Eo

HEP TEACHING MATERIALS
Follow-up and Tracer studies
Introduction
by Jean Lamoure
H E P P r o g r a m m e Manager: Franoise Caillods
I" ^ International Institute for Educational Planning

Three objectives are being relentlessly pursued by the HEP in its
training activities:
Emphasizing IIEP's fundamental task of strengthening the

national capacities of Member States.
Ensuring the widest possible geographical coverage of

IIEP's programmes.
Encouraging the gradual assumption by Member States of

IIEP's responsibilities in thefieldof training in educational
planning and administration.
Training has always been the Institute's major activity. In spite of

the steady growth in numbers of participants in the training
programme, demand for training services has outstripped the
Instititute's capacity to provide traditional courses. These teaching
materials, in a modular format, are part of the Institute's response to
this situation, enhancing its capacity to provide training courses to
national, regional or international training institutions, particularly
those which have entered into partnership agreements with the
Institute.
The teaching materials are based largely on the Institutes' own

specialized training courses and have been fully tested and validated
by HEP in various training situations in different regions of the
world. Each series of modules makes up a comprehensive training
course which can be used in a variety of ways; as self-instructional
materials, in face-to-face courses, and as the basis for distance
education courses.
This series on T o l l o w - u p a n d tracer studies' describes methods
and techniques used in studies of transition from school to work. It is
most useful in assisting educational planners, administrators and
human resources planners in the implementation of surveys which
seek to assess young people's educational training and their
employment (see 'Before you start' which follows the 'Preface').
Though the material is intended primarily for educational planners,
the subject may also be of interest to decision-makers in government
departments, ministries, and even the private sector.
During the past few years, HEP has made a large investment in the
preparation of these materials which have been designed from the
outset to meet the three objectives listed above. We are proud to be able
to launch this programme and we are convinced that the materials
will have a major impact on training in educational planning and
administration worldwide.
Jacques Hallak,
Assistant Director-General, UNESCO

Director, International Institute for Educational Planning
Before you start
These self-instruction materials are intended primarily for

educational planners; it is designed to help t h e m to conduct
surveys o n the relationships between education, training, and
employment. Those responsible for higher education and
technical and vocational training will also find it useful, for it is
in those sectors that surveys o n the transition from school to
w o r k are most valuable. Generally speaking, all specialists in
matters relating to the planning of h u m a n resources will derive
benefit from these materials.
T o tackle w h a t follows, it is not necessary to possess any

specialized knowledge of statistics or sociology, but before
reading the material it is useful to have s o m e practical
knowledge of the training systems and employment patterns in
your o w n country.
After studying the material, the reader will be capable of

preparing and conducting a survey of the transition from school
to w o r k (a follow-up or tracer study) from its conception to its
implementation and the interpretation of its results. H e or she
should also be able to select the key personnel such as
statisticians and field workers w h o can provide help in s o m e of
the specific tasks involved.
Conducting follow-up and tracer surveys is primarily a matter

of practice. The reader will therefore benefit to the full from
these self-instruction materials w h e n he or she has put its
contents to practical use b y gaining initial experience, even o n a
limited scale, in the field.
3
These materials contain the following modules:
Module 1: The definition and value of follow-up and

tracer studies.
Module 2: Defining the objectives of the survey.
Module 3: Problems of sampling.
Module 4: The construction of the questionnaire.
Module 5: Implementing the survey.
Module 6: Analysis of results.
Module 7: Medium-term prospects.
These modules are independent of one another and can be

studied separately. However, it is preferable to tackle them in
the above order; this will facilitate your work.
Some aspects (sampling techniques, coding, methodologies of

statistical analysis) are dealt with briefly, because they are not
specific to follow-up and tracer studies. You m a y refer to other
manuals for additional information.
You will alsofindaccompanying the modules:
Exercises: there are three practical exercises. There is no

need to read all the modules before
performing them; detailed instructions are
given in each case.
Solutions to exercises:
the exercises are not very difficult, but full
indications are given to enable you to evaluate
your replies.
These modules were prepared by Jean Lamoure,

Lecturer in the Department of Educational Sciences
of the Ecole Normale Suprieure de Cachan.
UPE TEACHING MATERIALS
Follow-up and tracer studies
Trainer's guide
by Jean Lamoure
IIPE P r o g r a m m e Manager: Franoise Caillods
Iff
ll
\ \y International Institute for Educational Planning
TRAINER'S GUIDE
1
General comments
The seven modules on studies of transition from school to

work - follow-up or tracer studies - are intended for all those
concerned with education or h u m a n resources development.
These modules will be of particular interest to statistics or
planning departments and to education management staff.
The principals of technical and vocational schools or univer-
sities are also concerned with studies of the transition from
school to work which m a y provide an external assessment of
their establishment (see below Module 1, Chapter 3).
Trainees need not have any special qualification in statistics

or sociology to work on these modules. They should, however,
have some practical knowledge of the training and employ-
ment systems in their countries. Otherwise it will be provided
by the trainer (see below General Comments, Section (f)).
Purpose of the modules

The modules have two functions:
(i) a briefing function by showing the role of follow-up or

tracer studies in the planning, educational management and the
human resources fields. These studies are presented as one tool
among others that can be used to direct educational policies
and curricular research more efficiently. Particularly in Modules
1 and 7, it will be stressed h o w they form part of the wider
context of basic information on training and employment.
In the training field, they m a y supplement information on the
flows of pupils from one training system to another,
particularly w h e n they come under different supervisory
FOLLOW-UP AND TRACER STUDIES
authorities. In the employment system they can contribute

to knowledge of labourflowsthrough comparisons with e m -
ployment surveys (which generally concern labour stocks), and
particularly to comparative knowledge of the jobs filled by
young people and the rest of the working population1;
(ii) a learning function as it serves as an initial approach to the

techniques involving surveys and studies on the transition
from school to work. Some parts of these modules (Modules 3, 4
and 5) can be used to carry out other types of sociological
surveys in the education and employment fields (e.g. surveys
on education demand and on occupational mobility).
The modules are designed in such a w a y that they give

trainees sufficient knowledge to carry out an experimental
tracer survey. The trainer will stress the importance of this
experiment as a practical w a y of developing the knowledge
acquired (see below Section (g)).
General plan for the self-instructional modules

The numbering of the modules corresponds to the sequence of
the various steps taken to prepare and then carry out a survey.
After the general introductory Module 1, Modules 2,3 and 4

concern the various stages in the construction of a question-
naire (Module 4), using as a basis a precise definition
of objectives (Module 2) and a definition of the target popu-
lation (Module 3). Module 5 discusses the various stages in
the preparation of a survey, while Module 6 gives practical
information on h o w to produce statistical tables showing
results. Module 7 explains h o w a publications policy is defined
and some of the benefits of setting up of a permanent, institu-
tionalized system for carrying out these studies.
1
This chronological order is not rigid. Depending on the
It will be useful for the
supervisor to read in the
trainees' needs and expectations, the trainer can modify the
series 'Fundamentals of sequence of these modules.
Educational Planning',
Planning human T w o types of trainees can be considered, those w h o are mainly
resources: methods,
experiences and practices
'technicians' (those w h o would actually be carrying out surveys
by Olivier Bertrand, HEP,and studies) or 'decision-makers', for w h o m the methodolo-
Paris, 1992. gical or technical information in Modules 2,3 and 4 is less
1-4
TRAINER'S GUIDE
important than the modules concerning the policy and insti-

tutional aspects of tracer studies. If the trainees are rather
'technicians', the trainer will keep to the chronological order.
If the trainees are 'decision-makers', he will w o r k first o n
Modules 1,2,6 and 7. These are only examples, as other
arrangements are of course possible, for instance starting with
Module 5 (implementing the survey) before Modules 3 and 4 o n
construction of the questionnaire.
Purpose of the exercises and solutions

The exercises m a k e it possible to assess what the trainees have
learnt. They are a practical application of the information
provided in the modules and will therefore be done after the
modules have been studied:
Exercices
Module 1: No exercise except for a short bibliographic report (Module 1, Chapter 6: 'In
conclusion, a short exercise').
Module 2: Exercise 1/Solution 1: Definition of operational objectives (see also
in Module 2, Chapter 5, two additional questions on assumptions and variables).
Module 3: N o exercise other than a short list (Module 3, Chapter 7: 'A short exercise to
check your knowledge').
Module 4: Exercise 2/Solution 2: Preparation of a questionnaire.
Module 5: N o exercise.
Module 6: Exercise 3/Solution 3: Analysis of results.
Module 7: No exercise.
A s exercises require concrete results, they cannot be set for all

modules. In the case of modules with no exercises, the trainer
can, as in any kind of tuition, check orally if the module has
been correctly understood, using the recapitulative questions
appearing o n the last page of certain modules (see Modules 1, 4 ,
5 and 6).
Apart from checking o n knowledge, the exercises and their

solutions are intended to drive h o m e the key concepts discus-
sed in the modules. The solutions given (particularly for
exercises 1 and 2, for exercise 3 is mainly a calculation exercise)
simply provide guidance, meaning that the proposed solutions
do not rule out others provided they are based o n similar
1-5
reasoning. Similarly, if the trainer k n o w s of any recent follow-

u p or tracer studies available in the country, he should extract a
few tables from them and ask for comments (Exercise 6).
Role of trainers
Although the trainees need not have special knowledge (see
above in General Comments, Section 1), the trainer should have
a very good knowledge of education systems and good k n o w -
ledge of employment problems. Quite obviously former H E P
trainees are ideal 'resource persons'; trainers can also be
recruited from a m o n g specialists in educational statistics,
researchers with practical experience of these types of surveys
and those with a demographic studies qualification.
Although a trainer must be responsible for the entire course,

he can use another 'resource person' for a particular module. In
such a case the trainer will quite obviously be present during
the session in order to see h o w this other 'resource person'
performs and h o w the trainees react. The use of outside
'resource persons' m a y , for instance, be necessary for Module 3
(sampling problems) or to provide back-up o n employment
questions, with which education specialists are usually not
familiar.
Trainers are not conventional teachers: their role is well defined

by the 'supervised self-instruction' concept; they are mainly
'guides' w h o help the trainees to m a k e progress and unders-
tand the modules. They also w o r k as organizers with regard to
the preparation of training and the joint sessions (see below
General Comments, Section (e)).
Organization of the course

Here w e shall not go into general instructions on the adminis-
trative and material organization of the course since there
is nothing specific to be said about them, but simply m a k e a
few points concerning the somewhat special form of these
supervised self-instruction courses.
(i) Selection of trainees
There is no o p t i m u m size for a group of trainees. Although

about 20 trainees can be handled at the joint sessions on the
TRAINER'S GUIDE
modules, the exercise sessions, w h e n they are supervised, and

solution sessions can only w o r k with 10 or so participants (see
General Comments, Section (vii) below). T h e main consideration is
the homogeneity of participants, to which the trainer must pay
particular attention.
A s a rule, it is preferable to organize several courses for small

homogeneous groups as they will be m o r e effective and produc-
tive. By homogeneity of participants is meant similarity of
qualifications (training, experience) and activities (for example a
group of principals), and not their importance or professional
position.
(ii) The trainer's personal preparation
The trainer m u s t have read (and re-read) all the modules,

exercises and solutions before starting the course. If anything
remains unclear, he must consult others w h o can help h i m to
acquire a perfect grasp of the entire manual.
The trainer will also prepare the additional documentation

required for the course (see General Comments, Section (f) below).
At the end of the first module you will find a short bibliogra-
phy: try to obtain the publications and to have a m i n i m u m
knowledge of at least s o m e of them before the start of the
course, as the trainees might ask questions about them.
(Hi) Trainee preparation
H o w e v e r the course is organized (see General Comments, Section

(iv) below), the trainer is strongly recommended to distribute the
self-instructional manuals to all the trainees at least a w e e k
before the course starts. It is most important that the trainees
have time to read and familiarize themselves with all the material.
The trainer should also provide a short introductory paper o n

the contents and purpose of this manual. H e will base this
paper o n what w a s said at the beginning of this guide (see
General Comments, Sections (b) and (c) above) and on the introduc-
tion to the modules entitled 'Before you start'.
This short paper of about two pages could be accompanied by

special instructions such as: "Read all this material carefully
1-7
! before starting the course", or " Y o u are urged to read this

; material before the course. If it is to be of any use to you, you
should refer to Chapter 6 of Module 1 (entitled 'In conclusion, a
short exercise') and add to the bibliography in the w a y s
suggested".
These are simply examples of the approach the trainer can take
to this introductory paper and he/she is free to include in it
anything he/she considers appropriate. The main point is to
give a personal touch to this paper (this is an old trick of the
trade to s h o w that the trainer is somebody w h o counts and to
prove his competence even before the start of the course) and
give the future trainees s o m e w o r k instructions; even if they
are followed by only a few trainees, the joint sessions will be all
the m o r e effective.
(iv) Organization of the course
A s it is a matter of the time available to the trainer and the

trainees, the course m a y vary in length. The total duration does
not exceed 30 or so hours (see Section (v) below), but it is
advisable to have the various modules and exercises as close as
possible to one another, if there is to be n o slackening of
attention or even failure to retain what has been learnt from
one session to another.
Although the ideal solution is to complete the entire course o n

a full-time basis (i.e. in about a week), the various modules and
exercises can be tackled at the rate of one a day, or in a period
of about a fortnight (for example, after or before the working
day). In the light of experience, it does not seem advantageous
to spread the course out any further.
(v) Duration of the course
The 30 hours or so required are, however, only an estimate.

Everything depends o n the characteristics of your audience (see
! General Comments, Section (i) above). But it is difficult, as expe-
! rience again shows, to study all this material in less than 30
j hours, without the risk of rushing through s o m e very impor-
tant modules such as those o n the construction of a question-
naire (Module 4) and implementing the survey (Module 5).
TRAINER'S GUIDE
N . B . : D o not underestimate the time needed to do the exercises,

which are an excellent w a y of checking and consolidating your
trainees' knowledge.
N o . of m o d u l e : Title of m o d u l e : A v e r a g e duration
(in hours)
M o d u l e 1: T h e definition and value of follow-up and tracer studies (i) 1
M o d u l e 2: Defining the objectives of the survey (ii) 2.5
Exercise 1 : Definition of operational objectives 2
Solution 2
M o d u l e 3: Problems of sampling (ii) 2
Module 4: T h e construction of the questionnaire 3
Exercise 2 : Preparation of a questionnaire 4
Solution 2
Module 5: Implementing the survey 3
Module 6: Analysing the results 2
Exercise 3: Analysis of the results 3
Solution 1
M o d u l e 7: Medium-term prospects 1.5
Final assessment 2
TOTAL 31 hours
(i) Not including the time for the bibliographic exercise (Chapter 6: 'In conclusion, a short exercise'); it depends on the
organization of the course and on whether documentation sources are within easy reach,
(ii) Including 0.5 hour for Chapter 5: 'Two additional questions on assumptions and variables'.
(Hi) Including 0.5 hour for Chapter 7: 'A short exercise to check your knowledge'.
1-9
vi) General organization of the joint sessions
A n u m b e r of solutions are open to the trainer w h o will choose

or adapt them according to his personal inclinations:
Advantages Drawbacks
I ype of organization
(a) 'Directive': Even if your trainees have not If you d o not have an excellent
read the module before the knowledge of the module, your trainees
The trainer goes over
session, they will acquire a will soon realize the fact and your
almost the entire module
knowledge of its contents reputation will suffer.
orally, which is similar to the
enabling them to discuss it and If you have no experience of speaking,
conventional teaching
do the exercises. your trainees will fall asleep.
approach.
This type of organization does not
encourage the trainees to join in, and has
little in c o m m o n with the spirit of this
manual.
(b) 'Laissez-faire' T h e trainer has almost It is not sure that the trainees will ask
nothing to do and waits for the the trainer anything at all or that what
The trainees are in full
trainees' questions. they say will concern the contents of the
control, while the trainer is
T h e trainees are perfectly free module.
simply there to answer their
questions. to say what they like. Y o u m a y have s o m e difficulty in getting
back to the contents of the module.
(c) 'Tutorial': A s it focuses on discussion It a s s u m e s that all of the trainees have

between the participants and already read the module.
The trainer recalls the key
trainer, it is an interactive form If they have not, only a minority will
points in the module, and
of training.
the session is mostly an really participate.
opportunity for going into Most of the time is devoted to
greater detail and work on the contents.
discussing the trainees' It avoids the lecturing style of
questions. the directive m o d e which is not
very suitable for an adult
audience.
Whatever the solution adopted (there is n o need to stress that

w e prefer the tutorial), it is necessary:
At the start of each session, to recall briefly the aim of the

m o d u l e and its place in the course as a whole (chronological
and logical order, etc.);
During each session, to leave sufficient time for an exchange

of views with the trainees (which is hardly possible with the
'laissez-faire' approach);
1-10
TRAINER'S GUIDE
At the end of each session, to impress o n the trainees the main

conclusions to be d r a w n from the discussion. The trainer
will also say what the next module (or exercise) will be and
advise the trainees to read it beforehand.
(VII) Organization of the exercise sessions
The exercises can be organized in different w a y s , i.e.:
by letting the trainees d o them by themselves (individually

or in pairs) without the trainer being present;
in the form of joint sessions in the presence of the trainer

w h o will be the 'resource person' helping the trainees to
understand the meaning of the questions asked.
The choice depends o n the trainer's and the trainees' inclina-

tions. It must be remembered that these are in n o case school
exercises under the direction of a teacher, but an aid for a
better understanding of the modules. If permitted by the
organization of the course (in particular by the trainees' perso-
nal timetable), joint sessions will be preferred.
Taking a country's specific characteristics

into account
This is an important factor in the success of a course. T h e
material provided for you in the modules corresponds to
situations that are real but which m a y sometimes have little in
c o m m o n with the characteristics of your country. O n e of the
trainer's main tasks is to adapt the material provided as best he
can or to propose other kinds (see General Comments, Section (e)
(n) above).
1-11
It would be useful if the trainer could:
Module 1: Set up his o w n complementary bibliography.
Module 2: Replace the chart given as an example at the end of the module (chart entitled 'Another
example in the form of a chart to be completed) by one concerning the country in question.
Module 3: In the s a m e way replace the example given in Chapter 7 ('A short exercise to check your
knowledge).
Module 4: For each example of a question, ask the trainees to check whether the contents
and formulation are quite applicable to the country's characteristics; they will do the s a m e
for Exercise 2 {Preparation of a questionnaire).
Module 5: Obtain information from the specialized national bodies on the budget necessary for
a survey: rates of pay for field workers, travel expenses, etc. (see below Module 5 ,
Chapter 1).
Module 6: A s far as possible obtain tables from national surveys and have them analysed.
Module 7: Identify the national bodies which would be interested in receiving the results of follow-up
and tracer surveys.
These few examples are not exhaustive but simply give an idea
of what can be done.
Possible further training

At the start of this short guide w e stressed that the modules give
trainees enough knowledge to conduct an experimental tracer study
(see Section (a) above). A t the end of the session, the trainees m a y
wish to study one or other of these modules (for example
sampling problems) or part of a module in greater detail (for
example the recruitment and training offieldworkers in
Module 5).
Depending o n your resources, y o u can:
prepare a short specialized bibliography for them;
if you feel you cannot do so, find specialized 'resource

persons' (in the first case, a statistician or a demography
specialist, in the second a manager responsible for census
1-12
TRAINER'S GUIDE
operations or other national surveys) and organize one or

two sessions which will be given at a later date.
Trainees or you yourself m a y be tempted to try your hand. That

would certainly be the best kind of further training, and a full-
scale practical exercise, even one concerning a very limited
population (a school, or a university department), is worth
more than any long lecture.
1-13
O Special comments on each module
For each module you start with a reminder of the objective

