
then go on to vie for control in a four-year long conflict known as the Han-
overthrew the Chu contenders and reunified China by 202 B.C this marked
prominence of the radical social reforms that were presented by Huangdi and
his party. The coalition that the Emperor established among previously
warring states created a unity among the Chinese that had previously been
5
unfortunately, this caused civil unrest among these individual states, who
feared a big government as corrupt as the Qin, causing these states to rebel
centralized state, which was funded primarily by a poll taxiii (a set tax on
every individual) and land taxes (a portion of the harvest.) This meant that
Han government, which created a critical link between the upper and lower
classes that had up to this point been only a rift of tension and mutual
disrespect between the two parties. The Saylor Foundation article goes on to
state that the Han were more interested in the lives of the Chinese masses,
Confucianism, which had been persecuted by the Qin, the articles author
Four Occupations.iv9
most significant of the four classes with regard to the production and
establishment of the Silk Road, is also the lowest and most openly reviled by
and traders would likely have prospered outside of continental China, and
the argument could be made that this influenced many Chinese merchants
to go out and seek fortune for China but outside of China in regions where
short of meticulous. Thus, as the Han Dynasty grew to be more and more
prosperous due to these economic reforms, so too did their records become
more and more prolific, especially as the aristocratic class of scholars and
v The shang were shunned in society, not for their emphasis on corruption or
aspirations to make money, as is the case in many other cultures, but rather for
their inability to produce anything of value in society. The logic was that they did not
make anything, just peddled what others sold to them, which would have been seen
by ancient Chinese as inherently corrupt. Efficiency and productivity is inherently
related to ones status in the meritocratic Han Dynasty (Ancient History, Saylors
Foundation article)
7
renowned for their pursuit of knowledge for the Emperor of the earthly
realm.11
to his ability to This map, obtained from The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and
Han, presents a map of the Xiongnu territory around the time of
stave off foreign Huangdis ascension.
invaders. For
Huangdi, this
ancient Chinese called Xiongnu (.) While most of the Xiongnu culture
was lost due to a lack of records, it is postulated that the Chinese Xiongnu
are actually the Mongolian raiders that are recognized today as the
predecessors to the Huns.vi,12 The Xiongnu were recorded in the Hou Han
Huangdi had to expand his influence westward to rally allies in Central Asia.
Resolving to do this, Emperor Gao Huangdi sent out imperial envoy Zhang
Xiongnu who had surrendered [as prisoners] and they all reported that
the Xiongnu had overcome the king of the Yue-chi [Chinese affiliated
state to the north of the Han Empire] and made a drinking-vessel out
of his skull. The Yue-chi had decamped and were hiding somewhere, all
the time scheming how to take revenge on the Xiongnu, but had no
ally to join them in striking a blow. The Chinese, wishing to declare war
This journey led the ancient Chinese explorer Qian to embark on his fateful
journey.
He was intercepted by the Xiongnu and taken to the Shan-yu (,) the
king of the ancient Khans, who is written to have said, The Yue-chi are to
the north of us; how can China send ambassadors to them? If I wished to
submit to us?14 Having obtained the mark of favor from Huangdi, Qian
remained loyal and was held a captive by the Xiongnu for a period of over
against the Xiongnu. However, despite travelling all through the land of Yue-
10
chi all the way into Ta-hia, known to the west as Bactria, he found no
As a result, Qian, who had remained in and around Yue-chi for a full
detained him for more than a year when the shan-yu died and the Luk-
li prince attacked the rightful heir and usurped the throne, thus
Qian, with his Tartar wife [whom he had obtained in his first captivity]
and Kan Fu [a slave he had befriended during that same time] finally
Zhang Qians discovery of a new world was one of the most important
the century. Upon his return in 126 B.C.,16 Qian delivered his report to the
viii Reports of the Nan-shan only appear in the Hou Han Shu; further investigation
yields variable reports, and, therefore, it is suggested that the path centered around
an area that was generally unfamiliar with the Chinese.
11
reports indicated that many of these foreign lands had weak armies, and
It was not until the fall of Xiongnu that westward expansion was
possible, however.
Kwoh-Ting Li
professor at the
Chinese Culture
Institute at Stanford
University goes on to
support this, asserting that Expansion into Central Asia began with the
Shan-yu] controlled lay between the Han and the Western Regions, so his
Zhang Qian is said to have proposed this in the Hou Han Shu:
persuade them to move This map, obtained from The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and
Han, details the expansion routes of both the Han and
east and occupy their Xiongnu at the peak of each civilization.
circumstances, they would surely obey us. If we make them obey us,
this would cut off the right arm of the Xiongnu. Once we have
established an alliance with the Wusun, then Daxia [Bactria] and the
other countries to the west could all be persuaded to come to our court
Thus, all foreign expansion became a race to exert dominion over these
lands that the Xiongnu enemy had once prevented China from reaching.