(it could serve as an introduction to the joint sessions) followed
by the main points to be highlighted for the trainees. T h e
figures indicated in the margin (1.2 etc.) refer to the numbers
of the chapters in the module.
Module 1: The definition and value of follow-up and

tracer studies
Reminder of the objective
Module 1 is in the form of a general introduction: the trainer

will refer to thefirstsection of the General Comments in this
guide (see Section (a) above). H e must not present follow-up and
tracer studies as a panacea with an answer for every question,
but stress their specific contribution to directing education
policies m o r e efficiently: they are primarily a special technique
which helps to provide information o n what happens to school
leavers (an area in which knowledge is very patchy if not
inexistent). They also provide a special means of dialogue for all
those concerned with the development of h u m a n resources, not
only in the various sectors of education and employment or the
various administrativefields(agriculture, public service,
health, etc.) but also in business or trade associations.
Throughout the course the trainer will keep this twofold

objective in mind and remind trainees of it, particularly with
regard to Modules 6 and 7.
Main points
They concern thefirstthree chapters and the sixth chapter of

this M o d u l e 1:
o Chapter 1
Planners, education managers and h u m a n resource planners

are the main users of these studies. But the trend towards the
1-14
TRAINER'S GUIDE
decentralization of education systems and greater autonomy in

schools is creating n e w categories of users at the decentralized
levels of central government, and especially in technical
schools, where the principals w h o have to justify the resources
allocated to them will use these studies as an external
assessment of their schools.
^Chapter 3
This chapter illustrates w h a t has been said previously
(see above Section 1 of the General Comments and Module 1,
Reminder of the objective); the trainer m u s t have n o compunction
about coming back to this example during the course so that
the trainees d o not lose sight of the objective of these studies.
<=> Chapter 6
W e have already discussed h o w this exercise can be carried out
(see above General comments, Sections (e) and (f)). It is extremely
instructive in that it enables trainees (and the trainer) to check
whether the concept of the study of transition from school to
w o r k has been well understood. T h e trainer can go further with
this exercise by asking the trainees to explain the methodology
of these studies by m e a n s of the characteristics stated in
chapter 5 of this module.
Module 2: Defining the objectives of the survey

This phase o n interpreting instructions is relatively difficult for it

brings in concepts concerning problem formulation, assumptions
and scientific research with which the trainees are not
necessarily familiar. They must not be put off by these diffi-
culties, and the necessary time must be devoted to them. It will
be difficult to go beyond the 2.5 hours planned for this joint
session without tiring the trainees to n o avail. But it is possible to
obtain a more precise view of these concepts by means of the two
questions appearing at the end of chapter 4 (see also Section (f)
above) and, especially, to spend m o r e time o n the exercises.
This is an important phase because it forms the basis for a

dialogue with the commissioner of the study (a ministry, an
agency, etc.), which is necessary if the final results are to
1-15
comply with the initial instructions, and because it clarifies the

subsequent stages concerning the construction of the
questionnaire2.
After studying this module, the trainees will d o Exercise 1

(Definition of operational objectives).
Main points
o Chapter 1
A s an introduction to the module, the slide for the chart o n
the technical organization of a survey, which also appears in
at the end of M o d u l e 5, will s h o w h o w this phase precedes all
the others.
O Chapter 2
The necessity will be stressed of breaking d o w n the general
instructions received into m o r e limited, operational objectives
(in the example given, the m a n p o w e r study requested
by the Minister of Technical Education in fact included t w o
objectives). This is not a purely formal exercise, for the
objectives defined in this w a y affect the organization of the
survey and its cost: in practice, it is the objectives which are
very often adjusted to the organizational possibilities and
budget resources (see Module 3, Chapter 6 below). Exercise 1 in
this module will m a k e it possible to go back to this question.
^Chapter 3
The formulation of problems, and assumptions (see Chapter 4
below), is quite often glossed over: it is to be stressed that time
spent o n this phase is not time wasted: o n the contrary, it will
m a k e it easier to construct the questionnaire (Module 4) and
analyse the results (Module 6), since the frame of reference
provided will prevent any mistakes.
'The O Chapter 4
trainer will find it useful
to read one of the HEP
self-instructional modules:The academic logic which leads from the statement of problems
Livingstone, Ian D., to assumptions is to s o m e extent formal; the trainer will stress
Specifications of research
what is said in this important chapter of the module:
aims in the series
Quantitative research
You will note that under box [B] (objective), the lines run
methods for education
planning, published by towards box [C] (general problem formulation) as well as box [D]
K. Ross (to appear in 1996).
1-16
Chart of the technical organization of a survey
L Request (from Ministry, etc.)
STAGE 1
I
INTERPRETATION
1.1 definition of objectives
1.2 statement of the problem,

and assumptions
1.3 documentary research
2.1 details of population

to be questioned
PREPARATION OF 2.2 questionnaire

STAGE 2 THE SURVEY
2.4 CODING PLAN
2.3 codes, nomenclatures J
3.1 implementation
STAGE 3
TRIAL SURVEY 3.2 processing of results
r,recruitment
tl
3.3 conclusions
3.4 Final shaping up
| of survey | || of questionnaire
personnelli U and coding plan
counting of questionnaires,
STAGE 4 FULL SCALE SURVEY & checking
" ~*\
5.1 coding
STAGE 5
"recruitment^,
DATA PROCESSING 5.2 data acquisition
5.3 corrections }
i of coders f 5.4 DATA-BANK 5.5 R E C O R D S FILE
RESEARCH
PROGRAMMES TABLES
5-8
TRAINER'S GUIDE
(assumptions). This means that the theoretical order [B] followed

by [C] and [D] is not rigid and that, in practice, the statement
of assumptions [D] very often proceeds general problem
formulation [C].
Y o u m a y even add to these c o m m e n t s that the w o r k o n varia-

bles (box [E]) m a y also be the key to carrying out this phase and
stress that the main consideration is the final and general
coherence of objectives, problems and assumptions.
Module 3: Problems of sampling

If the instructions involve a national survey and the population
concerned is a large one, it is difficult to carry out a n exhaustive
survey. T h e purpose of this module is to s h o w h o w , by using
statistical techniques, it is possible to obtain a n accurate picture
of the entire population o n the basis of a population sample.
This remark applies to all sociological surveys. T h e application
of sampling to follow-up and tracer studies is discussed in
Chapter 6 (A pragmatic approach).
This module is independent of the others and can be studied

after Modules 4 and 5 (see above General Comments, Sections (b) and
(d)).
Main points
Chapter 1
3
A s stated at the end of this chapter, a few w o r d s are said about
For more information on
the method of choosing a
quota samples simply to emphasize their disadvantages.
sample, see Ross, K.N.,
1992, Sample design
^Chapter 2
procedures for a national
survey of primary schools in
In surveys o n large populations, multi-stage sampling is
Zimbabwe, Issues and r e c o m m e n d e d all the m o r e since it reduces costs substantially
methodologies In if field workers are employed (unlike a postal survey in which
educational development,
HEP, Paris, No. 82 and this factor obviously does not count). T h e importance will be
Ross, K.N., Sample design stressed of having a representative sample of schools, so that,
for educational survey
for example, all schools have the s a m e chance of being selected.
research, a module to be
published in the
A stratified sample of schools (on the basis of criteria such as
self-instruction series on
Quantitative research urban/rural, public/private, etc.) as in the case of pupils will
methods for educational be r e c o m m e n d e d (see below Section 3) 3 .
planners (op.cit).
1-17
O Chapter 3
The characteristics o n which the stratification of the population

will be based must be carefully selected, not only o n the basis
of available data but also your assumptions (see above, Module 2,
Chapters 3,4). A large n u m b e r of criteria is not required;
the following are generally taken into account: (i) the training
specialty, (n) the possession/non-possession of a formal qualifi-
cation, and (in) sex. Experience shows that educational
characteristics (i) and (n) always seem to have an impact o n
entry into employment, as d o individual characteristics (m),
since gender is a selection criterion for employment, at least in
practice if not officially.
O Chapter 4
The survey o n non-respondents to ensure that the respondents

are representative of the target population is extremely
important, for a non-reply rate of over 30 per cent prevents
the results from being extrapolated to the survey population
asa whole. It therefore has to be checked that the characteristics
(educational, individual) of the entire population for
which information is available, or o n the basis of which the
stratification has been set u p , are just as representative of the
respondents. If so, it can already be said that the non-
respondents also have the same characteristics. But this is not
sufficient, since they m a y be in a special situation (see below
Module 4, Chapter 5) and only a survey a m o n g this special
population will enable you to check whether this is so, by
comparing the structure of replies to this question in the
populations comprising the respondents and the sample of
non-respondents w h o m you have traced.
Reassure the trainees that a survey a m o n g non-respondents

is not something of a paradox (questioning individuals w h o
were unable or unwilling to reply); provided that it is properly
conducted (see the last paragraph of Chapter 4, Module 3), it is
always successful.
This module refers to the contribution of specialized software

to sampling operations. The trainer will qualify what has been
said: although this software is easy to use, it is not necessarily
a panacea and a good knowledge of standard software
1-18
TRAINER'S GUIDE
(management of databases or a spreadsheet) can be equally

useful even if it m e a n s obtaining help from a statistician. In the
case of a major survey - for example to measure the n u m b e r of
the country's technical school leavers w h o have found w o r k -
the help of a statistician is in any case r e c o m m e n d e d .
^Chapter 5
Although this is a short chapter which is in fact an introduction

to the next chapter, it must not be overlooked. A n exhaustive
survey is important in connection with follow-up and tracer
studies, for the wealth of information obtained could be of
interest to m a n y users in addition to those w h o have directly
requested the study.
=> Chapter 6
This chapter m a y be an opportunity to go back to questions

concerning the definition of objectives (see Module 2, Chapter 2
and Exercise 1): organizational, budget and educational policy
considerations must be taken into account w h e n defining
objectives, since the study is not an academic exercise but has
been commissioned by the authorities. T h e trainees will be
asked to think about the local resources which are actually
available in the country (see below Module 5, Chapter 4).
O Chapter 7
This is one of the cases in which the trainer is perfectly free to

set u p an example which is based o n national characteristics
and reflects the trainees' concerns (see above General Comments,
Sections (d) and (/)).
Module 4: The construction of the questionnaire

This is a key module. T h e quality of the results depends to a

very large extent o n h o w well this phase is carried out. The fact
can be stressed that, despite its apparent simplicity (strictly
speaking, asking questions is child's play), this exercise is
extremely difficult. T h e meaning of the questions must be
perfectly clear and, particularly in follow-up and tracer
surveys, the information sought can be seldom reduced to
1-19
a single question. As in the formulation of problems and

assumptions (see above Module 2, Chapter 3), all the time
required must be devoted to the operation. Module 5 will give
the respective times for the various stages compared with the
actual implementation of the survey.
After studying this module, the trainees will do Exercise 2
(Preparation of a questionnaire).
Main points
^Chapter 1
As there is no particular difficulty in this introduction,

it might be appropriate to recall h o w this stage involving the
construction of the questionnairetiesin with the other stages
by showing the slide on the ' C H A R T F O R T H E T E C H N I C A L
ORGANIZATION OF A SURVEY'.
^Chapter 2
During one course at H E P , the trainees quite rightly stressed the

importance to be given to national language issues. Once the
questionnaire has been drawn up, it m a y have to be translated
into a number of languages. This question could be discussed
with the trainees, with reference to various examples: a survey
among former students, or among a population with a lower
educational level. In some countries, legislation requires the
joint use of the official language and the local language for
official texts (which would include a questionnaire
commissioned by the authorities): a translation should
therefore appear under each question in the official language
and will therefore have to be carefully checked.
^Chapter 3
Educational characteristics: the terms used in the example

are generic and perhaps do not apply to the national or local
situation: it will be necessary to consider with the trainees
whether the terms establishment, class, specialty and
enrolment are perfectly clear to the population to be
questioned.
1-20
TRAINER'S GUIDE
^Chapter 4
Sociological characteristics: the wording of the questions will be

checked with the trainees in order to take into account the
types of family organization and national cultures. Similarly, it
is to be checked whether the generic term occupation can be
used as such or whether it is preferable to replace it by another
which is m o r e c o m m o n and has a single meaning for the entire
population questioned (see above Chapter 3).
^Chapter 5
Activity: the same remarks as above apply to this central

question (see above Chapters 3,4). The trainer will stress the
basic importance of this question from a methodological view-
point (clearly identifying the different categories of population)
and from a n heuristic viewpoint, for without the identification
of these categories, it is not possible to produce an appraisal of
entry into employment. Only this breakdown of pupil flows
will give weight to your subsequent analyses of employment
characteristics. If at the end of your survey, it appears that only
10 per cent of former pupils have a job and that 50 per cent are
continuing their studies, the analysis of results will have to
focus not only o n the 10 per cent but also provide details o n
the studies of the 50 per cent of your population. This is the
advantage of the filter question which refers the respondent to
as m a n y parts of the questionnaire as you have identified
possible situations.
A variant of this 'activity' question, which is more complex but

at the same time provides more information, is given in Chapter 7.
^Chapter 6
The characteristics of current employment: here again the

preceding remarks apply: it must be ensured that the terms
used are comprehensible and will be correctly interpreted.
The trainees' attention must be d r a w n to the importance of

questions o n dates (for resumption of studies, unemployment,
afirstjob, etc.). The concepts of duration and time patterns are
used to qualify activity analyses: an unemployment rate is
hardly meaningful independently of its duration and, similarly,
1-21
the time taken to find a first job is invaluable evidence for an

appraisal of entry into employment.
Although ideally it m a y be useful to obtain detailed informa-

tion on all jobs held between leaving school and the date of the
survey, it is practically impossible to d o so. The questionnaire
might be m u c h too long, and as the quality of the replies is o n
he whole inversely proportional to the n u m b e r of questions,
there would be a risk of not obtaining information on impor-
tant points. With these as with the preceding questions (see
Chapters 3 and 4 above), it is therefore necessary to aim for a
careful compromise and refer, once again, to the objectives of
the survey.
Analysing the data obtained on a whole series of jobs is in

any case a complex exercise; the trainer must stress the need
to think beforehand about the use of the data sought - and
particularly about the w a y the results of a question will be
processed.
=> Chapter 7
This chapter discusses a dynamic variant of the previously

considered question (see above Chapter 5) which w a s of a static
kind, limited to information on activity at the date of the
survey. If this variant appears too complex, the trainees should
be reassured since it is not absolutely necessary, and a great
m a n y of very sound surveys on entry into employment have
been carried out without it.
The first table in this chapter is an example of h o w the problem

of dates or periods can be resolved by identifying periods with
the expression 'x x'. This lay-out makes it possible to obtain
a great deal of information with a m i n i m u m of questions: w e
stressed above the importance of this requirement (see Chapter 6
above). H o w e v e r , the table is difficult to complete without using
field workers. Its coding is a tricky problem and, here again, a
database management software can be extremely useful.
The second table in this chapter (lines marked A , B , C and D )

goes into greater detail on the information in the previous table.
1-22
TRAINER'S GUIDE
o Chapter 8
Coding the questions is not a complicated matter and Exercise 2

(Preparation of a questionnaire) includes a specific question on
the subject. Although coding is a relatively simple exercise, it
has to be done very carefully. The need will be stressed to
trainees (i) of working out the coding scheme at the same time
as the questionnaire itself it constructed, and thinking carefully
about h o w the data will be subsequently analysed; (ii) of taking
great care of this coding scheme, which will be the 'memory' of
their work, throughout the survey (the best idea is to indicate
the codes on the questionnaire).
By means of the slide on the ' C H A R T O F T H E T E C H N I C A L

O R G A N I Z A T I O N O F A S U R V E Y ' , the trainer will show h o w
this coding scheme will be subsequently modified after the trial
survey.
^Chapter 9
The idea behind entry into employment surveys is to obtain

factual data making it possible to set up a data or information
base (see above, Module 1, Chapters 1,2 and 3) and not to obtain
opinions; in addition, the use of opinions m a y seriously affect
the reliability of results. Questions of opinion are subject to the
naive belief that the answers to a questionnaire have only one
meaning. W e have already shown the difficulty of giving a
single meaning to factual questions (see above Chapters 3, 4 and
6). It is even greater with questions of opinion and the answers
are generally open to a number of interpretations.
This chapter shows the risks of such questions of opinion if

they are not properly handled. T w o examples are given, and
the trainer and trainees should try to find others.
Module 5: Implementing the survey

This module makes it possible to: (i) recapitulate the plan of the
preceding modules, (ii) discuss h o w the survey proper is
prepared and conducted, and (iii) prepare for the sixth module
on the analysis of results.
7-23
This joint session will be mainly based on a detailed commen-

tary on the ' C H A R T O F T H E T E C H N I C A L O R G A N I Z A T I O N
O F A S U R V E Y ' which appears in the module and/or on the
slide which has been provided with this guide.
Main points
<=> Chapter 1
Attention should be given to the problem of the costs of the

survey and, in particular, of conducting the survey in the field
(4th phase). The subject has not been discussed in the module,
for these costs m a y vary greatly depending o n h o w the survey is
organized and the resources (human and material) available in
each country. T o enable the trainer to answer possible questions
from the trainees, it m a y be said that:
the main costs are for the payment offieldworkers and their
travel expenses (4th phase), and for the payment of coding
staff (5th phase): they m a y account for over three-quarters of
the total budget.
the three preceding phases mainly involve office w o r k and
their cost is negligible since the trial survey (3rd phase) can
be based o n a very small sample population.
material costs (equipment and software) are another
important budget item, but they can be considerably limited
if the body responsible is already well equipped.
The trainer could obtain information o n this subject beforehand

from the government departments or national institutes with
experience in this field. H e can also ask the trainees to obtain
information themselves, which will be a very useful short
exercise (see above, General Comments, Section (/)).
The trainer can list and study with the trainees the adminis-
trative authorizations required in the country to conduct a
survey (ministerial or Cabinet approval, authorizations by local
bodies, etc.).
^Chapter 2
The main consideration is to ensure that the distinctionbetween

methodological preparation and technical preparation is
7-24
TRAINER'S GUIDE
clearly understood. Using the ' C H A R T O F T H E T E C H N I C A L

O R G A N I Z A T I O N O F A S U R V E Y ' , the trainer will point out to
the trainees the phases which c o m e under one or the other
category.
The trial or preliminary survey is essential and serves as a

testbed for everything y o u have done o n the survey: the
questionnaire and the coding scheme can be assessed, as well
as the reliability of the lists of pupils in the survey, and it is
already possible to have an idea of h o w difficult it will be to
trace former pupils during the full-scale survey.
The trainer will stress that this preliminary survey is a

miniature survey and that it should therefore be complete, i.e.
include the coding of the questionnaires (it is the only w a y
of correcting the coding scheme) and the preparation of the
initial tables. Even if they have n o statistical value, they
will enable you to check the relevance of the questions.
^Chapter 3
This activity does not appear in the ' C H A R T OF T H E

TECHNICAL ORGANIZATION OF A SURVEY' since it
can be carried out at different times once your trial survey is
completed and before the start of the full-scale survey.
The trainer together with the trainees could identify methods

which, at national level, would be the most suitable in terms of
their coverage and cost.
^Chapter 4
Three aspects are discussed here: their recruitment, their

training and their control. A very wide range of people can be
recruited, and a psychology or sociology graduate is not
necessarily a goodfieldworker. Training is mainly practical
and need not be long (two days are enough). Control must be
extremely strict, at all levels. It must be stressed: (i) that the
inspectors are not to remain in their offices but go out to check
on what the field workers are doing; (ii) and that the inspectors
themselves must be supervised by the person in charge of the
survey.
1-25
>=> Chapter 5
It is to be stressed that the coding of the questionnaires m u s t
absolutely be started as soon as possible after the first question-
naires are returned: this will s h o w whether any adjustments to
the instructions y o u have given the field workers or to the
coding scheme are necessary - if the latter is not indicated o n
the questionnaire.
=> Chapter 6
It is just as essential to conduct the survey in thefieldvery
quickly as it is to take all the time required for the methodo-
logical and technical preparation of the survey (see Chapter 2
above). T h e person in charge of the survey m u s t behave like a
good general: he will take time to define his strategy, but once
it is decided, the success of the battle depends o n h o w quickly
the strategy is implemented. W e can also take the example of
a top athlete: his physical and mental preparation is a lengthy
process whereas he spends little time actually competing.
T o give an order of magnitude, it can be said that the time ratio

of the field survey to the three preceding phases is about 1 to 3
or even 1 to 4. It should also be stressed that the duration of the
field survey depends very little o n the n u m b e r of respondents:
it is sufficient to recruit the n u m b e r of field workers required,
which in n o w a y affects thefinalcost, since it is related to the
n u m b e r of questionnaires and not the n u m b e r offieldworkers.
Module 6: Analysing the results

This m o d u l e provides (i) s o m e methodological information
on h o w to process the data obtained in the survey and (n)
c o m m e n t s o n the organization of w o r k , and distinguishes
between the information aspect and the studies aspect that are
specific to the administrative surveys to which tracer studies
usually belong.
This module m a y be treated independently of the others. It will
provide an opportunity to revise the preceding comments o n the
construction of the questionnaire and coding (see Module 4 above).
After studying this module, the trainees will d o Exercise 3
(Analysis of the results).
1-26
TRAINER'S GUIDE
Main points
o Chapter 1
It is necessary to plan the analysis of results to avoid the risk

of a dispersal of effort, a considerable loss of time in producing
the results and, accordingly, a loss of value in the information
finally published. The results of follow-up and tracer studies
are soon out of date. If the results of a survey held in 1995
appear only two or three years later, they will certainly retain
s o m e scientific value but will be of little use for the
management of the education system or to other potential users
(see above Module 1, Chapter 3). For this reason a distinction is
m a d e between the two aspects, information and studies.
^Chapter 2
The information aspect will be studiedfirst.The trainer will

stress:
the advantage of processing the survey results in an order

of increasing complexity, from frequency distributions for
each of the questions including the central question of
activity (see above Module 4 , Chapter 5), to the first cross-
tabulations (see above Module 2, Chapter 4).
the need for the rapid preparation of a paper summarizing

these initial results in order to meet the original request
(its form and size will depend o n the initial commitments).
=> Chapter 3
The study aspect. It should be stressed that the prior w o r k o n

frequency distributions and thefirstcross-tabulations is not
time lost. O n the contrary, this necessary w o r k gives a m o r e
detailed knowledge of the data and thus facilitates research and
the checking of assumptions.
The trainer will m a k e clear the difference between descriptive

studies and the specific or thematic studies which are m o r e in
the form of research work, and for which the survey results will
have to be supplemented by other sources of information.
Government departments are only partly concerned with this
study aspect, and in particular with the thematic studies. Along
1-27
with the trainees, the trainer will identify other bodies

(university and education departments) which could be
interested in such studies.
Module 7: Medium-term prospects

This module is very short. Its purpose is to: (i) explain the
arrangements for publishing and disseminating the results of
follow-up and tracer studies; (u) consider h o w an initial study
can be used to set u p a permanent, institutionalized system to
examine the relationship between training and employment.
Main points
=> Chapter 1
The introduction does not call for any special remarks.
=> Chapter 2
The trainer will supplement the information given in Module 1

on bodies concerned with training and employment studies
and, with the trainees, he will try to d r a w u p a list of them for
his country.
O n the basis of this short list, it will then be possible to define

in practical terms the type of documents and information that
could meet the needs of each of these bodies (see diagram given
in this module).
=> Chapter 3
This chapter entitled "the research policy" in fact expands o n

the institutional provisions for perpetuating this type of survey.
The trainer will stress the advantage of repeating follow-up

and tracer surveys since the m a n a g e m e n t of an education
system requires continuous updating of information, and
repeated surveys provide a better estimate of the influence of
the social and economic climate o n entry into employment.
^Chapter 4
The last chapter does not call for any special remarks.
1-28
Special comments on each exercise
Each exercise is based on the same plan:
General briefing.
Special comments on the exercise.
C o m m e n t s on the solution.
It should be remembered that these are not academic exercises
and, unless otherwise stated, the trainees must refer (see below
Exercise 2) to the self-instructional modules.
Exercise 1 : Definition of operational objectives

General briefing
This exercise is done after Module 2 has been studied. It consists

of three questions based on a scenario concerning an instruc-
tion from a Minister of Technical Education. This scenario is
fictitious (the Republic of Qwerty does not exist, although you
will have certainly guessed the origin of this strange name) 4 ,
but the six documents attached to this exercise are based on real
data applicable to various developing countries.
The exercise consists of three questions to assess the trainee's

understanding of M o d u l e 2. The first question can be treated
independently of the other two; questions 2 and 3 must be
treated in numerical order.
The trainee is perfectly free to devise a similar exercise on the

basis of national data.
Special comments on the exercise
Question 1
All that needs to be done to answer this question is to study the

4
Minister's letter (Document 1). The trainees could be invited to
If not, the solution is on the
last page of this guide. re-read Chapter 2 of M o d u l e 2.
1-29
The 'preliminary questions' are intended to bring out the

meaning of the terms used in the Minister's letter so that his
request can be answered as clearly as possible. These
preliminary questions are of two kinds:
S o m e of them relate to the general requirements concerning

the study (budget, urgency and purpose of results, etc.). The
Minister refers to an 'information system o n employment'.
These are very general terms (and as an instruction, the
wording is quite plausible) which d o not specify whether
the expected result is limited in scope or whether the
intention is to create a n e w structure.
The others are specific to follow-up and tracer studies

(choice of population, etc.). The Minister refers to graduates
and public enterprises. Should this be a reason for limiting
this information system to the graduates employed by these
enterprises?
Question 2
T o answer this question, the trainer should insist that the

trainees study in detail the various documents so that the
proposed operational objectives will comply with the specific
characteristics of the Republic of Qwerty: information o n the
potential employment market is given not only by the structure
of flows from the education system, but also by the
characteristics of the working population.
It is said that the Minister is open-handed, which is a great

advantage in that the trainees are not limited with regard to
their proposals concerning operational objectives. The trainee
can also introduce a variant in which the Minister has no
specific budget for this operation. It is u p to the trainees to
consider what objectives can be achieved in such a case.
Question 3
Here again the trainees must study all the documents provided.
A s stated in this question, the trainees m a y refer to Chapters 3
and 4 of Module 2. H o w e v e r they must s h o w a little
imagination and not simply reproduce the examples given.
1-30
TRAINER'S GUIDE
Comments on the solution
Solution to question 1
The examples proposed are for guidance only, the main point
being that the questions thought u p by the trainees should
m a k e it possible to have a better idea of the Minister's
objectives. It does not matter if the trainees have prepared only
one or two questions, provided that they are worded along the
lines suggested.
Here again the proposed solutions are not mutually exclusive.

The solutions include justifications. It is here that the trainer
can w o r k with the trainees by helping them to relate the
justifications to the objectives they have proposed.
If the trainer has a table (which is advisable), he can place in

two columns opposite one another the objectives proposed
respectively to Q W E R T Y ' s open-handed Minister and, in the
variant, to the other Minister with no budget.
The trainees are mainly expected to relate the data on training

(documents 2 , 3 , 4 and 5) to the information on the structure of
the working population (document 6). In the proposed solution,
the assumptions are expressed in quite broad contours, which
gives an idea of the form to be given to those of the trainees.
O n the basis of this work, the trainer is perfectly free to convert

this latter question into a problem relating to the national
context.
Exercise 2: Preparation of a questionnaire

General briefing
W e are again in the Republic of Qwerty and F L A S H is simply

the p s e u d o n y m of a real university. This exercise consists
of two independent questions. It is a practical exercise o n
Module 4 in which a questionnaire is to be set u p and the
questions coded by the trainees.
1-31
The trainees are urged to study the documents (A, B , C and D )

which have been provided with this exercise. They are the only
means they have of asking relevant questions, i.e. those corres-
ponding to the specific characteristics of F L A S H , and give the
data available in the Registrar's Office (the information on the
survey population), the characteristics of students and other
relevant facts.
Question 1
It was pointed out in the General Comments at the beginning

of this guide that it took a long time to prepare a questionnaire.
Considering what has already been said on this problem (see
above Module 4 - Reminder of the objective; Module 5, Chapter 6), it
is unrealistic to expect the trainees to produce a full
questionnaire in one session. With the trainer's help, the
trainees will divide up the various parts of the questionnaire
among themselves. All the parts of the questionnaire will have
thus been covered by the end of the session.
The trainer will advise the trainees to work in pairs, as

experience has shown that this encourages an exchange of
ideas between trainees and improves results. If the group is big
enough, a number of pairs will work on the same part of the
questionnaire. W h e n the exercise is being corrected, it will be
extremely interesting to compare the different proposals.
It is not advisable to let the trainees use Module 4. Here again

experience has shown that the trainees often simply copy the
questions which have been given as examples.
Question 2
The question refers only to the Degree held, Activity and

Salary. Employment is not considered, for it requires the use
of job nomenclatures specific to each country. Depending on
the documentation he has assembled (see above General
Comments, Sections (c) and (f)), the trainer m a y provide a job
nomenclature used in his country and, after having the trainees
list 20 or so jobs or occupations, he can invite them to seek the
corresponding code in the nomenclature. It is an excellent short
1-32
TRAINER'S GUIDE
exercise which will immediately show the trainees the

difficulty involved.
Comments on the solution
Document A (the coverage of the survey) states the purpose of

the study - to see h o w F L A S H students enter employment. But
the trainer will point out that this objective requires at least a
question on the continuation of studies, if only to identify the
net flows from the University (in this connection again mention
the importance of the activity question).
For each part of the questionnaire, the trainer will start by

stating the questions found by the trainees (he will write them
on the blackboard, unless he can photocopy each questionnaire
and distribute them to the other trainees) and will encourage
group criticism (why is this question not so well or better
worded than another proposal, etc.).
If the trainees have worked well without re-reading Module 4,

their questions will very probably be quite varied. The trainer
will recall that there is no one correct answer, the main point
being that these questions should be in keeping with the
purpose of the survey and the characteristics of the country.
The questions on employment m a y be a means of coming back

to another important aspect: h o w closely the questions are
adapted to the specific national context (see above Module 4,
Chapter 6).
It is only subsequently that the trainer will use the solution

proposed to review the work of the session. The solution to
Question 1 is simply intended to cover the main points which
should be included in this questionnaire.
Degree question: The trainer could make the exercise more

complicated. Instead of a single university diploma (UD)
mentioning the subject, it is possible to include as many U D s as
there are subjects ( U D A = Arts, U D P = Plastic Arts, etc.) and
the fact that some students try to obtain more than one U D
1-33
(e.g. U D S and U D A ) . Coding w o u l d then be m o r e complex (it

should enable each U D to be identified) and should take the
following form:
General coding for ' N O ' 'YES' is no longer relevant...
1.2 Have you a U D ? NO [1] Y E S [2]
1. U D A (Arts) reserved for coding: 1.2.1 [ ]
2. U D P (Plastic Arts) 1.2.2 [ ]
3. U D S (Sociology) 1.2.3 [ ]
4. U D P (Psychology) 1.2.4 [ ]
5. U D H (History/Geography) 1.2.5 [ ]
and each line (1 to 5) will be coded either [1] (no), or [2] (yes) after each student has been asked to
mark all the boxes corresponding to the UD obtained.
Activity question: Y o u m u s t consider all the possible solutions

for coding multiple answers. In this question they are relatively
limited as a fair n u m b e r of answers are incompatible with
others, such as: [5] + [6], [7] + [8], etc.
In this example the 'date' question is asked only in the case of

military service and u n e m p l o y m e n t , for each of the statements
[5] to [9] is to be developed with a special set of questions in
which the date will c o m e u p (see Module 4, Chapter 5). If this is
not the case and if y o u are interested only in wage-earning jobs,
a 'date' question w o u l d have to b e added for statements [5], [7]
and [9].
T h e trainer will have a short discussion with the trainees o n the

relevance of the terms used with regard to the national context
(see above solution to question 1).
Salary question: t w o solutions are proposed; the advantage

of the second is m o r e rapid coding a n d a considerable saving
of space o n the questionnaire.
1-34
TRAINERS GUIDE
Exercise 3: Analysis of the results

General briefing
This exercise in fact consists of three which are quite

independent and can therefore be treated in any order.
Although the trainees are advised to use a pocket calculator for
Exercise 3.3, this exercise does not require any particular
statistical knowledge.
If the trainer has obtained national documentation, he can very

well replace this last exercise (3.3) by others.
Exercise 3.1
A s Table 1 consists only of percentages, it is assumed that each

of the boxes includes a sufficient n u m b e r of replies for each of
them to be significant. The trainer could criticize the design of
this table. It would have been interesting, for example, to k n o w
the numbers concerned, not necessarily for each box, but at
least by adding an additional line showing the total n u m b e r of
boys o n the three-year vocational course, the total n u m b e r of
girls o n the same course, etc.; it would then be easy tofindthe
population for each box, w o r k out the distribution of the
population a m o n g the various diplomas and refine the
comments (the low unemployment rates connected with certain
specialties m a y be d u e to particularly small populations).
Exercise 3.2
The trainer could point out that this exercise shows one
possible use of follow-up and tracer surveys, the external
assessment of an innovation (in this case the introduction of
industrial training) which m a y be extremely useful before the
innovation is introduced in all schools.
The second advantage is the proof that it is possible to obtain

good response rates in this type of follow-up survey (>70 per
cent), including its repeat runs: three years later, the response
rate w a s still well above 50 per cent.
1-35
The trainer willfinallypoint out that these tables are obtained

from a question similar to the 'activity' question which w a s
discussed in detail in Module 4 with particular stress o n its
importance.
The trainer will advise the trainees to d o questions 1 and 2 in

that order, for it is on the basis of the answer to question 1 that
the most relevant c o m m e n t s can be m a d e o n question 2.
Exercise 3.3
The exercise is based on a particularly sophisticated survey

for a tracer study (see above Module 1, Chapter 2). The trainer will
recall that the collection of this quarterly information corres-
ponds to the example given in M o d u l e 4 (see above Module 4,
Chapter 7).
The two questions are short calculation exercises. The trainee

can propose others if he has sufficient information.
Comments on the solutions
Solution to exercise 3.1
Question 1: The trainer will ask the trainees to be wary in their

comments o n the table: differences of a few percentage points
(12.6 per cent -14.1 per cent) and especially in the decimal (12.6
per cent - 12.8 per cent) are not sufficient to justify any
interpretation whatsoever.
O n e method of reading the table is to examinefirstof all the

table margins which correspond to the line and column totals.
In this table, this m e a n s examining the 'all specializations' line
since there is no 'total' column by specialization for all the
diplomas (it would be to the right of the ' A Level V o c '
column). Following the comments o n these margins, the
extreme values are sought (by sex, diploma and specialization),
and an attempt is then m a d e to identify trends (girls, whatever
the specialization or the diploma, a specialization, whatever the
diploma or sex, etc.). The rule is to go from the general to the
particular so as not to be s w a m p e d with details.
Question 2: The s a m e w o r d of caution applies here, especially

since the trainees have no additional information o n the
1-36
TRAINER'S GUIDE
country's education system or economic situation. The possible

solutions which are given are therefore extremely general and,
in any case, a single table cannot be used to direct the system
(see above Module 1, Reminder of the objective). In a w a y this w a s a
trick question and the trainee w h o says so will deserve to be
congratulated by the group.
Solution to Exercise 3.2
Question 1: The trainer will point out that Table 4 does not
distinguish between the different categories. T h e tables will be
studied in their numerical order: first Table 2 (activity in 1994,
during the first run) and then the comparison with Table 3.
Although Table 4 does not distinguish between the categories,
which is a pity, it does s h o w the m a i n trends for the entire
population (a high proportion of 'looking for w o r k ' and quite a
high proportion still in training).
A s in Exercise 3.1, it is necessary to be cautious w h e n

commenting o n Tables 2, 3 and 4: the proposed solution shows
the simplicity of the comments which merely identify the m a i n
differences between the three categories of pupils.
The total for Table 2 (882) is less than that for Table 1 (1,080). The
difference corresponds to the pupils w h o could not be traced
from one survey to another.
Question 2: it is to be pointed out that the job descriptions were

given by only a third of the population (298/882), which m e a n s
that in very m a n y cases n o answer w a s given to this precise
question. This is further proof of the value of the 'activity'
question which at least gives a m i n i m u m of information o n the
population (Tables 2 , 3 and 4). This small n u m b e r of answers
makes it necessary to have m u c h fuller details o n the
differences between the categories, for 'technical/practical'
w o r k accounts for about only 50 or so pupils (298 x 18 per cent).
This being so, and for a purpose other than that of this exercise,
the differences between the categories m a y be regarded as too
general for afinalconclusion.
In Table 5 the percentage total in columns II (99 per cent) and III
(101 per cent) is not equal to 100 per cent; this is not a mistake
as the difference is due to the calculation method (rounding to
7-37
the nearest percentage without a decimal) and in n o w a y affects

the reliability of the results.
Solution to Exercise 3.3
Questions 1 and 2: they d o not call for any special remarks; the
solution states h o w the percentage for stop-gap employment
and unemployment is calculated. The trainer will point out that
the method of calculating unemployment m a y vary from one
country to another; he could recall the definition used in the
country or ask the trainees to find it.
1-38
TRAINERS GUIDE
| \ Final assessment
Organization
This phase is indispensable for both the trainees and trainer. It

m a y involve a n u m b e r of aspects:
Assessment of trainees: w h a t they have learnt during the

session; this is the opportunity for a general appraisal
following the partial assessments in connection with the
exercises and the solutions to them.
The assessment of the trainer by the trainees: this is important
for the trainer, if he is called o n to organize another course,
he will have all the information enabling h i m to improve his
performance.
Assessment of the training material: not only the H E P material
but also the material assembled during the course (see below,
A final recommendation).
Assessment of the expediency and the feasibility of such follow-
u p and tracer surveys in the country, or even of their
necessity for a particular part of the education system.
Throughout this guide w e have stressed the need to adapt
the material proposed to the particular national context; the
final assessment will s h o w h o w far this has been possible.
This final assessment can take place at various times:
At the end of a course, so that a m a x i m u m of c o m m e n t s can be

obtained from the trainees before they go o n to other
activities.
At a later stage, during an extra session held one or t w o
weeks after the course, with the trainees being instructed to
prepare their comments in writing.
At two different times: thefirstthree aspects mentioned above
(assessment of the trainees, the trainer and the training
material) can be discussed at the end of the course, while
1-39
expediency is considered at a subsequent session, so that

trainees will have a little m o r e time to assess the feasibility
of follow-up and tracer surveys in their professional field.
The assessment can also be carried out using various methods,

i.e. starting with the least formal:
by m e a n s of a discussion between the trainees and the

trainer (see below, Afinalrecommendation),
by inviting the trainees to express their opinions freely o n a
sheet of paper (as in an open-ended question: see Module 4,
Chapter 8),
by distributing a short questionnaire prepared by the trainer
w h o will subsequently pass o n the results to the trainees.
These methods are not mutually exclusive and m a y be
combined as the trainer sees fit. For example, it would be
possible to have a short discussion session at the end of the
course, plus the distribution of a short questionnaire for which
the results could be discussed at a subsequent session.
A final recommendation:
Throughout the course, and starting with the preparatory

phase, the trainer should keep a personal log (a school exercise
book is quite sufficient for the purpose) recording everything
that happens as the sessions take place: the reactions by
participants and their questions, the difficulties encountered
(by himself as well as the trainees) and the solutions found by
him. These notes will be supplemented by a s u m m a r y of the
final assessment session. This log will provide an invaluable
record of the course and will be extremely useful to the trainer
if he is called on to organize others.
Lastly, d o not forget to pass on the results of your activity to the

H E P which, benefiting from your experience as well as its o w n ,
will be able to improve these supervised self-instructional
Solution to Exercise 1:
modules.
the users of an English
keyboard will have
immediately identified this
small country, the equivalent
of which in French is
AZERTY. Thank y o u for your help.
1-40
The definition and value of follow-up

MODULE 1
and tracer studies
by Jean Lamoure
HEP Programme Manager: Franoise Caillods
jimifiB International Institute for Educational Planning

The definition and value of follow-up
MODULE
1
and tracer studies
1 n thisfirstmodule you will discover the utility of studies and

surveys conducted among school leavers; their utility not only for the
educational planner, but also for the human resources planner and, in
general, all decision-makers in these fields. You will also learn to
distinguish between the various possible forms which follow-up and
tracer studies may take. In conclusion we shall set a short
bibliographical exercise which will help you in your future work.
This module contains the following sections:
S3* A n initial definition of follow-up and tracer studies.
Kg" T h e different forms of follow-up and tracer studies.
B3- T h e value of a data-base for the planning of h u m a n

resources and educational m a n a g e m e n t .
BS T w o sensitive sectors: higher education and technical and

vocational training.
y T h e characteristics of follow-up and tracer studies.

After reading this module, you should be able to:
Formulate a simple definition of a follow-up or tracer study.
Distinguish between the different types of follow-up and

tracer studies.
Explain what the utility of a follow-up or tracer study is for

you.
Identify the type of study best suited to your circumstances.