However, the determination to expand was slow. The west had always
been seen by the Chinese to be a mythical realm and was mostly unknown to
the ancient Han due to geographic isolation. In reality, the farthest reaches
of China only went about as far north as the Gobi Desert and as far west as
isolation made the west a very mysterious region that had, in truth, never
been explored before Zhang Qian made his epic journey through Xiongnu
territory.20
Persian Empire
allowing the Silk Road to traverse the Eurasian continent, playing his role
from the West while the Han Dynasty leadership played their role from the
Alexander the Great succeeded his father, Philip II, ascending the throne at
creating one of the largest contiguous empires in the history of the world,
stretching from modern-day Greece as far south as Egypt and stretching all
the Persians were likely to move against the Greeks, a fact which allegedly
all the Greek peoples, join your fellow-soldiers and entrust yourselves
slaves to barbarians.22
Among his armies, Alexander also had recruited a variety of mercenaries and
in its entirety as a means of honoring the wishes of his father, even going as
far as to thrust a spear into the Asian soil when the armies crossed the
border, which Alexander told his officers signified that he [Alexander] had
without first establishing context in what was recognized then as Asia Minor,
however. Of particular note in the region was the Achaemenid Empire, the
earliest and one of the most famous Persian dynasties, which stretched as
north, and as far east as northern India. At the time, the ruler of the
Ochus of Persia, whose reign coincided with that of Philip II, Alexanders
massacre of his entire family to ensure his continuing rule on the throne.
compiling ancient records of history, indicates that the Persian campaign was
15
attack Sidon by 346, received the king Tennes and Mentor, traitors to their
own city, who thought it best to surrender rather than to engage in a futile
conflict that was really between the political powers of Macedonia and Persia.
Tennes was promptly executed, but Mentor was spared. In the confusion,
Sidonians set fire to their own city through a series of riots, resulting in the
near total destruction of the sea-trading hub. However, the modern historian
should not be surprised that the Greeks, who eventually emerged as the
victors in their conflict with the Persians, tell the story much differently,
alleging that Artaxerxes in a bloodthirsty fit of rage razed the city due to a
maniacal bloodlust.27 This was the story that was necessary for Alexander to
tell in order to motivate his men to move forward, and therefore that was the
338 BC, Artaxerxes Ochus was very unpopular with his own people due to his
harsh policies. Diodorus Siculus writes in his World History: While Philip
[Alexanders father] was still king, Ochus [Artaxerxes III] ruled the Persians
which the vizier Bagoas was in charge. Bagoas was a clever underling, a
in his work Parallel Lives. Plutarch goes on to state that Bagoas was very
power that Bagoas was considered by the Persians to be the real master of
position, and Bagoas eventually assassinated the Great King in 338 BC.31
Diodorus describes this event in his World Histories: Since his [Artaxerxes
Ochus] savage disposition made him hated, the chiliarchx Bagoaskilled him
the youngest of his [Artaxerxes Ochus] sons, Arses. Arses was allegedly
disgusted by the ruthless behavior of the vizier and was open with his
Bagoas anticipated his [Arses] intentions [to remove Bagoas from power]
and killed Arses and his children alsoxi while he was still in the third year of
his reign. The royal house was thus extinguished, and there was no one in
the direct line of descent to claim the throne.32 At this point, a very distant
relative was sought out, and Bagoas was left with the distant cousin to
Artaxerxes III, Artashata, more commonly known as Darius III, last Great King
was the last remaining relative of Artaxerxes III by the time he was chosen by
in 336 BC.xiii Diodorus went on to describe Darius III in his World Histories,
stating,
Darius selection for the throne was based on his known bravery, in
which quality he far surpassed that of the other Persians. Once when
among the Persians to fight in single combat with him. No other dared
xi It is significant that the translation reads also here because Bagoas was also
responsible for the assassination of every single one of Arses brothers. The
reasoning is allegedly as follows: in order that the young man [Arses] might be
isolated and tractable to his [Bagoas] control.
xii Is thought to mean war-minded, though direct etymological origin of the title is
actually vague. Perhaps of Cadusian origin, a region in modern-day northwestern
Iran, as he took the surname after subduing revolts of the Cadusii people (see Livius
Institute.)