Contents
Chapter 1 A n initial definition. 1-5
Chapter 2 The different forms of follow-up and tracer

studies 1-7
Chapter 3 The value of a data-base for the planning of

h u m a n resources and educational
management. 1-10
Chapter 4 T w o sensitive sectors: higher education and

technical and vocational training 1-13
Chapter 5 Characteristics of follow-up and tracer studies.. 1-15
Chapter 6 In conclusion, a short exercise 1-20
Chapter 7 A short bibliography 1-21

A n initial definition of follow-up a n d
tracer studies
The methods and techniques of studies of transition from

school to work are useful in more than one respect. They can
render service not only to educational decision-makers and
planners and to h u m a n resources planners, but also to all
government departments and ministries responsible for various
sectors of economic activity, and even to private business and
industry. Therefore, this instrument has a m u c h broaderfieldof
application than the use which can be m a d e of it by Ministries
of Education alone. A n initial definition of studies of transition
from school to work will m a k e this clear.
What is a study of transition from school to work? It is an

attempt to establish the relationships between young people's
training and their employment. It has to take as its starting
point information provided by former pupils concerning their
occupational situation and more broadly the circumstances in
which they entered working life, even if such circumstances
included unemployment or underemployment.
A study of transition from school to work gives precedence to

the gathering of individual data relating to the pupils'
transition from the world of the school to the world of work,
and covering a period of observation varying in length
depending on the form which the study takes, which m a y vary
considerably; Chapter 5, section 4, specifies some of the forms.
W e m a y better understand their potential interest for:
The educational planner, quite obviously, for w h o m they

provide indicators of the external efficiency of schools and
other establishments; and also for educators. The latter are
given the opportunity of assessing the validity of forms of
training which systematically lead their former pupils into
unemployment or which do not enable them to enter jobs
1-5
corresponding even approximately to their initial objectives.

Lastly, these studies can be an excellent means of
establishing a dialogue with business and industry
concerning their needs in respect of initial and/or on-going
training;
Educational administrators, for w h o m certain types of studies

of transition from school to work can help to define
priorities and select training streams and /or subject areas to
be developed or not as the case m a y be.
Human resources planners, w h o m these studies of transition

from school to work will enable to have a more precise idea
than is possible with other instruments of measurement, in
terms of both the training and the qualifications of a part of
the working population. Unemployment and under-
employment statistics are generally unreliable, and can be
usefully complemented by these studies.
So w e see h o w studies of transition from school to work can be

a privileged component of the dialogue with other social
partners, government departments and employers. But w e shall
also show the limits of these studies. They can be a great help,
but there are limits to what they can do; and above all, they
must be conducted very rigorously, and their results must be
interpreted even more rigorously. Planners and statisticians are
well aware of the fallacious interpretations that can be m a d e on
the basis of any numerical data.
1-6
t\ The different forms of follow-up and
s tracer studies
All studies of transition from school to work have a point in

c o m m o n : the gathering of individual data. But this can be done
in a wide variety of ways. Rather than give a necessarily
incomplete list, w e shall try to establish a typology.
The distinction is usually m a d e between follow-up studies and

tracer studies. In follow-up studies, pupils are questioned
while still at school and they are subsequently followed up
during the early stages of their working life. In tracer studies,
young people w h o have already left school are questioned (an
attempt being made to locate them in their homes or in their
places of work). The distinction between the two types of
studies therefore lies essentially in the circumstances of the
subjects w h e n they are questioned; they are either still
attending school or not (see Chapter 5, section 2); but the data
gathered m a y be similar.
A problem of definition
Follow-up studies and tracer studies, however, are used for
different purposes.
Follow-up studies, since the questioning of the subjects begins

while they are still at school, are designed to serve for the
analysis of both the internal and the external efficiency of the
education system. If, for example, the analysis relates to a
cohort of school leavers w h o have just entered university, then
provided they are followed up (i.e. questioned) each year, w e
can obtain data on rates of grade repetition, drop-out, and
changes of stream or subject area. True, such information is
sometimes provided by statistical services; but the value of
follow-up studies is that they can specify the individual
characteristics of the pupils w h o repeat their grades, drop out,
or succeed, as well as students w h o are in higher age-groups,
1-7
w h o come from particular geographical or linguistic areas, w h o

have particular socio-occupational backgrounds, and so on.
Such information is of great value to educators and educational
planners.
Tracer studies do not neglect information on the subjects'

schooling, but they cannot provide such detailed data on their
school career as follow-up studies. They usually confine
themselves to gathering information on the characteristics of
the last stage of training received, the qualifications obtained,
the educational establishment attended, and its geographical
location; in short, the educational background that can have an
incidence on the conditions of transition from school to work.
Theoretically, there is no reason w h y tracer studies should not
give as m u c h prominence to questions concerning schooling as
follow-up studies do; but in practice it is m u c h more difficult:
the survey questionnaire would become m u c h too long and
cumbersome to administer, and furthermore the memory of the
respondents m a y be defective, making the information
unreliable.
Obviously, follow-up studies and tracer studies of former

pupils attach equal importance to components concerning
young people's employment, whether the object is the first jobs
held after leaving school or the various jobs held over a longer
period oftime(three, five or ten years after they leave school :
see Chapter 5, section 3).
The two types of studies can further be distinguished

according to whether the subjects are questioned on the first
job held only or on their job situations over a longer period. In
the former case, the study is aimed solely at finding out h o w
they m a d e the transition from school to work, and in the latter
case it is a study of their occupational career, which is called a
longitudinal study. The distinction between the two thus lies
essentially in the duration of the period of reference (Chapter
5, section 3).
MODULE I* 1: THE DEFINITION ANO VALUE OF FOLLOW-UP AND TRACER STUDIES
Advantages and drawbacks

Thus, the advantage of follow-up studies is that they provide
more detailed information on the subjects' schooling, and
therefore serve to analyse not only the relationships between
training and employment but also the education system.
Paradoxically, this advantage is also a drawback. Though the
main objective is to gather information on employment, one
has to wait several years before obtaining it; not only the time it
takes for the pupils to complete their stage of training but also
the time it takes them to actually enter employment - they very
rarelyfinda job immediately after they qualify (Chapter 5,
section 4).
A compromise solution would be to begin the follow-up study

during the last year of training, but this would reduce its value
as a source of information on the education system, because
most of the information on the sequence of the subjects'
schooling would be lacking. A follow-up survey of this kind
would ultimately be equivalent to a tracer study; more
precisely, m a n y studies of the transition from school to work
are conducted in this way, for methodological reasons to which
w e shall have occasion to revert (Chapter 5, section 5).
H o w can you decide which type of study to undertake -

follow-up or tracer? This depends mainly on the objectives of
the study and on h o w soon you are required to produce the
results. It also depends on thefinancialresources you are
allotted: follow-up studies provide plenty of information but
are generally more costly than tracer studies. Lastly, it
depends on the h u m a n and material resources available to
process the data. Y o u will examine these points in greater
detail in Module 2.
Since similar rules of implementation apply to both follow-up

and tracer studies, w e shall lump the two together unless
otherwise specified. W e shall normally refer to tracer studies.
1-9
3 The value of a data-base for the planning of
human resources and educational management
T h e development of education systems, financial restrictions

aggravated b y the world economic crisis, and - as one of the
consequences of the latter -risingunemployment, especially
a m o n g y o u n g school leavers, m a y be considered to be the three
major factors leading governments and international
organisations to give m o r e thought than in the past to the
mechanisms governing the relationships between education (or
training) and employment.
Concern with matters relating to the problems posed by the

mastery of transfers of technology is also a contributing factor
in considering the role of education and training in developing
countries in m o r e appropriate, if not n e w , terms.
T h e interest taken by political authorities in education and

training is mainly instrumental, and m a y be s u m m e d u p as
follows:
"Which education/training systems should be established in order

to meet the country's development needs?",
to which another question is frequently added:
"What happens to school leavers?".
These are perfectly legitimate questions for politicians

obviously seeking to maximize, economically and socially, the
often considerable investments m a d e in education. But these
questions are in most cases perplexing for educational
planners: h o w , in such an uncertain economic environment,
can one predict a country's needs in respect of training and
skills? The planners' perplexity is two-fold: from the theoretical
angle, it is impossible to m a k e predictions on such a detailed
scale; and from the methodological angle, there is quite often
1-10
MODULE V 1 : THE DEFINITION AND VALUE OF FOLLOW-UP AND TRACER STUDIES
no accurate information on the subject.
Here w e see one aspect of the value of constituting data-bases on

the products of the education system. Such a regular source of
information on h o w school leaversfitinto working life is
doubly useful: as a component of h u m a n resources planning,
and as an instrument of management of the education system.
(i) Such a data-base complements information compiled by

the statistical departments of other Ministries
(Employment, Labour, H u m a n Resources, and Planning).
It must specifically establish the relationships between leve
and type of education/training and the various sectors of
employment. It is of even greater value in countries which
have no regular source of information on employment
apart from the general population census.
(ii) In addition to its value in planning h u m a n resources, a

database concerning pupils can also be a privileged means
of internal and external evaluation of education systems.
In a general context of financial difficulties, it can be an
extremely useful tool of management and an aid to
decision-making. Its possible uses are set forth in the
following pages and modules.
In a general context of financial difficulties, such databases can

also be a valuable aid to management and decision-making.
Some of their possible uses for these purposes are indicated in
the modules which follow, but some examples m a y be cited
here:
W h e n the question arises of introducing a reform,

modifying the existing curricula or creating n e w
qualifications (diploma), the Minister - and the agency
funding the project - will undoubtedly appreciate a report
by you of the existing situation, giving details of what
becomes of school leavers, whether theyfindemployment,
h o w m u c h they earn, or simply whether, though possessing
a qualification, they continue their studies.
In m a n y countries, the shortage of jobs available in the
1-11
modern sector heightens interest in all forms of access to

self-employment. But decision-makers are usually unable to
specify which young people become self-employed, and
under what circumstances; you will be m u c h sought after if
you possess such information.
For the preparation of the next phase of its Development

Plan, your Government consults planners from all the
Ministries, and you are among them. Your colleagues
vigorously denounce the shortcomings of the education
system, whereas your brief is cut and dried; at the very first
meeting, you can distribute the results of your follow-up or
tracer study; the picture you present m a y not be idyllic (in
what country could it be?), but at least it will seriously
counter partisan criticisms with facts and figures.
Where your o w n professional activities are concerned, you

yourself will find good reasons for undertaking a study of
transition from school to work once you have read this
manual.
1-12
4 T w o sensitive sectors: higher education
and technical and vocational training
Provided that substantialfinancialresources are available,

tracer studies cover all levels of the education system, from
primary schools to universities and higher educational
institutions. In practice, financial resources are usually limited,
and choices have to be m a d e . In these modules w e have placed
the emphasis o n technical and vocational training and higher
educational institutions.
Before explaining what led us to m a k e this choice, it should be

m a d e clear that it is not limitative; for example, tracer studies
could just as well cover pupils w h o leave, or drop out of,
primary or middle schools. In m a n y countries, the proportion of
wastage is considerable, and the social and economic cost of this
wastage is not insignificant. A survey of the transition from
school to w o r k of these pupils can provide information giving
food for thought, and answer questions such as "what happens
to pupils when they leave school, with or without a qualification?" or
better still, "after how many years of schooling can pupils hope to
find a job in the modern sector, and what kind of job?".
Very little w o r k of this type has been done, and methodological

and technical difficulties are involved; this partly explains w h y
w e have not chosen to deal here with this aspect of primary
and middle education. T h e t w o sectors with which w e shall
deal, higher education and technical and vocational education,
are sensitive sectors, both economically and socially.
Economically, because they turn out (or are supposed to turn

out) the most highly skilled m a n p o w e r , a n d consequently
determine to a large extent the level of qualification of the
working population. A n d because they are costly; in
general, the average cost per pupil is considerably higher
than at other levels of education. They are therefore
strategic sectors where h u m a n resources are concerned.
1-13
Socially, because their goal is to prepare young people for

employment, and unemployment of such school leavers
casts doubt o n the efficiency of the education system. A n d
because this challenge to the education system, particularly
where higher education is concerned, gives rise to sharp
criticism from students; criticism to which decision-makers
cannot usually respond by providing precise information.
Lastly, the choice of these two sectors for our present purposes
is justified by the experience which is beginning to be acquired
in thisfield.S o m e examples are given in the bibliography in
Chapter 7.
Characteristics of follow-up and
tracer studies
The different types of tracer studies can be distinguished by

theirfivemain characteristics which are as follows:
1. The target population;

2. The situation of reference;
3. The period of reference;
4. H o w the information is gathered;
5. The point of entry.
W e are n o w going to analyse each of these above-mentioned

features, trying to assess their importance, and the following
modules will assist you in this task. These characteristics will
have direct bearing on the issues to be studied (Module 2), as
well as the questionnaire to be constructed (Module 4).
The target population, or the population of reference

This is an important factor in the scope of the survey and the
characteristics of the population sector questioned. S o m e
surveys cover only people holding a qualification, while others
cover all pupils or former pupils w h o have sat a test or an
examination, whether they have passed it or not, others take as
their target population all pupils enrolled in the last year of
training, and others again - more ambitiously - include all
pupils w h o leave school every year, either after having
completed their studies, or having dropped out or left for other
reasons. Yet other surveys cover only young people newly
recruited into the modern sector.
The choice of the target population depends on what problem it

has been decided to address (see Module 2), on the situatwn of
reference, and of course on your budget.
1-15
T h e situation of reference
This is what enables y o u to identify the subjects y o u are going
to question, and hence to establish your database. For instance,
it m a y be candidatures for a n examination if that enables you to
discover the subjects' addresses; in which case your target
population m a y be either all those w h o sat the examination, or
only those w h o passed. For a follow-up study, the situation of
reference m a y be the year of commencing a course (e.g. all
students enrolled in thefirstyear of university in 1989), and the
target population m a y be either all students (including those
repeating their first year) or only those newly enrolled.
H e n c e this situation of reference determines, to a large extent,

the target population. In practice, it is the accessibility of the
subjects' records which quite often determines the situation of
reference; this is a material constraint which is not without
repercussions o n follow-up or tracer studies w h o s e situation of
reference is the last year of training (see chapter 2, section 2). In
other tracer studies, the situation of reference m a y also be the
date of entering employment; this is especially the case for
surveys conducted a m o n g employers in the m o d e r n sector. In
this case only subjects recruited since January 1st 1987, for
instance, will be questioned (see chapter 5, section 5).
T h e period of reference
This is the period covered b y questions concerning y o u n g
people's circumstances; for example, the questions put to those
w h o left school in September 1990 will relate to a period lying
between t w o precise dates: the date they left school a n d
another date, set empirically - for instance,l April 1991.
The period of reference obviously depends on the national economic

context For a tracer study, it m a y be short, for such a study concerns
only h o w the respondents entered their first job. Depending on the
situation of the labour market, it m a y cover between a few months
and one year after leaving school. In the case of a more complex
survey incorporating questions on entry to the working world and
occupational mobility, the period of reference will obviously be m u c h
longer from two or three years to ten years.
MODULE/T V. THE DEFINITION AND VALUEOFFOLLOW-UP AND TRACER STUDIES
The period of reference is generally determined empirially,

based o n what is k n o w n in each country about the state of the
labour market It is useless, for instance, to question students
two or three months after they have finished school if w e k n o w
that it generally takes m o r e than a year before they find a job.
The period of reference thus determines the duration of the

survey and s o m e aspects of the form it takes: one time or
repeated questioning. Here again it is a matter of h u m a n and
material resources.
H o w the information is gathered

This is the form of the survey. There is n o standard model; all
w a y s of obtaining the m a x i m u m n u m b e r of replies are valid.
The w a y the information is gathered depends essentially o n
two factors: the level of education of the people questioned,
and the communication system or information network of the
country concerned. The information can be gathered b y
questionnaires sent through the post, personal or telephone
interviews, etc.
It is quite evident that a half-illiterate population sector will not

be asked to complete a questionnaire; nor will a questionnaire
be sent b y mail unless the postal system is reliable and mail is
regularly distributed. Telephone surveys, sometimes conducted
in industrialized countries, are even m o r e difficult and can
cover only specific sectors of the population; for example, in a
survey o n jobs held by the last cohort of school leavers who have
actually been recruited in the Civil Service, one assumes that their
place of w o r k has a telephone.
Lastly, the various w a y s of gathering information are not

mutually exclusive; one m a y imagine an initial extensive survey
(i.e. covering a large target population) conducted by mail in
parallel with an intensive survey covering an additional sample of
the population (see M o d u l e 2). In a multi-visit survey, the first
questioning can take the form of interviews, and subsequent
questionings can be by mail provided that the respondents are
correctly identified and their continued support has been secured.
1-17
T h e w a y s in which the information is gathered determine, to a

large extent, the form in which the questions are put and the
construction of the questionnaires where follow-up and tracer
studies are concerned.
T h e point of entry
This is the place where the target population is identified and
questioned. B y definition, a follow-up survey or a tracer study
is focused o n individuals; the point of entry is therefore their
individual locality, in particular their h o m e address or that of
their family. But in m a n y countries this identification is
difficult if not impossible. In small countries, or those with a
small total population, employers can be chosen as the point of
entry; clearly, in this case, the survey will cover only young
people already in employment, and any estimation of
u n e m p l o y m e n t can only be m a d e indirectly. In other
circumstances, the point of entry m a y be a region or a locality
w h e r e there is a high concentration of people in employment,
but here again the survey will not be exhaustive.
These mrious constraints determine the particular kind of

compromise between follow-up studies and tracer studies referred to
in Chapter 2, section 2.
These different characteristics are determined in each country

by the material, h u m a n and financial resources available, as
well as by the available educational statistics. This is a
constraint which cannot be evaded. But they are also
determined b y the choice of objectives to which the planners give
precedence. U n d e r given constraints, different procedures can
be adopted. This point will be dealt with in the following
m o d u l e (Module 2).
1-18
MODULE N 1: THE DEFINITION AND VALUE OF FOLLOW-UP AND TRACER STUDIES
Recapulative questions
After reading this module, you should be able to answer the

following questions:
W h a t is a study of transition from school to work?
W h a t are the different types of studies?
What is the value of such studies?
If you have difficulty in answering these questions, re-read

the corresponding chapters of Module 1.
1-1
oc
6
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In conclusion, a short exercice
X
o
Exercise
The bibliography which follows is intentionally limited. It contains a

number of basic publications available in the H E P library and
generally to be found in U N E S C O Regional Offices or in the
economics and education sections of university libraries.
1. Y o u are asked to a d d to It, to the best of your ability, in two

ways:
From your o w n personal documentation, or that of the

institution in which you work.
By consulting, as soon as you can, one or two institutions

(universities, Ministries, etc.) in your o w n country which m a y
possess the relevant information.
2. Y o u m a y n o w have s o m e idea of what studies of transition

from school to w o r k are. S o m e studies of this kind have
possibly been undertaken in your o w n country; if so, list
them, specifying In each case:
T h e n a m e of the study or survey.
The n a m e of the author, and if possible his function.
The dates of implementation and publication of results.
T h e body responsible for the study.
1-20
A short bibliography
A C C H I O , Franoise. 1980. Analyse des relations entre l'emploi et la

formation et laboration des politiques deformation. Le cas del Cte
d'Ivoire. Abidjan, C I A D F O R - O N F P .
R C E L O , Adriano A . ; S A N Y A L , Bikas C . 1987. Employment and career

opportunities after graduation; a study on the transition from college to work
in the Philippines. UEP Research Report N 61.
H E P , 1979. HEP Report of the Regional Intensive Training Course on

education and human resources planning, 17 November -12 December 1979.
L A M O U R E , Jean. 1981. Les relations ducation-emploi. Report Studies,

S.92, Paris, E D / E P P / U N E S C O .
L A M O U R E , Jean. 1983. Education, training and employment, Training

materials in educational planning, administration and facilities; E P P /
T M / 1 3 . Paris, U N E S C O .
L A M O U R E , Jean, 1985. L'autonomie relative des systmes d'ducation-

formation, de l'emploi et du monde du travail. Mthodologie exploratoire
d'analyse pour les pays en voie de dveloppement. D o c u m e n t E D / E P P ,
UNESCO.
N A R M A N , Anders. 1985. Practical subjects in Kenyan academic

secondary schools: tracer study. Stockholm, Education Division
D o c u m e n t N 21, Swedish International Development Authority,
Education Division, pp.75.
N A R M A N , Anders, 1988. Practical subjects in Kenyan academic

secondary schools: tracer study II: industrial education (three-year follow-
up). Stockholm, Education Division D o c u m e n t N 39, Swedish
International Development Authority, Education Division, pp.42.
P S A C H A R O P O U L O S , G . ; H I N C H C L I F F E , K . 1983. Guidelines for

occupational follow-up studies. Washington, World Bank (Education
Department).
S A N Y A L , Bikas C 1981. Higher education and employment: some aspects

of the UEP Research Project. Paris, H E P Occasional Papers, N62.
1-21
S A N Y A L , Bikas C . (dir.). 1987. University education and employment in

Malaysia. Paris, IIEP Research Report N 66.
S A N Y A L , Bikas C . 1987.Higher education and employment, an international

comparative analysis. Falmer Press.
S C H I F F E L B E I N , Ernesto; F A R R E L L , Joseph. 1982. Eight years of their

lives: through schooling to the labour market in Chile. Ottawa, International
Development Research Centre, pp.207
Z O U A R I B O U A T T O U R , Selma. 1990. Les dterminants contextuels de la

rentabilit de la formation pour le dveloppement industriel: cas del formation
professionnelle en Tunisie. IIEP M i m e o .
MODULE 2
Defining the objectives of the survey
by Jean Lamoure
MLm International Institute for Educational Planning

MODULE
Defining the objectives of the survey
survey on the relationships between training and employment,

whatever form it takes, isfirstof all a matter of interpreting the
instructions you have been given, because usually you do not decide to
tackle such an undertaking on your own initiative. Your instructions
must be interpreted in terms of objectives and resources. But this must
also be done in accordance with the same procedure as any other
scientific enquiry:firsttaking into account your objectives you must
identify the problem and make assumptions which your survey will
make it possible to validate.
In practice - and especially thefirsttime - this is a long and difficult

task. Do not fail to devote sufficient time to it, to gather relevant
documentation, and to seek the opinions of your colleagues and others
who are concerned with similar issues or who have experience in this
field. Take your time over this module; re-read it several times if need
be. The clearer your objectives, the better and easier your work will be.
This module tells you h o w to:
5" Define m o r e clearly the general problems involved in

follow-up a n d tracer studies
3* Interpret the decision-makers' requests in terms of

objectives
i" Translate these objectives into a set of issues to b e

analyzed
* M a k e corresponding assumptions
A n example, in the form of a chart, will help you in
your study of this module
Understand the notions of objectives, problem formulation

and assumptions as applied to follow-up and tracer studies.
Suggest to your Minister a follow-up or tracer study strategy

for a particular category of educational establishment or
school leaver.
2-2
Contents
Chapter 1 The problem in general terms 2-5
Chapter 2 Interpreting the originator's request 2-6
Chapter 3 From objectives to a formulation of the

problems to be solved 2-10
Chapter 4 From problem formulation to

assumptions 2-12
Chapter 5 Another example in the form of a chart

to be completed 2-15
The problem in general terms
What is a follow-up or a tracer study? W e have already given

an initial definition in Module 1: it is basically an investigation
of the relationship between the education (or training) received
by pupils and the jobs which they subsequently occupy. More
broadly, it is an investigation of their occupational situation
and the circumstances of their entry into the working world.
Few studies have such a wide-ranging definition; follow-up
studies are concerned not only with training but also with
employment, unemployment, wages, and other related
subjects. Unless they have an army of sociologists and
economists and considerablefinancialresources, there is a limit
to what educational planners can do. Therefore it is important
to specify the objectives of the follow-up study and to define
the target population. S o m e indications on h o w to determine
the coverage of the survey will be given in Module 3.
This module will show you h o w to translate a requirement or a

need which is formulated in general terms into operational
objectives.
2-5
Interpreting the originator's request
Requests for information o n what becomes of pupils after they

leave school can come from various sources: educational
institutions themselves or the authorities responsible for them
(Directors, Ministers, etc.), external administrative authorities
(Ministry of Planning, Division of H u m a n Resources), etc.
Whatever their origin, these requests are usually

circumstantial; what is wanted is an evaluation of the external
efficiency of a given type of education or training for
pedagogic or m a n a g e m e n t purposes, in order to seek to
improve the general process of h u m a n resources planning.
This request to evaluate external efficiency m a y be accompanied
by a request to evaluate internal efficiency; w e have already
referred to this in the definition of follow-up studies given in
M o d u l e 1 (Chapter 4).
The origin and circumstances of the request m a y help y o u to

translate it into more operational terms, and in particular to
determine the coverage of the survey. This kind of request
generally explicitly concerns a particular institution or
qualification. If it comes from the Ministry of Education, the
objectives will very likely be substantially different from those
of a request from the Ministry of Planning or the Department of
Statistics. In the former case, the problem will at least be
centred around training just as m u c h as around employment; in
the latter case, it will probably be focused more on employment
and qualification.
This is a general remark; in actual fact, things are m o r e

complex. Let us take an example:
Recently the Minister of Technical Education of a small

African country wished to have a manpower study which w a s
to be both forward-looking (trained m a n p o w e r needs
between n o w and the year 2000) and w a s to give all possible
indications concerning the employment of former technical
students. This request actually covered two subjects
involving complementary problems (the relationship
MODULE (V 2: DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
between training and employment) but calling for different

methodologies.
The study of m a n p o w e r needs requires a macro-economic

approach and more wide-ranging skills than those of
technical education decision-makers. If the latter tackled
such a study it would m e a n at least an inter-ministerial
collaboration, involving recourse to census data and other
information held by the Ministries of Employment, Trade,
etc. In practice, one m a y w o n d e r whether the educational
planner is the most appropriate person to handle this kind
of question.
The request for information o n the employment of former

technical students does, however, c o m e within his sphere
of competence. T o meet this request he must undertake a
tracer study. But at this general level, he needs to k n o w
more about what his Minister wants: does he want a report
on the external efficiency of schools in the recent past? Does
he want to develop a navigational aid to enable this sector of
education to be better m a n a g e d in the future? Is he
interested only in students w h o have qualified, or in all
students? O n e might ask m a n y more such questions, and
also ask h i m what budget he is prepared to allocate to the
operation.
It is quite likely that all of these questions remain unanswered.

It is u p to y o u to propose possible alternatives, to explain the
value and the cost of each of them. The nature of the preceding
questions clearly shows that the request must be expressed in
terms of objectives which will determine the form which the
follow-up study will take:
> Objective 1: a report of the employment situation of former

students in the recent past.
> Objective 2: an evaluation of h o w young people
currently under training will fit into working life.
Each objective, in turn, must be expressed not only in terms of

the problems involved (see chapter 3), but also in terms of how
the required information is to be gathered. Objective 1 is more
2-7
difficult to attain insofar as schools have not kept a record of

pupils' addresses.
In the example cited, the solution was to question all employers

in the modern sector to identify former technical students w h o
had been recruited over the previous three years. This involved
questioning some 200 employers. Each former student was then
contacted at his place of work and questioned. This method
obviously has its limits. It was possible in this case because the
number of employers was relatively small and the operational
budget amounted to several tens of thousand of US$; these
conditions are not often encountered.
There are also methodological limits; it was possible to contact

only former students who had found employment infirmsin the
modern sector, representing only a small proportion of the all
former technical school pupils. In this case, only 35 per cent of
former pupils could be traced, and it was not possible to
discover the present activity of the remaining 65 per cent -
whether they were unemployed, working in the informal
sector, continuing their studies, or working abroad.
Objective 2 concerns students still being trained. In this case the

person responsible for the survey (the educational planner) can
compile a database (a nominative list of students and their
addresses, etc.), provided that the request is not too urgent, for
this scenario does not produce results until a year later, w h e n
the students have completed their school year and are actively
seeking employment.
Decision-makers usually find it difficult to understand these

constraints, but there are hardly any alternative solutions.
Faced with an urgent request, you can adopt an empirical
solution: ask the school principals what information, even
partial, they or their teachers have concerning the situation of
their former students. While this information is being gathered
i you will have time to prepare a more rigorous follow-up or
tracer study covering the next cohort of school leavers.
| A s pointed out in Module 1, questions relating to what

happens to school leavers are becoming increasingly numerous
j in all countries. To avoid the constraints imposed by an
MODULE hf 2: DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
impromptu request, it is certainly a good thing to anticipate it

by proposing, yourself, to your superior authority that a follow-
u p study be undertaken. In this w a y you will be able to define
the conditions of its implementation.
2-9
3 From objectives to a formulation of
the problems to be solved
Whatever the type of objective (1 or 2), you n o w have to

formulate the problems to be solved. This m e a n s asking yourself
one or m o r e questions once yourfieldof investigation has been
defined. But a general statement of the problem such as "what
are the relationships between types of education and the jobs occupied
by former trainees?" or "what happens to pupils and students after
they leave school or university?" is not sufficient. It has to be
broken d o w n into m o r e detailed questions; the m o r e detailed
and precise they are, the m o r e your task will be facilitated a n d
the greater the likelihood of achieving satisfactory results.
T h e statement of the problem (or problems), like the making of

assumptions (see chapter 4) are phases of the task which are
usually too hastily or unsatisfactorily prepared. Those
responsible for conducting surveys imagine that it suffices to
d r a w u p a series of questions and count the answers in order to
produce results - in which case the latter are very likely to be
unsatisfactory. T i m e spent o n these preliminary phases is not
wasted; o n the contrary, it will enable you to save time in the
subsequent stages of processing the data.
Your general statement of the problem can be broken down into many
ways, depending on the source of the request, the practical situation of
the education system and the labour market, and of course, your own
manner of approach and experience in this field.
For example, in countries where until quite recently holders of

higher educational qualifications were systematically recruited by
government departments, questions relating to the level of
unemployment were less relevant than in countries where
structural adjustment programmes advocated a reduction in the
n u m b e r of State employees. Similarly, in developing countries the
pre-eminence of the unstructured or informal sector in relation to
the 'modern' or structured sector necessarily raises the question of
w a y s and means of steering young people into one or the other
2-10
MODULE N> 2: DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
sector according to their level of education and training. Are

there possible alternatives for young people, whether they hold
qualifications or not? Are there types of training which offer no
opportunity of entering the m o d e r n sector or which shunt
people mainly into the informal sector? D o there exist types of
training which lead the trainees inevitably into unemployment,
and is this fact attributable to the education system or to the
labour market? Questions of this kind form part of your quest
for an operational solution to the statement of the problem; there
m a y be m a n y other such questions.
It is evident that this task will be all the easier if you have a
good knowledge of thefieldof investigation. Those w h o wish
to undertake follow-up studies are strongly advised to
familiarize themselves with educational statistics
(superfluous advice for educational planners) and statistics
relating to employment and m a n p o w e r .
It is also necessary to be familiar with national and international

literature on the subject: results of studies and surveys,
specialized, theoretical and methodological books and treaties.
The relationships between training and employment have
already been the subject of numerous publications, and in the
initial stage at least it is not so m u c h a matter of inventing n e w
problem formulations as of studying in greater depth what has
been said and written on this subject and adapting to concrete
situations (your o w n local or national situation) the ideas which
m a y have been developed o n this theme.
O n efinalpiece of advice: once you have formulated your

problem(s), submit your formulation to those from w h o m the
request originated. This feedback has a two-fold advantage: it
forearms you against subsequent criticisms, and it is
instructive in the sense that it m a k e s your superiors aware of
the constraints and limits of follow-up studies, and so they
will k n o w w h a t kind of results to expect. If you are
undertaking the task off your o w n bat, d o not hesitate to
submit your ideas for critical appraisal by other specialists in
education or employment, for a follow-up study is not a
confidential operation; w e noted in M o d u l e 1 the w i d e range
of specialists and institutions interested in the subject and
w h o are potential users of your results.
2-11
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111
4 From problem formulation to assumptions

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The constitution of a database w h e n you formulate your

problem(s) will also be useful for making your assumptions.
Here again, it is not necessary to start from scratch : this was
the purpose of the short exercise set at the end of Module 1,
Chapter 6.
Making assumptions means formulating the elements of replies

to the questions underlying your problem formulation. These
elements will be verified by the results of your survey. The
following two examples will illustrate this remark:
E x a m p l e 1: T h e job opportunities o p e n to y o u n g p e o p l e w h o
h a v e attended a higher educational establishment.
W e m a y safely assume that the unemployment rate of graduates is lower

than that of non-graduates, since certification provides employers with a
minimum guarantee of competence. This assumption obviously has to be
refined. Another assumption relates to unemployment a m o n g those w h o
have received different types of training. For instance, w e m a y assume
that unemployment a m o n g art graduates is higher than that a m o n g
engineering graduates, in view of the few job opportunities open to the
former. Since the study of unemployment cannot be reduced to a single
indicator (the unemployment rate), w e generally take as another indicator
the duration of unemployment, which better reflects the difficulty of
entering work life. A high rate of short duration unemployment does not
have the s a m e significance as the s a m e (or lower) rate of unemployment
lasting months or even years. In the former case, it is simply a matter of a
situational problem connected with a slack period of recruitment; in the
latter case, it is certainly a structural problem: the labour market is not
able to absorb young graduates.
2-12
MODULE /V 2: DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
O n e of the components of the problem is the extent to which the

possession of a qualification affects the salary level.
T h e general assumption (already amply confirmed by previous studies

of the subject) is that graduates are paid more than their non-graduates
colleagues.
It is worth verifying this assumption in the particular case of your o w n

country, but you can - and to a certain extent should- go further. T h e
salary difference m a y vary between private firms and government
departments, given the different conditions of recruitment; there m a y
also be a salary difference between an employee w h o has attended
university for only one year and an employee w h o has attended the
complete university course but has failed his final examination. In this
case, the relationship between training and salary is more complex, with
the labour market giving at least a s m u c h recognition to the duration of
training as to the possession of a degree. If this assumption is verified
by the follow-up study, it will enable the internal and external efficiency
of the university to b e interpreted differently.
Have you found these somewhat lengthy examples helpful? Others

could just as well have been taken, concerning, for instance,
underemployment among graduates and non-graduates. Try to think
up another example of this type, breaking down one or two general
assumptions into more operational assumptions. This will help you
in the construction of a questionnaire.
Making assumptions leads to the introduction of a n u m b e r of

variables - information components - which should enable
you to assess their relevance. These are the variables o n which
you should base the construction of your questionnaire.
In the first example given above, the study must include not
only questions concerning the jobs occupied by students but
also the nature of the employer (public, private, etc.); to verify
these assumptions the people questioned must be asked not
only what qualifications they have, but also at w h a t stage of
the course they left university.
2-13
Seeking these variables will also help you to specify your

assumptions; you will thus be led to move back and forth
between problems, assumptions, and relevant variables. The
new example in Chapter 5 (which of course is purely
indicative) will give you a better idea of the general lines of
this procedure.
CO
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I- C Another example in the form of a chart to be
<
I
O completed
REQUEST (A):
Survey on the training of building technicians
O B J E C T I V E (B):
Analyse
the circumstances of initial employment
of certificate holders trained in
Vocational Training Centres of the Building Industry (VTCB)
GENERAL PROBLEM ASSUMPTIONS (D)

FORMULATION (C)
1. Certificate holders find a job more easily than
those who are unqualified.
Does the V T C B certificate prepare young people
for a job in the building industry? 2 . Most certificate holders are recruited by large-
scale contractors in the public and private sectors.
3. Small contractors attach less importance to a

formal qualification (certificate).
4 . The possession of a formal qualification
(certificate) makes it easier to find employment in
large towns and cities than in small provincial
towns.
V A R I A B L E S T A K E N INTO A C C O U N T (E):
Employment situation and job held; sector of activity; legal status,

size and locality of the employer's company; localities of V T C B s ; certificated or not;
type of certificates held
2-15
This example sums up the different steps followed in this

module. The arrows pointing from one box to another (e.g.
R E Q U E S T ' ^ 'OBJECTIVE') indicate the sequence of steps:
definition of the objective;
formulation of the problem and the assumptions;
definition of meaningful variables.
Y o u m a y notice that the arrows under Box B ('Objective') are

pointed towards both boxes C ('General problem formulation')
and D ('Assumptions'). This means that the theoretical order
(box B , then C , then D ) can be changed, and that in fact, the
formulation of assumptions (D) often precedes the general
problem formulation (C). You m a y choose whatever order suits
you; what matters is that at the end of the exercise all the boxes
be well defined and that what appears inside the boxes is
consistent.
The ' R E Q U E S T is brief (box A , survey of technical training in

the building industry), and is scarcely explicit in the
'OBJECTIVE' (box B); it becomes fully explicit in the 'GENERAL
P R O B L E M ' (box C). It is these two together ('OBJECTIVE +
P R O B L E M ' ) which must be approved by the originator of the
request.
This example, though relatively simple, is operational. If

'Vocational Training Centres of the Building Industry' are replaced
by other similar establishments in your country, it can be used
as it stands.
2-16
MODULE hf 2: DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Here n o w is a very short exercise: the general problem (in the

entry into working life of V T C B certificate holders, is the certificate
a guarantee of finding employment in the modern sector?) involves
two category of factors: those connected with training and those
connected with employment.
^ Question 1 : C a n each of the assumptions (shown in the chart)

be linked with training factors alone, employment factors alone,
or both?
> Question 2 : W h a t variables (indicated in box E) are related to

each of these assumptions?
This example can be developed; it is n o w u p to you to add to it

by going further into the assumptions and variables to be taken
into account; or to have recourse to n e w assumptions and
variables on the basis of a different general problem.
When you have completed this exercise, you can tackle either Mod
3 or Module 4.
Go to them!
2-17
Answer to the two questions in Module 2
>> A n s w e r to Question 1:
N o n e of the assumptions can be unilaterally related to 'educational'

or 'labour market' factors.
If possessing a certificate m a k e s access to employment easier, it

is certainly because it guarantees a minimum ability (see Chapter
4). This also m a y be attributed to the fact that large enterprises in
the building industry 'control' the sector (which m e a n s that there
are practically no small enterprises, or craftsmen, this limiting the
employment opportunities): this is linked to the second
assumption:
If large enterprises m o r e willingly hire qualified certificate holders,

m a y b e this is because the technologies used warrant higher
qualification than those of craftsmanship: the V T C B Certificate
guaranteeing in that case a minimum qualification, and m a y b e also
especially in public enterprises, because these are ruled by
engagement conditions or by the 'employment' or the 'labour'
codes. Therefore, the certificate would not only be a 'guarantee' in
itself but its holder would benefit from this particular legislation.
If the possession of a certificate m a k e s access to employment

easier in large urban areas than anywhere else, this m a y be due to
the greater importance of enterprises of the modern sector in these
areas (it is the 'labour market' factor) but it m a y also be due to the
fact that the V T C B are concentrated there; therefore there is a
higher d e m a n d for technicians trained in V T C B and the entreprises
are more likely to engage them (this is the 'training offer' factor).
2-18
>> Answer to Question 2:
Assumptions Variables
1. Those w h o hold a certificate find a job more Employment situation; certificate holders/non-
easily than those w h o d o not. certificate holders.
2. Large national enterprises (public and private)

are the ones which attach the greatest Sector of activity, legal nature, location of the
importance to the certificate. enterprise.
3. Having a certificate increases the chances

of finding employment in large urban areas as Size and location of the enterprise, location of
opposed to small towns. V T C B s , certificates held by former pupils.
...additional assumptions could b e m a d e such as, for example, "non-certificate holders are engaged in
greater numbers in the informal sector"...
2-19
MODULE 3
Problems of sampling
by Jean Lamoure
nnn igg International Institute for Educational Planning

Problems of sampling
MODULE
3
This third module tells you how to determine whether a survey is to
be exhaustive (i.e. cover the whole target population) or is to cover
only a part (a sample) of the target population. You will discover the
different sampling methods commonly used and the advantages and
drawbacks of each of them. You will also learn how the responses to a
sample survey can be extrapolated to cover the entire target
population.
A s noted at the end of M o d u l e 2, this m o d u l e is relatively

independent; if you w a n t to k n o w m o r e about studies of
transition from school to w o r k y o u can read this M o d u l e 3
after you have read M o d u l e 4, or even after having read the
whole of this self-instruction manual. There are t w o reasons for
this freedom of choice:
3* Firstly, sampling problems are not specific to surveys

concerning the transition from school to w o r k (follow-up
and tracer studies); they arise in the s a m e w a y in connection
with any statistical survey. Consequently they are not dealt
with at any great length in this manual; information o n this
subject can be found in m a n y other publications.
rar Secondly, the construction of a sample involves quite special

statistical methods. Problems relating to the size and
representativity of a sample have to be referred to a
statistician, unless y o u are one yourself. All you have to d o ,
essentially, is to give h i m the principal characteristics of the
population on which he has to m a k e his calculations. This is
in fact the main objective of this m o d u l e and the short
exercise set at the end of it.
Determine whether the survey should be exhaustive or

based on a sample.
Describe the different methods of sampling, indicating the
advantages and drawbacks of each of them.
Select the criteria of sampling for a particular case.
Contents
Chapter 1 A question of objectives and resources 3-5
Chapter 2 R a n d o m samples 3-7
Chapter 3 Quota sampling 3-12
Chapter 4 The adjustment of responses 3-14
Chapter 5 The value of exhaustiveness in follow-up

and tracer studies 3-17
Chapter 6 A pragmatic approach 3-18
Chapter 7 A short exercise to check your

knowledge 3-20
A question of objectives and resources
The objective of a follow-up or tracer study is to gather the

m a x i m u m amount of detailed individual information on what
becomes of pupils or students w h e n they leave the education
system. In absolute terms, it is the circumstances of each former
pupil or student which is of interest, the ideal being to gather
information on the whole of the target population. But
'absolute' and 'ideal' are concepts foreign to the h u m a n
sciences, especially where surveys are concerned, for two main
reasons:
Apart from specifically technical problems of

implementation, the replies to a questionnaire depend on
the willingness of the people questioned to reply to it or
to answer afieldworker's questions.
The problem is m a d e even greater by the fact that it

involves not only the number of responses but their
reliability; even if there were any w a y of compelling
people to answer the questions, there is no w a y of
ensuring that the information they give is true. This
second aspect will be dealt with in Module 4.
Like any sociological survey, a follow-up or tracer study is

subject to a set of financial and technical constraints. T w o
forms of questioning are possible: an exhaustive questioning of
the entire target population (see Module 1), or a questioning of
only a part of that population, that is to say a sample. In what
follows w e shall show h o w it is possible to obtain an accurate
picture of the whole population (which statisticians call the
target population) by questioning only a small part of it - a
sample.
Sampling has financial advantages; questioning fewer

individuals is less costly, but it requires a number of personal
technical skills, or else recourse to the services of experienced
statisticians.
3-5
T h o u g h questioning the entire target population is necessarily

m o r e costly, it is a solution not to be rejected in all cases. It is
easier to do, and provides m o r e information. The use of the
resources of the schools themselves and the mobilization of
government departments concerned in studies of this kind can
help to offset the drawback of higher cost. It all depends o n
h o w the target population is defined, its size, and the resources
available.
There are t w o categories of samples: quota samples and random