18
accept, but Darius alone entered the contest and slew the challenger,
being honored in consequence by the king with rich gifts, while among
was because of this prowess that he was thought worthy to take over
the kingship. This happened about the same time as Philip died and
Expansion
By the time Darius reign had been solidified,xiii Alexander, like his
father before him, had been declared the Hegemon of Greece by the League
secured the regal power. There he assembled all the Greeks who were within
the limits of Peloponnesus and asked from them the supreme command of
xiii It was necessary for Darius III to quell a variety of revolts and rebellions, and,
according to Diodorus, was recognized throughout his reign as a kind of usurper due
to the removal of all of the rest of his family by Bagoas.
xiv Recognized at the time as the Hellenic League; created by Alexanders father,
Philip, as a means of unifying Greece against Persian aggression, and its creation
signified the first time that all of Greece, with the exception of Sparta, was unified
against a common enemy.
xv Lucius Flavius Arrianus was his full name, and he was born in Nicomedia, a Greek
town under Roman control between 85 and 90 AD.
the expedition against the Persians, an office which they had already
conferred upon Philip.34 On top of this, Alexander had sworn vengeance for
the Dardanelles) and, as head of an allied Greek army, undertook the war on
Persia that his father had been planning. The march he had begun was to be
one of the greatest in history. For the first time, the Persian Empire was
required to face the full force of the united Macedonian armies, and Darius III
From here, Alexander moved further northeast again, this time delving
Gaugamela where Darius was utterly defeated. Darius, who was now on the
run, fled to Bactria, where Darius cousin, Bessus, was the governor. Eager
to once again meet the worthy foe, Alexander was distraught when he
learned that Bessus had assassinated Darius III in an effort to become king
himself. However, Alexanders quest for vengeance against Bessus did not
take long: Bessus was captured and executed for his crimes after the
sacking of Bactria. From here, Alexanders armies met little other significant
xvii Xerxes had destroyed Athens in 480 BC in prior wars, which the Greeks used to
fuel their desire to wage war on the Persians.
20
Located in what is modern day Tajikistan,37 this was possibly the first
to Macedonia, his governing practices were likely very close to those of other
Achaemenid.)39
Consequently, the city of Alexandria Eschate was less than 300 miles
from where the Yue-chi people were established, right at the mouth of the
spread his panhellenic views to the world he was conquering. For Alexandria
Eschate, this was especially true when considering the vague new world of
the Seres people (lit. People of the Silk.) Strabo, who composed a history
of his journeys in his text entitled Geographia, wrote that the Greeks
extended their empire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni, which leads
modern historians to assume that at the time the Serica people were at least
xviii Literally means, Alexandria the Furthest; also, is modern day Khojand
21
Sino-Roman Relations
Despite the shortening distances between the far eastern and western
empires, the Greeks and the Chinese never made direct contact. While it is
very likely that perhaps traders, merchants, and other agriculturists made
results for historians to consider when evaluating the relations between each
civilization.
xix Many historians argue that the descendants of those who founded Alexandria
Eschate make up the Chinese Dayuan (, Dyun; lit. Great Ionians)
xx Many scholars considering the dwindling Persian Empire attribute this lack of
attention externally to the corruption that was rampant among the satrapy in
Persian Provinces. Thus, it is likely that a corrupt satrap at Alexandria Eschate was
appointed and then forgotten by the larger Macedonian Empire, especially
considering that the city itself fell so far outside of the realm of the main portion
of the Empire.
22
Instead, it was not until the Roman Empire came to prominence that
the ancient Han Dynasty, now divided into the Eastern and Western Han
This map has been digitally rendered for the public domain and can be found online through
any search engine.
the region they only knew as Great Qin, (, Dqn.)41 It was the Han
Lewis writes, [Daqin] was a mythic realm of fantastic plants and animals
23
University of British Columbia, even goes so far as to state in his article, The
Qin was confused from the outset with ancient mythological notions about
the far west.43 Rome, too, was aware of the Seres, but unsure of their
regions of the world are accounted for with very strict adherence to
to the far right of the map, and the land extends in the original map that way
endlessly.
In either case, direct contact between the two civilizations would have
Thus, direct contact between the civilizations that were worlds apart took
One of the very first alleged arrivals of Seres envoys was recorded by
Florus (d. 130 AD,) a Roman historian who lived during the time of Trajan and
Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the
imperial sway [of Rome] were sensible to its grandeur, and looked with
These envoys, according to Florus, were paying their respects to the Roman
does not name specific locations for these envoy arrivals, it is assumed by
modern historians that the emissaries would likely have arrived at Roman
However, it was not until 97 AD that the Chinese general Ban Chao
that the two civilizations finally encountered one another in a direct, political
capacity. Ban Chao, who sent his envoy Gan Ying, was sent on a mission to
bring gifts to Da Qin, but the envoy was turned back before reaching Rome.