(or probability) samples. T h e latter are most often used,
particularly in follow-up and tracer studies. They are also m o r e
accurate, which is w h y statisticians favour them. W e shall
revert to this point later (see Chapter 3 below).
T h o u g h quota samples are not often used except in opinion

surveys (relating to consumer behaviour, voting intentions,
etc.) a few words should be said about them. They are dealt
with at the end of this module. Y o u will then better understand
w h y w e leave them out of account where studies of transition
from school to w o r k are concerned.
3-6
Random samples
The general principle

The principle is simple, but its application calls for a good
knowledge of statistics. A r a n d o m sample is obtained b y the
random selection of a certain n u m b e r of individuals from the
total target population, the sample thus obtained possessing
characteristics similar to those of the target population. This
r a n d o m sampling is theoretically justified b y the laws
governing large numbers, and it m a k e s it possible to define
accurately the characteristics of the total target population.
In practice, there is no need to k n o w the characteristics of the

target population in order to have a representative sample,
provided one has an exhaustive list of that population and
provided the sample is large enough. For the accuracy of the
results depends neither o n the size of the target population nor
on the sampling ratio, but o n the size of the sample. If it is large
enough, a 5 per cent sample can be just as accurately
representative of the whole target population as a 15 per cent
sample, the m o r e so in proportion as the target population is
homogeneous. In practice, no sample should comprise less than
thirty individuals in each category to be analysed. T o determine
the o p t i m u m size of the sample, and its representativity, it is
useful to consult a statistician.
O n c e the size of the sample has been determined, several

r a n d o m sampling techniques are available. T h e simplest is to
select individuals at random from a list of all the n a m e s and
addresses of the parent population, so that everyone has the
same chance of being selected. For example, if the sample
represents 15 per cent of the target population, the procedure
will be to start anywhere in the list a n d select the first n a m e ,
then thefifteenthn a m e following it, then the thirtieth n a m e ,
and so on.
3-7
If, for instance, you take the first 150 names out of a list of 1,000, the 151st
and those following it will have no chance at all of being selected. If you take
every alternate name (the first, third, etc.) the 301st and those following it will
have no chance of being selected.
In the case of follow-up and tracer studies, you should

therefore have a list of the n a m e s and addresses of all pupils or
former pupils.
In practice, w h e n such lists exist they are compiled o n the basis

of the school or faculty which the pupil or student attended.
Rather than grouping them all together o n one list it m a y be
simpler to select a sample of educational establishments and
then, if necessary, a sample of former pupils/students in each
of them. This is called multi-stage sampling (see section 2). This
technique has the further advantage of limiting the scattering of
the pupils in the sample over the whole country, thereby
reducing costs appreciably iffieldworkers are employed. Care
must obviously be taken to select a sample of establishments
that is representative of the whole, o n the basis of criteria such
as urban/rural, public/private, etc. For the sample to be
representative, all the pupils/students must have an equal
chance of being selected; the easiest solution is to apply the
same sampling ratio to all the strata w h e n selecting the sample
of establishments, and the same sampling ratio to the pupils/
students within each establishment (the probability of a pupil/
student being included in the sample is equal to the probability
of his establishment being included in the sample, multiplied
by the probability of his being selected within his
establishment).
A final remark: this m e t h o d of sampling is all the m o r e valid in

proportion as the population concerned is numerically large. It
is essential, for example, in the case of a follow-up study
covering several tens of thousands of former pupils, but it is of
little value for small cohorts of those w h o have attended
specialized schools or institutes. Even in the particular case of a
survey covering several thousand former university students, a
r a n d o m sampling can be confined to certain subject areas (arts
or law for example) usually studied b y large numbers of
students, whereas other subject areas can be covered
exhaustively. Here again, it all depends o n the h u m a n and
3-8
MODULE W3: PROBLEMS OF SAMPLING
material resources available. The analysis should be m a d e by

separate subject specialities, or else the responses should be
weighted in the light of the different sampling ratios.
The stratification of samples

A s already mentioned, w h a t this a m o u n t s to is the division of
the target population into m o r e h o m o g e n e o u s categories. Let us
take as an example a study of transition from school to w o r k
covering young people w h o have received technical education.
Three groups of characteristics m a y be considered:
Educational characteristics: the training speciality (mechanical

maintenance, the building industry, secretarial w o r k , etc.),
the possession of a formal qualification, and so on.
Individual characteristics: age and sex (assuming that girls

have been trained in these specialities).
Socio-economic characteristics: family place of residence a n d /

or the town in which the establishment attended is located.
These are only s o m e examples; others could be cited. Sampling

criteria are not chosen in the abstract; they depend o n the
information available o n the educational establishments and
their pupils, and o n the exactitude of such information.
These criteria cannot be considered independently of one

another, for they are intimately linked; but they must be
combined. Generally, the total population is sub-divided by
speciality or qualification, and strata are established for each of
these sub-populations.
Let us revert to our example of technical education; the

distribution of former pupils is as follows:
3-9
Speciality:
Mechanical maintenance 1000

Building industry 1800
Secretarial work 2 200
TOTAL: 5 000
T h e examination s u c c e s s rates are a s follows:
Mechanical assistance 80%

Building industry 14%
Secretarial work 20%
T h e population stratified b y speciality a n d examination s u c c e s s is a s follows:
Certificated Non- Certificated Total
Mechanical maintenance (80%) 800 200 1000

Building industry (14%) 260 1 540 1800
Secretarial work (20%) 440 1 760 2 200
TOTAL (30%) 1500 3 500 5 000
Note: The figures in brackets correspond to the real percentages of pupils w h o passed the exam in
each speciality, the general average being 30 per cent.
Assuming that forfinancialreasons you can only question 500

former pupils (a sampling ratio of 10 per cent) you will select at
random 80 w h o have qualified in mechanical maintenance
among the 800, 20 unskilled among the 200, and so on...
The sample thus constituted, the task of thefieldworkers is to

trace and then question a total of 500 pupils among w h o m 80
are skilled mechanics, 20 unskilled, 26 w h o have qualified in
the building industry, etc., providing the field workers with
their names and addresses.
3-10
MODULE AM; PROBLEUS OF SAMPUNG
T h e advantage of this is clear: it guards against any risk of

under-representation of one or other of the certificated and
uncertificated categories.
It is usually simpler to adopt identical sampling ratios for each

stratum. It m a y however be necessary to adopt a higher
sampling ratio for certain strata, for example specialities in
which the numbers are less. So you must perform your analysis
by separate specialities, or else weight your sample b y different
sampling ratios.
Y o u should avoid adopting too m a n y criteria of stratification. If

you apply an identical sampling ratio to each stratum, y o u can
simply list the former pupils b y speciality or by sex, and
systematically select 1 in 10 or 1 in 20, depending o n the
sampling ratio chosen. T h e result will not be very different
3-11
Quota sampling
T h e principle of quota sampling is simple. W h a t has to be done

is to select from the target population a sample which has
characteristics similar to those of the target population; for
example, the s a m e proportion of individuals holding or not a
formal qualification, w h o s e importance in follow-up and tracer
studies is recognized. Each of these characteristics will m a k e it
possible to establish the quotas of people to be questioned.
Within these quotas, it is u p to thefieldworkers to select the
individuals they will question.
Let us say that out of a target population of 15,000 former pupils,

5,000 possess a formal qualification (passed the examination).
Financial constraints allow only 3,000 individuals to b e questioned.
This sample of 3,000 individuals must contain the s a m e proportion of
qualification holders as the total target population, namely one third,
or in numerical terms 1,000. W h e n the sample has been constituted,
the field workers have to question 1,000 certificated and 2,000
uncertificated individuals, w h o m they select themselves from the lists
they are given.
In this case it is desirable to specify other criteria, such as sex or

speciality. Obviously it is not possible to k n o w all the
characteristics of the target population, and even if it were you
w o u l d have to select those which seem to be most relevant. In
the case of studies of transition from school to w o r k , what can
these characteristics be? T h e answer is those judged to have the
most bearing on y o u n g people's entry to working life, their
employment or unemployment.
The advantages of this method lie in its speed and simplicity.

O n e of its drawbacks is the a priori assumption that the criteria
adopted for the constitution of the sample are determining
factors in the study of access to employment.
T h o u g h speciality, sex, and the possession of a formal

qualification (certificate or diploma) have for long proved their
worth as criteria, this does not m e a n that they are universally
applicable, and in a given context they m a y prove to have little
3-12
MODULE hP3: PROBLEMS OF SAMPUNG
or insufficient relevance for purposes of stratification. In some

countries, ethnic or regional background m a y be just as
important in finding certain jobs as speciality or holding a
diploma.
The main criticism levelled at quota sampling is (to revert to

the example given above) that it allows the field workers to
make their o w n selection, from among the 5,000 diploma
holders, of the 1,000 individuals corresponding to the sample
quota. Even if it can be guaranteed that the proportion of
diploma holders will be conformed to, there is absolutely no
guarantee that the 3,000 former pupils questioned will be
representative of the 15,000 in the total target population. For
instance, the field workers m a y have given precedence to those
w h o live in towns and are thus easier to contact. So you will
not know whether the present activity of these former pupils
(whether they are unemployed, employed, working in the
informal sector, etc.) are representative of the whole target
population. It is easier to contact former pupils w h o have found
employment in large firms in the modern sector, and w h o live
in towns, than those w h o are unemployed or w h o live in the
depths of the countryside.
Basing a survey on a quota sample is therefore very likely to

introduce a bias in the responses, so that you can reach no
legitimate conclusions concerning the education-employment
relationships of the whole of the target population. So if you
possess a list of the names and addresses of all the individuals
in your target population, you can forget about quota sampling
and opt for random sampling. But if you do not have such a list
on which to base your survey, you cannot avoid quota
sampling. If, lacking their addresses and not having enough
time to trace them, you have to seek former pupils in their
places of work, you obviously cannot know, a priori, w h o is
employed, and where. You have to set your quotas by
employer, and give the field workers very precise instructions.
3-13
The adjustment of responses
In a conventional follow-up or tracer study, the exact addresses

of all the individuals in the target population must be k n o w n in
order to be able to question those contained in the sample. This
is not always possible if the educational statistics are
incomplete. Quite often, mistakes in these addresses are
discovered in the course of the survey. If the proportion of
these untraceable individuals ('no reply7) is low (say between 5
per cent and 10 per cent of the target population) n o major
problem arises; there are statistical techniques which m a k e it
possible to 'adjusf the responses so as to obtain an accurate
picture of the total target population.
If these 'no replies' are few in n u m b e r , the individuals w h o d o

reply m a y not be representative of your sample or your target
population. In which case you have to 'adjusf the replies
received. In the case of a stratified sample (urban/rural, for
example) there m a y be m o r e replies from people in urban areas
than from those in rural areas. Y o u can only obtain the results
of the whole sample (rural + urban) b y restoring to the urban
individuals the weight they have in your sample. This is a
simple technique w h e n it is confined to the 'adjustment7 of a
single variable; it is longer and m o r e complex if you decide to
apply it to several variables (urban/rural, qualified/
unqualified, etc.).
3-14
MODULE AM: PROBLEMS OF SAMPUNG
Example
Let us take a simple example: you have a sample of 1 000 former pupils,
400 of them with an urban background and 600 with a rural background;
40 per cent and 6 0 per cent respectively. The 650 replies to your survey
c o m e from 350 urban respondents and 300 rural respondents (54 per
cent and 46 per cent respectively). In these replies, the rural individuals
are thus under-represented; to give them a representation conforming to
the sample, you must therefore give extra 'weight' to each rural
questionnaire and less 'weight to each urban questionnaire. This
weighting is calculated as follows:
Rural: 0.60/0.46 = 1.30

Urban: 0.40/0.54 = 0.74
If, for instance, the unemployment rate a m o n g these former pupils is 15

per cent for the urbans and 4 5 per cent for the rurals, the unweighted
unemployment rate of the whole (rural + urban) will be:
[(350x0.15) + (400x0.45)] divided by 650 = 3 6 %
The weighted ( and hence more accurate) employment rate will be:
[(350 x 0.15) x 0.74) + (400 x 0.45 x 1.30)] divided by 650 = 4 2 %
This weighting to compensate for no replies is of course

equally applicable to exhaustive surveys.
If the n u m b e r of 'no replies' is greater, the problem is trickier, ;

so it is best to test the validity of your lists before commencing
a full-scale survey. This will give you the approximate
proportion of 'no replies' y o u are likely to obtain, so that you
can increase the size of your sample accordingly. If, despite this
precaution, your full-scale survey produces m a n y non-
responses, you must proportionately nuance the interpretation
of your results. In certain extreme cases, your results have no
significance.
W h y this interest in 'no replie'? It has been observed that quite

often an individual w h o does not reply is in special
circumstances: unemployed, underemployed, gone abroad, etc.
It is therefore important to have a m i n i m u m amount of
3-15
information o n such individuals in order to nuance the results

of questionnaires that have been returned or interviews that
have been conducted. S o w h e n y o u h a v e completed your
survey it is worth while selecting a r a n d o m sample of 5 per
cent to 10 per cent of non-respondents a n d m a k e every possible
effort to trace them. In the case of a survey conducted b y
interviews, your bestfieldworkers can b e assigned this task; in
the case of a postal survey, afieldworker can be sent to the
individual's address. A specific a n d adequate budget should
therefore b e earmarked for this mini-survey a m o n g n o n -
respondents, for tracing a non-respondent is m o r e costly than
an ordinary questionnaire or interview; it takes longer, a n d
involves m o r e travelling around.
Specialized software for the processing of surveys can now calculate not
only the size of your samples but also the adjustment for non-responses;
even someone who is not a statistician can use such software after a little
practice. It makes things a lot easier.
3-16
5 The value of exhaustiveness in follow-up and
tracer studies
Sampling is not always necessary for follow-up and tracer

studies. Quite often the populations questioned are small,
especially if one is concerned only with formal qualification
holders. In such cases there is scarcely any point in sampling,
and the survey can be exhaustive.
Questioning the whole target population has another

advantage. It m a y be worthwhile to obtain information not
only o n average circumstances, but also o n special cases (e.g.
the characteristics of those w h o have graduated from technical
schools and w h o set u p in business o n their o w n account, or the
unemployment circumstances of certain doctors or lawyers). In
general, questioning the entire target population m a k e s it
possible to obtain m o r e diversified information than that
obtained from a sample; information which, though it m a y
have no statistical value, is useful to educators and planners
because it illustrates the possible paths that can be followed
after a given course of schooling, even if few people take such
paths.
There m a y be financial constraints o n the implementing of

exhaustive surveys; it is not always easy to persuade the
ministerial authorities to cough u p tens of thousands of dollars
for this kind of survey. O n e should try to have limited recourse
to special funding, and rely m o r e o n existing resources. A s a
last resort, you can always try applying to international
funding agencies.
3-17
A pragmatic approach
M o d u l e 2 s h o w e d the importance of setting well-defined

operational objectives. A pragmatic solution to funding
problems w o u l d be to proceed by stages, beginning with small
populations chosen in the light of their strategic value for
educational planning. For instance, if the decision-makers
w a n t to k n o w about the e m p l o y m e n t circumstances of former
students, it is perhaps unnecessary in a n initial stage to
question all of them; it m a y suffice to question only those from
a faculty or institute which has m a n y students enrolled, or
w h o s e unit costs are particularly high, or again w h o s e internal
efficiency is especially low. In short, a population can be chosen in
the light of policy considerations.
This solution has several advantages: it reduces the cost of the

operation, because the population is smaller, and it also m a k e s
it easier to raise the necessary funds from the decision-makers
or possibly from donor agencies. A further advantage, of a
technical nature, is that it m a k e s it easier to try out the
conditions of implementation of the survey in thefieldbefore
undertaking operations o n a larger scale.
T h e cost can also be reduced b y using potential local assistance

to the full. In m a n y cases, for example, it is unnecessary to
recruit teams offieldworkers; students of the h u m a n sciences
can d o the job m o r e cheaply, and can derive a non-pecuniary
advantage if the operation is negotiated with the Institute's
responsible authority: their collaboration can be recognized as
part of their university studies. M a n y other examples could be
cited: university students m a y be interested in what has
b e c o m e of their former fellow-students, so as to acquire
valuable information o n their o w n career prospects. In
technical a n d vocational training, school principals and
teachers themselves can b e mobilized for these surveys, w h o s e
results contribute to the evaluation of the performance of their
schools, help to define their curricula, a n d encourage emulation
a m o n g schools.
3-18
MODULE ff 3: PROBLEMS OF SAMPUNG
This mobilization of local resources is not confined to

educational personnel a n d pupils/students; insofar as follow-
u p and tracer studies concern h u m a n resources planning, it is
possible to envisage co-operation with other ministerial bodies,
such as planning and statistical departments, in particular to
m a k e use of their data-processing facilities.
The mobilization of local resources is valuable not only

materially and financially, but also from the methodological
and pedagogic angles. B y involving the schools and the people
concerned, these studies are likely to reach a wider audience
and arouse a more sustained interest, and hence receive
widespread and lasting acceptance.
3-19
ce
7 A short exercise to check your knowledge

til
l-
D.
<
X
Exercise
Y o u plan to undertake a survey of students w h o have graduated in

m a n a g e m e n t studies in University Institutes of Technology/
Polytechnics, covering twenty or so public and private
establishments of this kind. A statistician is prepared to help you
select a sample of students. Though his technical competence is
unchallenged, he knows less about university matters than you do,
and he asks you to specify the criteria of choice of this population,
in other words the strata on which the survey will be conducted.
Assuming that the data are available, what criteria of choice will
you propose? Compile a short list (not more than five criteria),
justifying the reasons for your selection against each criterion - in
other words, w h y you consider it to be relevant.
Use the table on the next page for your reply.
3-20
TABLE FOR YOUR REPLY
CRITERIA REASONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The solution is on the next page.
3-21
Solution to exercise
This 'solution' makes no claim to be exhaustive. It is intended mainly to indicate the broad lines
of your discussion with the statistician. T h e exercise w a s intended to accustom you to making
choices motivated by your problem formulation and your assumptions (which is w h y you were
asked to state your reasons). This is one of the leitmotifs of this manual, and is developed in the
two preceding modules. It is the rigour of your intellectual approach which will determine the
quality of your study of transition from school to work. S o here are s o m e clues to possible replies:
CRITERIA REASONS
1. How the respondents graduated T y p e of school (public/private) where the respondents

graduated; h o w they graduated (initial orfurther training).
This information can affect the circumstances of
transition.
2 . Whether graduates or not T h e school-to-work transition of graduates must be

compared with that of non-graduates; a random sample
leaving this stratification out of account would risk
containing only a small number of non-graduates if
graduates are in the majority.
3. M e n / w o m e n Experience shows that w o m e n often have less chances

of employment than m e n . If w o m e n are under-
represented in the total population, they should be given
their due weight. If they are particularly few in number,
they will be questioned exhaustively.
4 . Specialization M a n a g e m e n t graduates perhaps mention a speciality:

financial management, h u m a n resources management,
international law, etc. If there are few respondents in
certain specializations it m a y be necessary to question
all of them in order to cover all these options.
5. Locality of the Polytechnics Depending on the locality of the IUT Polytechnics (large
city or small town) employment opportunities m a y vary.
3-22
MODULE 4
The construction of the questionnaire
by Jean Lamoure
TT igi International Institute for Educational Planning