According to some accounts by Gan Ying, the envoy made it as far as the
Parthian Empire, who falsely informed Gan Ying that the trip to Rome was
Upon his dejected return to Ban Chao, Gan Ying recounted his
secondary experiences with the Roman Empire through the sailors in the
ports that Gan Ying visited. The Hou Han Shu identifies the sea in question,
the one which the Parthians informed Gan Ying would be too dangerous to
traverse, as the Haixixxi. Gan Ying goes on to describe the accounts of those
Their [the Romans] kings are not permanent. They select and
dismissed quietly accepts his demotion, and is not angry. The people
of this country are honest. They resemble the Chinese, and that is why
the country is called Da QinThe soil produced lots of gold, silver, and
The Hou Han Shu goes on to accurately identify Rome as the main, central
economic resource for the western regions of Eurasia, stating, It is from this
country that all the various marvelous and rare objects of foreign states
come.48
xxi This literally means west of the sea, which is thought to be modern-day Egypt.
Offers of gifts were not limited from China to Rome. On many occasions,
especially after Gan Ying made his journey into the west, a journey that is
recorded in the Hou Han Shu to have been the furthest journey of any
generation, Rome returned the favor. In fact, it was the perception of the
Chinese, at least, that the Romans were, indeed, returning the offers of gifts
from their lands with tribute from Rome. The Hou Han Shu reads: After this
[Gan Yings journey,] distant kingdoms [such as] Menqi and Doule [Talas] all
The first direct instance of this was recorded in 166 AD when a party of
emissaries and ambassadors arrived in China for Emperor Huan. The Hou
Han Shu states that the group had been sent by , Andun, who the
Chinese recognized as the king of Da Qin.50 The Xiyu Juan, a text found
within the larger tome of the Hou Han Shu, focuses specifically on the
between Andun and the Han, the Xiyu Juan can be quoted as stating:
In the ninth yanxi year [166 AD] during the reign of Emperor Huan,
the king of Da Qin, Andun sent envoys from beyond the frontiers
shell. This was the very first time there was [direct] communication
[between the two countries.] The tribute brought was neither precious
xxiii This is generally thought of as being the prefecture of the central Vietnamese
coast.
27
nor rare, raising suspicion that the accounts [of the envoys of their
death before the arrival of the envoy, and the subsequent ascension of
Marcus Aurelius while the envoy was en-route, it is generally accepted that
also a general consensus that the tribute that was brought by the Romans
was likely obtained on their trip through Southeastern Asia, which explains
the Hans familiarity with it and their skepticism of Romes power and
wealth.52
After contact had been established between the two governments, the
Han began to chronicle a civilization that they understood, in reality, far less
than they thought they did. The Xiyu Juan goes on to state that to the
west of this kingdom is Ruoshuixxiv and Liushaxxv, which are close to the place
where Xi Wangmuxxvi lives, which go almost as far as the place where the sun
This supports prior supposition that the ancient Han, while very intelligent,
had a fundamentally skewed perspective of the west and all the regions that
Chinese sought many of the high-quality goods that had previously been
unavailable in China, especially when many of these goods would have likely
been revered for having come from a mystical other realm like the west
was to the Han.55 The Xiyu Juan paints a detailed picture of plenty when
xxvii To the Chinese, this literally meant that the sun would disappear before
reappearing back in the east where it ought to be a deviation of the theory of
world-flatness from ancient and medieval times.
29
reported by Gan Ying from his time with locals. Gan Ying reported in the Hou
Han Shu that the locals he encountered spoke of a fine cloth, which some
people [Romans] say is made from the down of water sheep, but which is
It is significant to note that the use of the term water-sheep comes up only
once in the Hou Han Shu, twice overall in the whole of ancient Chinese
literature, the second time in the Weilue,58 which will be addressed shortly,
and consensus on which animal or creature this might be referring to has not
been reached. The first reference to this can be found in the Hou Han Shu,
the chronicle of the Later Han Dynasty that has been cited numerous times
by Fan Ye (d. 445 AD,) an ancient historian. Most of the information found
from the Hou Han Shu, at least describing the events of Zhang Qian, Gan
Ying, and Ban Chao are written hundreds of years after the events allegedly
xxviii Literally: fire-washed cloth; believed to have been the fur/skin of the
salamander-rat (the Chinese equivalent to the phoenix,) which could be cleaned
and renewed by washing it with fire.