MODULE
The construction of the questionnaire
lhe construction of the questionnaire is a very important stage in the

preparation of a study of the relationships between training and
employment. The choice of questions, how they are phrased, and how
you intend to process the replies, will largely determine the relevance of
your study. Bear in mind that, as educators well know, no question is
neutral; however it is formulated, every question is to some extent a
leading question; that is to say, it suggests its own reply, and to that
extent limits the respondent's field of reference. If you have carefully
read the preceding modules (in particular Modules 1 and 2) you will
find it easier to construct the questionnaire, for you will have learned
how to organize it in the light of your problem formulation and your
assumptions. If need be, do not hesitate to refer to the chart at the end
of Module 2.
But the construction of the questionnaire is only one stage in the

preparation of your study. You must always bear in mind the use to
which its results can be put.
Determine the kind of information y o u need, a n d

construct a questionnaire.
Recognize the different types of variables (dependent/
independent).
Select the most suitable type of question (open or
closed).
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 4-5
Chapter 2 The construction of the questionnaire

and h o w it is administered 4-7
Chapter 3 Educational background 4-9
Chapter 4 Sociological background 4-11
Chapter 5 Activity 4-15
Chapter 6 The characteristics of the respondent's

current employment 4-21
Chapter 7 Questions on employment:

further remarks 4-25
Chapter 8 Coding the questions 4-31
Chapter 9 Note on questions of opinion 4-33

If y o u h a v e carefully implemented the previous stages, the
construction of the questionnaire should not pose a n y major
problems. T h e m a i n variables to b e taken into account h a v e
already b e e n explored; w h a t remains to b e d o n e is to p u t t h e m
into s h a p e so that the questions are u n a m b i g u o u s for both the
questioner a n d the respondent.
A s explained in M o d u l e 1, there are t w o m a i n types of studies

of transition from school to w o r k :
follow-up studies a n d
tracer studies.
A distinction is also m a d e b e t w e e n :
(a) T h o s e concerning the activity of former pupils a f e w

m o n t h s to a year after they h a v e left school (studies of
transition from school to w o r k ) .
(b) Repeated surveys designed to discover h o w their activity

change over a longer period: t w o or three years or m o r e
(longitudinal studies).
W e are principally concerned here with surveys of type (a),

because their questionnaires can serve as a basis of reference for
surveys of type (b). Chapters 2 a n d 7 of this m o d u l e will help
y o u to construct questionnaires suitable for a n y type of survey
or study.
Whatever the specific national features of the country

concerned, the questionnaire comprises four parts, each
relating to the particular characteristics of the respondents.
These characteristics, which are dealt with in w h a t follows, are:
(a) Their educational b a c k g r o u n d (see C h a p t e r 3 ) .
(b) Their sociological background (see Chapter 4).
(c) Their activity at the t i m e of the s u r v e y (see C h a p t e r 5 ) .
4-5
(d) The characteristics of their job (see Chapter 6).
Parts (a) and (b) involve what are called independent variables,
whose impact o n the dependent variables involved in parts (c)
and (d) the survey will attempt to assess.
The kind of information to be gathered in parts (a) and (b) is

m u c h the same from one country to another. The design of part
(c) is the outcome of a great deal of research; it contains only
one question, but one of capital importance, because it
distinguishes the paths followed by former pupils after they
leave school. Part (d) is the most specific, in terms of the
population questioned as well as in terms of the national
context; it is constructed in the light of the predominant
characteristics of employment in the country concerned.
2 The construction of the questionnaire and
h o w it is administered
H o w the questionnaire is constructed depends on h o w it is to

be administered: whether by afieldworker or through the post.
If you have three or four teams of field workers, a few briefing
sessions will enable you to show them h o w to master even the
most complex questionnaire (see Module 5); and you can
always amplify or modify a question which proves to be not
immediately understandable (though this should be avoided if
possible). In the case of a postal questionnaire, such briefing is
not possible and it is even more essential for the questions to be
clear and unambiguous; once the questionnaire has been sent
out, it cannot be modified. In some countries another difficulty
arises in connection with postal surveys: the choice of the
language in which the questionnaire is written, especially the
questions concerning circumstances and employment, whose
unambiguous translation m a y be difficult. This m a y be
circumvented by attaching a short glossary or table of
equivalence of some of the terms used in the questionnaire.
The questionnaire will take a different form depending on

whether you are undertaking a follow-up study or a tracer
study. In the former case, there will be less emphasis on
questions relating to educational background, because this
information will have already been gathered by questioning
pupils w h e n they were at school. This part of the survey can
even be superfluous if the pupils have been correctly
identified; it suffices to merge theirfilesw h e n the replies to the
survey are processed. Tracer studies, however, must ask
former pupils for the fullest information on their educational
background, especially in the absence of afieldworker to help
refresh their memory. The following paragraph will help you
to define these questions.
The examples given in the following paragraphs relate to a

tracer study of former technical school students, but most of the
4-7
questions are applicable to other forms of survey (follow-up

study) or other target populations (e.g. university students).
These examples omit questions of opinion, for the replies to
them are trickier to interpret (see Chapter 9).
4-8
OC
Ol
o.
<
O Educational background
X
Example 1 w h i c h follows contains the m i n i m u m r e c o m m e n d e d

n u m b e r of questions. It calls for four remarks:
(a) T h e natural tendency is to ask a lot of questions; this is

usually d u e to a n insufficient preparation of the previous stages
(see M o d u l e 2). B u t experience s h o w s that the longer the
questionnaire, the greater the likelihood of ' n o replies'. T o
avoid important questions being u n a n s w e r e d or incorrectly
answered, it is essential to get straight to the point.
(b) Quite a f e w of the questions in this part m a y , in this respect,

s e e m superfluous (Questions 1 to 4). This information w a s
available to y o u w h e n y o u compiled the list of former pupils to
be questioned. B u t they m u s t b e p u t once again in order to
check the exactitude of your information.
(c) For a survey covering y o u n g people w h o left school six

m o n t h s to a year previously, Question 5 is not indispensable. Its
purpose is to specify the respondent's level of education or
training. It is particularly important in higher education, w h e r e
students very often follow a m o r e varied course, a n d the
characteristics of the job held m a y b e linked as m u c h w i t h the
course of study as with the d i p l o m a / d e g r e e obtained. Question
5 can b e very useful in the case of respondents w h o completed
their education several years previously, in w h i c h case they
should b e questioned o n w h e t h e r they h a v e received a n y
vocational training (whether leading to a certificate/diploma or
not) while w o r k i n g or outside the education system.
(d) The subsidiary questions are two examples of a more complex

problem. Question 3b makes it possible to evaluate the effect of
grade repetition, and Question 3c the possible impact of
educational guidance procedures (voluntary or otherwise) on
the respondent's post-school activity.
4-9
Educational characteristics Reserved for coding
1. N A M E and address of last educational establishment attended
2. W h e n did you leave it?

Month. Year
Last class attended in that school

(e.g. 3rd year of preparation for certification as a plumber)
3.
Class
Speciality trained for
Did you sit the examination?
(Put a cross in the appropriate box or boxes)
4.
NOD YEsD
Did you pass?
YESD NO I I
D o you possess any other certificates or diplomas from
this establishment or any other?
NOD YEsD
Which?
Subsidiary questions:
3 b.: W a s it the first time you enrolled in that class?
NOD YES D
3 c: W h o advised you to train for that speciality? (put a cross in only one box)
I I Your parents.
Your school.
I I Y o u chose it yourself.
I I Y o u d o not remember.
Sociological background
This information is usually omitted from follow-up and tracer

studies in developing countries. Yet it is considered, in the
international literature o n the subject, to have an impact
equivalent to that of educational background o n the conditions
of access to employment. For instance, it is easier for a technical
school graduate to b e c o m e a skilled craftsman if one of his
parents is already so employed. Other examples could be cited:
in a n u m b e r of countries, the children of civil servants tend to
predominate a m o n g entrants to that profession. W e are not
concerned here with the extent to which they are favoured,
r e c o m m e n d e d or influenced, but with the share attributable to
educational background alone in the type of job these respondents
enter, independently of sociological factors.
Depending o n the national context and the possibilities of

gathering information, w e should try to discover the
occupations of the respondent's father, mother, uncle, brothers
and sisters. Questions can also be added concerning the
national languages spoken a n d / o r written. In s o m e countries,
questions on ethnic origin or religious beliefs can provide very
important information o n circumstances of e m p l o y m e n t and
their differentiation. But they are tricky to put, not only because
they are politically sensitive, but also because (especially w h e r e
religious beliefs are concerned) they raise the issue of personal
freedom; a questionnaire o n the transition from school to w o r k
is not a police interrogation and m u s t in n o w a y risk being
interpreted as such!
Questions on the occupation of parents and relatives may be usefully

supplemented by questions on their educational level; but confine
yourself to generalities, for the respondents may not always be able to
give full details. The educational level of adults is known through the
population census, which will help you to formulate such questions
(e.g. no education/primary/intermediate/secondary/university).
Questions 1 and 2 in Example 2 very often serve merely as a

check o n information already available in educational statistics
(see Chapter 2, section (b) above).
4-11
Questions 3 and 4 are designed for surveys that investigate the

family background in greater depth. It m a y be assumed that
attitudes to education and employment vary from one family to
another and depend o n the respondent's status in the family.
Such information is not essential in an initial tracer study
intended solely for purposes of h u m a n resources planning.
However, for educational planning purposes it can throw light
on the reasons for families' attitudes to their children's
education.
4-12
Sociological characteristics Reserved for coding
1. Date of birth: 19..
2. Sex: Male Female
3. N u m b e r of brothers and sisters
- H o w m a n y of them work?
- H o w m a n y are at school? Q ]
4. Are you the eldest? N O Q YES Q
5. What is your father's occupation
(or what was it if he is no longer working)?
(Specify: craftsman, tailor, building labourer, livestock farmer, etc.)
6. Father's education level:
6 b.: Mother's education level:
Subsidiary questions:
3 b.: Occupations of brothers and sisters:
5 b.: Occupation of mother:

5 Activity
General principle
This section of the questionnaire is considered as the hard core

of all tracer and follow-up surveys. O n its o w n , it tells you the
proportion of former pupils w h o are u n e m p l o y e d , employed,
etc. In conjunction with the different educational a n d
sociological variables, it enables y o u to establish a series of
indicators w h i c h are useful for educational and h u m a n
resources planning.
For the s a m e reasons as before (see E x a m p l e 3), Questions 1

and 2 concerning the respondent's activity are intended to
check and if necessary amplify the information held b y schools
and statistical departments, in the case of both follow-up and tracer
studies. In the latter case, people w h o have left a n educational
establishment m a y quite possibly have continued their studies
in another one, either public or private. A n d these questions are
all the m o r e important in proportion to the p r e s u m e d
frequency of continuation of post-diploma/degree studies
a m o n g the population questioned.
Questions 3 to 9 relate to the occupational circumstances of the

former pupils. T h efirstquestions o n e m p l o y m e n t (Questions 3
to 8) concern their various forms of activity, but it is preferable
to include t h e m under the heading ' A C T I V I T Y ' before asking
detailed questions o n e m p l o y m e n t , for two reasons:
(a) the respondent is not yet too bored b y the questionnaire,
so there will be fewer 'no replies';
(b) y o u will not put the s a m e questions o n e m p l o y m e n t to
apprentices, self-employed persons, and w a g e employees.
So o n the basis of these questions o n ' A C T I V I T Y ' y o u can direct
t h e m to the parts of the questionnaire which respectively
concern t h e m (see Section 2).
This is not a rigid, unchangeable model; other presentations are

possible, grouping, for example, questions 4 and 5, and
questions 6 and 7. T h e wording should take into account the
4-14
MODULE N>4 : THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
meaning attached, in the country concerned, to the terms used;

such terms as 'wage employee' and 'employer' m a y be understood
in different w a y s in different countries. 'Employer' m a y for
example only refer to heads of big companies and not to the
head of a small workshop in the informal sector.
Similarly, Question 3 (military service) should be m a d e clear; it

could m e a n temporary compulsory military service
(conscription), or voluntary engagement in the a r m e d forces,
either for a specific period or as a career.
Lastly, it should be noted that Question 9 m a k e s it possible to

determine the unemployed section of the population, although
the term is not used; the usual definition of an unemployed
person is one w h o is not in w o r k and is seeking a job. If y o u put
the direct question "are y o u unemployed?" y o u are liable to
obtain affirmative replies from respondents w h o w o r k at h o m e
with their parents or w h o are apprentices (as is the case in
s o m e countries where former students b e c o m e apprentices
because they have failed to find a salaried job). A s it is worded
in the example, Question 9 is unambiguous.
More than one activity
In m a n y developing countries, a y o u n g person m a y have more

than one activity: wage-earning + helping a parent or relative;
wage-earning + self-employment (Question 8); a job while
studying; and so on. If such is the case in your country, the
questionnaire must be constructed in such a w a y as to allow for
these multiple activities.
But all of them are not equally important. Helping a parent or

relative m a y be occasional, if the respondent is a wage-earner.
Self-employment m a y be m o r e remunerative than a job as a low-
grade civil servant. But it is difficult, especially in a postal survey,
to categorize these activities in terms of principal activity and
secondary activity; h o w are y o u to k n o w h o w m u c h the respondent
earns from each of them? It can be equally difficult to obtain
reliable information on the time devoted to each of them; for
example, a civil servant will never admit that he spends half his
time running a shop! There are several solutions to this:
4-15
(a) Y o u can put the question directly, asking for the

' P R I N C I P A L A C T I V I T Y ' a n d specifying w h a t y o u m e a n b y
that (in terms of time spent, etc.), a n d recognizing the
limitations of the question .
(b) You can add a second question, ' S E C O N D A R Y ACTIVITY',

to Questions 4 to 8; you do not hope to get a hierarchy of
principal and secondary activities, but at least you will get
information on all the activities covered by the survey.
(c) Y o u can simply specify that m o r e than o n e reply m a y b e

given to the ' A C T I V I T Y ' questions ( m o r e than o n e b o x can b e
ticked).
In cases (a) a n d (b), the additional information requested o n

e m p l o y m e n t will enable y o u , a posteriori, to distinguish
b e t w e e n the nature of the different activities.
E x a m p l e 3: Activity question
W h a t is your activity on 15 December 1991?

(tick two boxes maximum)
Activity Reserved for

coding
1. I_l You are repeating your grade in the same school as in 1990 l_l
2. I _ I You are a pupil (or student) in another establishment I_I
2.1. What establishment? (name, address):
2.2. In what class and in what speciality?
3. I _ I You are doing your military service:

Since when? month year 19
4. I _ I You help one of your family in his or her work, but are not paid for it.
5. I _ I You help one of your family and are paid for it.
6. I _ I You are apprenticed to an employer.
7. I _ I You are a wage-earning employee.
8. I _ I You work for yourself.
9. I _ I Y o u are not working and y o u are looking for a job:
Since when? month ; year 19 |JJ |_|_|
T h e filter question
This present ' A C T I V I T Y ' part of the questionnaire has a
practical value also; it enables y o u to m a k e a distinction
b e t w e e n the different categories of y o u n g people. T h e
subsequent questions o n e m p l o y m e n t concern only
respondents w h o have replied in the affirmative to o n e of the
Questions 5 to 9; for the others, the questionnaire isfinished.T o
specify this, y o u can introduce a n additional question (a 'filter'
question) like this:
Filter question:
If you have ticked box 1 , 2 , 3 or 9, the questionnaire is

finished.CYoM can add: "Hand it back to the questioner" or
"Send it back to your school", or whatever is applicable).
If you have ticked boxes 4 , 5 or 7, go o n to question n...
If you have ticked box 6, go on to question n...
If you have ticked box 8, go on to question n...
E a c h of these instructions "go o n to question n..." directs the

respondent to specific questions concerning, for example:
For a n apprentice, w h a t sort of undertaking h e w o r k s for,
w h e r e h e w o r k s , h o w m a n y hours a w e e k , whether h e is
paid a n d if so h o w m u c h , if not h o w m u c h h e h a d to p a y his
employer, in cash or in kind, etc.
For the self-employed, not only w h a t they d o (plumbing, car
repairs, etc.) but also in w h a t sort of premises they w o r k (out
of doors, under a shelter, in premises with a n electricity
supply, etc.), h o w m a n y persons they e m p l o y , w h a t they
p a y t h e m , etc.
These examples are not limitative; they are intended to s h o w

y o u the value of this filter question. Y o u will not ask w a g e -
earners the s a m e questions as y o u ask apprentices or self-
e m p l o y e d persons.
Y o u are n o w ready to tackle the job description questions.

6 The characteristics of the respondent's
current employment
The preceding Chapter o n ' A C T W I T I E S ' enables you to

distinguish between two groups of young people: those w h o
are self-employed, and those w h o w o r k for an employer
(perhaps for the government, perhaps for a c o m p a n y or other
organization in the private sector, perhaps for an employer
w h o might be a m e m b e r of their family), whether they are
wage-earners or not. S o m e of the questions which can be put to
wage-workers are given in Example 4. The questions put to self-
employed respondents depend m u c h m o r e o n the particular
national context, o n the respective prevalence of activities that
are permitted, prohibited, or tolerated, and will not be dealt
with here. O f course, if very m a n y of your respondents are
likely to w o r k in the informal sector, you should prepare a
whole series of questions o n their activity (its field, the specific
w o r k involved, h o w and where it is performed, and so on), and
test such questions carefully before finalizing them.
The questions concerning wage-earning can be grouped in two

categories: those relating to the characteristics of the job held
(name of the job, qualification, classification, remuneration)
and those relating to the characteristics of the company or
organiza-tion for which the respondent works (sector of activity,
status, n u m b e r of employees). The latter are independent
variables (like the educational and sociological variables)
whose influence o n the type of employment the results of the
survey will attempt to assess.
In the following example, Questions 4 and 7 relate to working

conditions; they m a y be regarded as secondary questions in
relation to the characteristics of the job itself, but they neverthe-
less provide material for the qualitative assessment of the latter.
It all depends o n the objectives of the survey and the
population questioned. Question 7 can replace Question 6 if you
consider that the meaning of part-time is not immediately
comprehensible to the respondents.
4-19
You will note that questions about dates occur in all the sections of
the questionnaire (date of leaving school, date of commencement of
job-seeking, date of commencement of military service, date of
commencement of employment, and so on). This is an important
variable in tracer studies because the answers to these questions help
to evaluate how difficult it is to find a place in the labour market and
what happens to young people between unemployment and finding a
job, or between unemployment and under-employment. They can also
be useful subsequently if you question the same population again in
the course of a multi-visit survey.
4-20
Example 4: Questions for wage-earning employees
For wage-earning employees only
1. Date when you entered employment

Month. Year 19...
2. W h a t is the exact n a m e of your job?
(state precisely : maintenance electrician, book-keeper, etc..
3. W h a t is your category? (beginner, category 1, senior category, etc.):
4. D o you work at night?

I_l Always l_l Often
l_l Exceptionally l_l Never
5. D o you work on a production line?
I_l N O l_l YES
6. D o you work:
l_l Part time? I_l Fulltime?
7. H o w m a n y hours did you work last week?
8. W h a t w a s your w a g e last month?
9. In what category can your employer be placed?
I_I Farmer
I_I Craftsman
I_I Tradesman
I_I Pravate practitioner (doctor, lawyer, etc.)
I_I Private company
I_I State-controlled undertaking
I_I Local or national government department
10. W h a t is the main sector of activity of your employer?
(oil industry, building industry, textile industry, etc..)
11. Approximately h o w m a n y persons work for your employer?