30
occurred, whereas many of the chronicles of the Romans and other western
As such, it is peculiar that the term water sheep only comes up once
when discussing what the Romans consider to be the origin of silk. Some
historians posit that this is because Romans simply did not grasp the
scientific intricacies of the process while the Chinese had been producing silk
understood by all parties, just as one knows now that a sea-horse has few
Friedrich Hirth in his book, The Ancient History of China to the End of the
In any event, it is made abundantly clear in the Hou Han Shu, which
seems to be the most popularly accepted of the theories for water sheep,
31
that the Chinese reject the water sheep concept. Instead, as indicated
above, the Chinese seem to believe that the Romans are attempting to
describe what is actually wild silk. McKinley, among others, suggest that this
the shui-yang (water sheep,) than that found in the Weilue, in the middle of
Romans, that educated Romans could find information on how silk is made.
Fairly accurately, Pliny writes, There is another class also of these insects
produced in quite a different manner. These last spring from a grub of larger
size, with two horns of very peculiar appearance. The larva then becomes a
then that called necy-dalus, and, after that, in six months, it becomes a silk-
the pupae emerged by dipping the larvae into boiling water. They were
for many thousands of years, silk worms had been domesticated, the sole
difference between the two that the wild silkworms would have chewed
through part of the thread at the time of their harvest, as this is the natural
was likely the case in Cos in the Mediterranean, where wild silkworms were
their harvesting would have yielded a finer, firmer, and smoother thread that
Trade with the Roman Empire was solidified as the Romans discovered the
vastly improved quality between their wildly-obtained silks from Cos and that
main export of China in the ancient world.67 Although the modern historians
do not know much about the initial trading due to a seeming lack of record
keeping on the part of the Romans, the modern historian can look to Pliny
the Elder for the most thorough account of the Chinese Silks. Pliny writes,
The Seres are famous for the woolen substance obtained from their forests;
after soaking in water they comb off the white down of the leavesso
manifold is the labor employed, and so distant is the region of the globe
public. In fact, Pliny goes on to emphasize the huge demand for silks
among the wealthy Roman women, stating later in his Natural History: By
33
the lowest reckoning, India, Seres, and the Arabian peninsula take from our
Empire 100 million sesterces every year: that is how much our luxuries and
The silk of the Chinese, no longer the Han but now split into the Three
Kingdoms with three separate Emperors bidding for the throne, was in fact
so popular that the Senate issued several edicts limiting the importation of
Senate then went on to prohibit the wearing of silk in all public areas on
moral grounds. Seneca the Younger (d. 65 AD) issued this proclamation
through the Senate: I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide
the body, nor even ones decency, can be called clotheswretched flocks of
maids labor so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so
that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner
Trade
Hou Han Shu, but only becomes significant when the modern historian
considers that the Weilue was composed hundreds of years after the
completed publishing of the Hou Han Shu and the fall of the Han Dynasty.
that the Han Dynastys collapse marked the beginning of the time period
Notably, the Weilue focuses less on the resources of Rome and more
on the economic value Rome possesses. For example, the Weilue reads,
This country produces fine linen. They make gold and silver coins. One gold
coin is equal to ten silver coins. The Weilue also paints a far less fanciful
view of the trade relations between the two countries, stating, Furthermore,
they regularly make a profit by obtaining Chinese silk, unravelling it, and
making fine hu (Western) silk damasks. That is why this country trades with
Anxi (Parthia) across the middle of the sea. The seawater is bitter and
unable to be drunk, which is why it is rare for those who try to make contact
to reach China.71
The Weilue goes on to suggest that the Romans and Chinese had
established a sea trade with one another, stating, As well as the overland
route from Da Qin through Haibei,xxx one can also follow the sea south along
xxx Literally means: North of the Sea; generally thought of as being the lands
between Egypt and Parthia.
Thats why rare items come from Yongchang. In early times, only the
maritime routes [to Da Qin] were discussed because they didnt know there
of the author. The Chinese were likely aware of the possibility of maritime
routes to Rome far before they became aware of the overland routes. This
was likely for a variety of reasons, not the least of which was the Chinese
Weilue was published, these mythological nuances would likely have been
Conclusions
empire were largely indirect, and the few sources history does yield offer up
was brought into question in the very literature that had assisted in their
is often dated with a range of possible dates, less so exact times for events.
the two civilizations. While the Chinese were meticulous in their record
documenting the time period are likely a result of time. The two civilizations
might have led to some of the fabulous stories each had about the other. In
detailed accounts that the modern historian does have concerning the two
accounts of the complex regions with which each was, prior to their contact,
END NOTES
38
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