I_I less than 10 11 to 50
II 51 to 200 I over 200
12. W h a t is the address of your place of work?..
Subsidiary question:
1 b.: H o w did youfindyour job? (through your school, your family, etc.,)
Questions on employment: Further remarks
Chapter 6 gives some examples of essential questions adapted to

tracer study of school leavers conducted shortly after they have left
school (usually less than a year). If the period of reference (see
M o d u l e 1) is longer, t w o or three years for example, or in the
case of longitudinal studies (i.e. multi-visit surveys in which
y o u n g people are first questioned shortly after they leave
school a n d then again several years later) this information o n
e m p l o y m e n t is insufficient, for it relates only to the job held at
the time of the survey.
T h e succession of jobs held is of prime importance for a tracer

study; not only does it throw light o n the p h e n o m e n a of
occupational mobility, but also a n d m o r e fundamentally it
reveals the whole spectrum of possible uses to which education
can b e put, a n d the relationships between education, training
and occupational experience. Furthermore, it m a k e s it possible
to evaluate the real impact of a given type of education o n
access to employment, because depending o n the situation of
the labour market m a n y first jobs simply reflect passing
circumstances. W e shall revert to this point in M o d u l e 6; for the
m o m e n t w e are concerned with detenrtining the form of the
questionnaire.
It is not easy to record a chronological sequence of events, the

m o r e so if the questionnaire is administered through the post.
In the course of several years, a n individual m a y have
successively experienced periods of inactivity, u n e m p l o y m e n t ,
under-employment a n d full e m p l o y m e n t , or even periods of
training. It is therefore necessary (a) first of all to clarify the
chronology of these different events as accurately as possible,
a n d then (b) to deal with e m p l o y m e n t circumstances alone.
T h e section o n 'ACTIVITIES' (Chapter 5) can again serve as a

guide for the first phase.
T h e following table concerns a two-year period (1989 and 1990)

with three-month sequences (1T...4T). W e could just as well
4-22
MODULE IT4 : THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
have taken a longer period (3 or 4 years) and shorter sequences

(1 month). The table must be adapted to the form of the survey
(postal or through interviews) and, of course, to the country
and population sector concerned (especially rural), as well as to
social and cultural factors relating to the season of the year
(rainy season, m o n s o o n season, etc.).
A s it stands, this table takes account of the utility of this

chronology in identifying periods of employment, it being
borne in mind (and m a d e clear to the respondents) that the
different circumstances are not mutually exclusive (there can be
employment + training, salaried employment + helping a
parent or relative, etc.).
4-23
Put two crosses (x) to indicate the period for which:
< 1989 > < 1990 >

IT 2T 3T 4T IT 2T 3T 4T
1. You were in training
2. You were not working and not looking for a job x x
3. You were doing your military service
4. You were helping a parent or relative in his

or her work x x
5. You were apprenticed to an employer
6. You were a wage-earner
7. You were self-employed
1T = 1st three-month period

2 T = 2nd three-month period
3T = 3rd three-month period
4-24
MODULE hP4 : THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
This table contains a great deal of information. It enables you to

establish the average periods of unemployment, employment,
etc., or the 'profiles' of access to salaried employment. In this
example, self-employment began 15 months after leaving
school and was preceded by a six-month period of wage
employment.
But the coding of this table is tricky. You have to transform each
of the periods defined between two crosses [x x]. For
instance, the period in wage employment (Question 6) runs
from the fourth quarter of 1989 to the second quarter of 1990. If
you do not know the exact months, you adopt the convention
of taking the mid-month dates (15 November 1989 to 15
November 1990). The survey software will transform these
dates into a duration of six months. The calculation would
obviously be more precise if the time-sequence were expressed
in months instead of in quarters, but this is sometimes
materially difficult (in this example it would mean a 24-column
table). In practice, this type of table often serves mainly to
identify the different employment circumstances manually: the
total number of jobs held, those held for longest, etc.
After this preliminary phase, you are able to tell the respondent
(or thefieldworker) which circumstances you want to k n o w
more about. Of course, you cannot ask for a wealth of details on
each of them, but simply the information you consider most
relevant (e.g. the nature of the job, the sector of activity, the
number of hours worked per week). These questions, which
come under phase (b), can be as follows:
4-25
Using the table which you have just filled up, you are n o w going to precise your
activities during:
A . Y o u r first training period (line lof the above table; 1st period from the 1st trimester (1T)
in 1989):
1.1. N u m b e r of training hours:

1.2. W a s this training free of charge? (tick the appropriate answer) I_I N O I_I YES
1.3. W h i c h speciality did y o u learn?
1.4. Did y o u get a certificate? I_l N O l_l Y E S If so, w h i c h one?.
B . Possibly, your 2 n d training period (line 1 on the above table):
2.1. N u m b e r of training hours:

2.2. W a s this training free of charge? (tick the appropriate answer) I_I N O I_I YES
2.3. W h i c h speciality did y o u learn?
2.4. Did y o u get a certificate? I_l N O l_l Y E S
If so, w h i c h one?
C . Your 1st period as a wage-earner (line 6 on the preceding table):
1.1. M a i n activity of the enterprise in w h i c h y o u have w o r k e d

1.2. W h a t w a s your job w h e n y o u started working in this enterprise?
1.3. W h a t w a s your w a g e w h e n y o u started working in this enterprise?
1.4. If y o u are still with the s a m e employer (or in the s a m e enterprise) o n the survey's date
(1st January 1991), is it the s a m e as the o n e y o u have presently.?^ I _I N O l_ I YES
1.5. If y o u are n o longer with this employer (or this enterprise) o n the survey's date (1st
January 1991), w h a t w a s your w a g e w h e n y o u left?
D . Possibly, your longest period as a wage-earner (line 6 on the preceding table:)
1.1. M a i n activity of the enterprise in w h i c h y o u have w o r k e d

1.2. W h a t w a s your job w h e n y o u started working in this enterprise?
1.3. W h a t w a s your w a g e w h e n y o u started working in this enterprise?
1.4. If y o u are still with the s a m e employer (or in the s a m e enterprise) o n the survey's
date (1st January 1991), is it the s a m e as the o n e y o u have presently.? I _ I N O I _ I Y E S
1.5. If y o u are n o longer with this employer (or this enterprise) o n the survey's date
(1st January 1991), w h a t w a s our w a g e w h e n y o u left
4-26
MODULE tf 4 : THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
O f course, you can also put other types of question, or

questions concerning the type of activity in which self-
employed respondents are engaged. These are just examples
demonstrating the pedagogic utility of phase (a), and will enable
you to get on to c o m m o n ground with the respondent: the
chronology of his activities.
4-27
Coding the questions
This stage of the survey will be dealt with further in M o d u l e 5.

T h e questions m u s t be coded before the survey is conducted, so
as to ensure that the replies will b e usable. Y o u will either
create the codes yourself, or in the case of questions o n
e m p l o y m e n t , training, or parents' occupation adopt existing
nomenclatures (a nomenclature is a code grouping several sub-
categories; e.g. code 1 = senior executives, 1.1 = m a n a g e m e n t
executives, 1.2 = sales executives, etc.).
Closed questions and open-ended questions are coded differently:
Closed questions (those with a 'yes' or 'no' answer to a given

number of possibilities, all of which are specified in the
questionnaire) are obviously the easiest to code. For example code
[1] for Y E S and code [2] for N O .
In the case of open-ended questions (those whose replies are

written on the questionnaire) you have to choose the codes or
nomenclatures to be used. To code questions on employment, you
must adopt some or all of the existing nomenclatures, which you
can usually find in the Census Office, the Ministry of Labour, the
Planning Ministry or the Ministry of Social Affairs. Y o u obviously
cannot enumerate all the information on the type of education
and educational establishments in the questionnaire, and you
have to assign a code to them. A code must be created if none
exists.
So far as possible, the number of open-ended questions should be

limited, because their coding takes time and requires skill.
Again so far as possible, the questions should b e coded at the

s a m e time as the questionnaire is constructed (this is called
'pre-codingO. There is a practical reason for this: the codes will
b e useful to thefieldworkers in the course of the survey,
avoiding off-beat or inappropriate replies.
MODULE If 4 : THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
A final remark: the questions concerning e m p l o y m e n t a n d

sector of activity m u s t be coded in accordance with existing
nomenclatures in other e m p l o y m e n t surveys or censuses,
otherwise y o u will have n o possibility of subsequent
comparison a n d your study will be devalued. There is n o need
to adopt these nomenclatures as they stand (they usually
comprise several hundred different sub-categories); y o u can of
course adapt t h e m to the population to b e questioned.
If, for example, you are going to question former students, your
nomenclature must be detailed for all high-level and middle-level
jobs, and relatively restricted for jobs requiring no qualifications
(e.g. unskilled labour), because it m a y be safely assumed that only
a small proportion of the respondents hold the latter kind of job. In
this context, a former student employed as an unskilled worker, in
whatever sector of activity, m a y be considered as under-employed.
Do notforgetthat in addition to the codes corresponding to the

different possible replies, allowance must systematically be made for
two others: one corresponding to 'no reply' (O), and the other
corresponding to questions which, for some individuals are
inapplicable (X). For instance, the question on military service will be
coded Xforgirls in countries where they are not liableformilitary
service. This will facilitate your task when you come to processing the
results.
4-29
Note on
IQ questions of opinion
M a n y questionnaires contain questions of opinion or attitude

such as "what do you think of the training you have received?" or
"does your job correspond to what you were trained for?". This
looks like an easy w a y of obtaining directly from the
respondents the solution to the problem of the relationships
between training and employment. Actually, it is totally
illusory and dangerous.
It is illusory because there is n o guarantee that the opinion

expressed is well-founded, for it depends o n a whole context of
which y o u k n o w little or nothing. This is particularly true of
young people's expectations, which are related just as m u c h to
their family and social circumstances as to their qualifications
and their jobs. For instance, a graduate in economics m a y be
satisfied with his job as an administrative secretary because
what matters to him is the possibility of supporting his family
on his salary, even if his salary is not very high; whereas
another respondent in the s a m e circumstances will state that
he is not satisfied because he has not yet been appointed as
department head like his father or his uncle, or because he h a d
hoped for a grant to study abroad. Other examples could easily
be cited.
It is dangerous because the opinions expressed are subjective,

and d o not enable y o u to define unequivocal criteria; y o u alone
have to define such criteria in the light of the hard facts y o u
gather. Suppose that y o u conduct your survey in the months
following a strike of students claiming an increase in their
grants: depending o n whether or not their claim has been
satisfied, it is very likely that their opinions concerning their
studies and their employment will differ profoundly. At most,
what you will get is an estimate of your minister's popularity -
and that is not what is wanted!
Experience shows that it is not easy to persuade people of this

illusion and this danger. There is a very strong, if not natural,
tendency to put questions of opinion. W e shall suggest t w o
which m a y be put safely, though with circumspection.
4-30
MODULE N'A : THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Example 1
Instead of a question of the kind "does your job correspond to what you
were trained for?", try this:
In your present job, has your education (specify here in full the type of education
to which you refer) been useful from the point of view of:
> T h e theoretical principles you were taught
- Not at all
- Not very
- Very
- Extremely
> T h e practical work you did:
- Not at all
- Not very
- Very
- Extremely
> T h e certificate/diploma/degree you obtained:
- Not at all
- Not very
- Very
- Extremely
This will give you a more circumstantial reply, but you should m a k e use
of it only relatively, that is to say set it against the characteristics of the
job occupied and the sociological background of the respondent. In
short, treat it like an independent variable (see para.1) w h o s e
distribution you attempt to explain in the light of the respondent's
circumstances, and not as an indicator of maladjustment of the
education received to the job held. For instance, w e m a y a s s u m e that
the possession of a degree had little influence on being employed by a
parent or relative, but w a s 'very' or 'extremely' useful in securing
employment as a civil servant.
This example clearly shows the utility of relating the answer to

this kind of question to the respondent's activities.
4-31
In the analysis of employment, a distinction is sometimes m a d e between

'stop-gap' and 'definitive' employment. Stop-gap employment is a job
enabling the respondent to survive, as it were, and accepted by him even if
it bears no relation to the training he has received. H e has to live, and support
his family, while waiting for a job to turn up that corresponds to his speciality
and his level of training or education.
T h e distinction is an important one, because it m a k e s it possible to nuance

c o m m e n t s on the respondents' activities such as: "admittedly, 15 per cent of
graduates of the Higher Institute of Law work in blue-collar jobs, but these
are stop-gap jobs and are very likely to be temporary. But h o w can w e
distinguish between stop-gap and definitive (or lasting) employment?
True, the analysis of employment over a long period (see Chapter 7) enables
you to m a k e this distinction (the first jobs, lasting a short time and requiring
low qualifications, m a y be considered as stop-gap jobs, especially if they are
followed by jobs of a very different kind). But this analysis is scarcely possible
if the ex-pupils are questioned less than a year after the completion of their
training. A question of opinion (or attitude) m a y then be of help; for example:
D o you regard your present job as:
[1]A stop-gap job?

[2] A definitive job?
T h e replies to this question must be interpreted in relation to other data, and

in no case directly. Never say, for example: 2 5 per cent of respondents are
in stop-gap jobs a n d 7 5 per cent are in definitive jobs.
Y o u must first identify the stop-gap jobs of graduates and non-

graduates; the expectations of the latter m a y fall short of those of the former.
Y o u can also discover whether stop-gap jobs are not simply the least well-
paid jobs; one always hopes for a higher w a g e .
C o m p a r e these stop-gap jobs with the sociological backgrounds of the

respondents. A student w h o s e family enjoys a high social and professional
status will more often consider his first job as a stop-gap, pending access to
the social status to which he lays claim (see above).
If you bear these points in mind (and others too) you will b e led to differentiate
these replies and assess the extent to which they involve value judgements.
MODULE AP 4 : THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
W h a t is the distinction between:
> A dependent variable and an independent

variable?
> A n open question and a closed question?
> W h a t is the purpose of coding the questions?

If you have any difficulty in answering these questions, refer
back to the corresponding chapters of this Module.
4-33
MODULE 5
Implementing the survey
by Jean Lamoure
IISII iff International Institute for Educational Planning

MODULE
Implementing the survey
1 he methodological preparation of the follow-up and tracer studies

has been dealt with in the preceding Modules, and this Module 5 is
mainly concerned with the preparation of the survey and the
conditions under which it is conducted in the field. The Chart on
page 5-8 gives an idea of the complexity of this operation. But have
no fear; this complexity is only apparent, and you will have no
difficulty in sorting things out if you apply a minimum of
organisation to the task, following the steps in their proper sequence
and devoting sufficient time to the task.
After reading this Module, you should be able to organize

the overall planning of a survey, in particular with
reference to:
T h e sequence of the different stages of preparation.
Finalising the coding plan.
Conducting the trial survey.
Recruiting thefieldworkers.
T h e coding of the questionnaires, a n d the supervision of

this task.
Contents
Chapter 2 The different stages of the technical
preparation. 5.7
Chapter 3 Heightening awareness of the survey 5-12
Chapter 4 The problem of thefieldworkers 5-13
Chapter 5 Coding 5-17
Chapter 6 Afinalnote: the central question of time 5-18

Introduction
A survey can begin w h e n its form has been established and

w h e n its objectives have been denned (Module 2); including, of
course, the selection of the sample (Module 3) and the
construction of the questionnaire (Module 4). The Chart of the
technical organisation of a survey on page 5-8 shows h o w a survey
is organised and h o w the the first two stages of its
implementation fit into the overall operation. In Module 5 w e
shall simply add some further details concerning the coding of
the questionnaires (see Chapter 4). However, the survey still
has to be actually conducted in the field, and for this to be
properly done, some technical and organisational precautions
have to be taken. The main precautions are set forth in what
follows.
Furthermore, there are certain administrative constraints which

have to be taken into account at the outset. Insofar as they are
closely linked with particular circumstances, it is not possible to
draw u p a standard list of them; but before conducting the
survey, you should m a k e sure that:
The necessary budget is available, allowing for the costs
involved in the remuneration and travel expenses of the
field workers, the compiling and printing of the
questionnaires and coding instructions, the coding itself and
the data-processing of the survey (hardware, software,
personnel), and the printing of the results and your reports
and tables. Allow an extra margin of 10 per cent to 20 per
cent for contingencies (printing of additional questionnaires,
vehicle running and repair costs, meetings, etc.).
You have all the necessary guarantees and authorizations for

obtaining the lists of pupils/students and their addresses,
recruitingfieldworkers, and incurring the expenditure
necessary for the survey. You should make sure that you
have the requisite freedom of initiative and hierarchical
authority to conduct the survey, particularly if several
government departments or educational establishments
have to be called upon.
5-5
TRACER STUDIES
The costs of a follow-up survey vary considerably; they depend to a

large extent on the technical conditions of implementation, according
to whether you use the services of a specialized institute (public or
private) or whether you rely on the logistics of your ministry (paper,
printing, the use of students and/or teachers asfieldworkers, etc.).
Pragmatically, it is advisable to approach the relevant government
departments (e.g. those responsible for the census, statistics and
planning) as early as possible for information concerning average
costs prevailing in your country. These material constraints have
repercussions on the actual objectives of the survey (see Module 2).
These matters obviously h a v e to be settled before the technical

preparation of the survey. W h e r e the latter is concerned, w e
shall examine in the following order the problems connected
with:
T h e different stages of preparation.

T h e recruitment and supervision offieldworkers a n d
other personnel.
T h e coding of questionnaires.
T h e checking of the data collected.
Do not hesitate to refer as often as necessary to the organisation chart

on page 5-8. Whatever the type of follow-up or tracer studies you are
engaged in, the steps follow one another in the same order.
5-6
T h e different stages of the technical preparation
The technical preparation begins with the preparation of the

lists of y o u n g people to be questioned (see organization chart,
stage 2.1) and the construction of the questionnaire (stage 2.2).
It continues with the shaping u p of the lists, the nomenclatures
necessary for coding, and the coding itself. At this level, the
technical preparation and the methodological preparation are
scarcely dissociable. For each of these tasks, m a k e sure that the
documents are reproduced in several copies, one of which will
go into the records file (stage 5.5) w h i c h serves as the ' m e m o r y
bank' of your survey. H a n g o n to your documents, but
distribute as m a n y copies as are needed a m o n g your
colleagues.
In a n u m b e r of cases it will be necessary to test your

questionnaire (and your coding instructions) by m e a n s of a trial
survey (stages 3.1 to 3.3) conducted a m o n g a very small n u m b e r
of y o u n g people. This will enable y o u to verify:
T h e reliability of the address lists.

T h e comprehension by the people questioned of the
questions asked.
T h e exhaustiveness of your classification and coding.
M o r e generally, the relevance of your questions to the
objectives of your survey.
A trial survey is a survey in miniature, so take care to choose varied

situations; do not confine yourself to questioning two former
students working in your department, or the young technical school
leaver recruited by your carpenter. Time spent seeking out a former
pupil in his distant village can provide valuable information (e.g. on
the real cost and duration of travel, on ways of contacting people for
survey purposes).
5-7
Chart of the technical organization of a survey
L Request (from Ministry, etc.)
STAGE 1
I
INTERPRETATION
1.1 definition of objectives
1.2 statement of the problem,

and assumptions
1.3 documentary research
2.1 details of population

to be questioned
PREPARATION OF 2.2 questionnaire

STAGE 2 THE SURVEY
2.4 CODING PLAN
2.3 codes, nomenclatures J
3.1 implementation
STAGE 3
TRIAL SURVEY 3.2 processing of results
r,recruitment
tl
3.3 conclusions
3.4 Final shaping up
| of survey | || of questionnaire
personnelli U and coding plan
counting of questionnaires,
STAGE 4 FULL SCALE SURVEY & checking
" ~*\
5.1 coding
STAGE 5
"recruitment^,
DATA PROCESSING 5.2 data acquisition
5.3 corrections }
i of coders f 5.4 DATA-BANK 5.5 R E C O R D S FILE
RESEARCH
PROGRAMMES TABLES
5-8
MODULE W 5 : IMPLEMENTING THE SURVEY
This trial survey is excellent training for thefieldworkers, (see

Chapter 3). Even if you already have s o m e experience of field
w o r k , conduct a few interviews yourself; this is the only w a y of
really familiarising yourself with the practical difficulties likely
to be encountered.
If it is to be any use, it must be carried to its final stage: the

coding of the questionnaires a n d the preparation of the tables
of results; or at least s o m e simple counting of the principal
replies. If it is to be effective, d o not hesitate to be critical, even
if it m e a n s profoundly modifying your entire project. T h e trial
survey is a feasibility study, a n d if carried to completion it
guarantees the success of your survey at lowest cost.
Resist pressure from your superiors, or from those who asked the
study in the first place. They rarely appreciate these technical
constraints and always want results as quickly as possible. The time
you devote to this trial survey will be widely made up when you come
to conducting the full-scale survey (see stage 4 of the organisation
chart).
O n c e your questionnaire and your coding plan have been

finalized, and the materials a n d logistics have been assured
(questionnaires, field workers' instructions, vehicles, petrol
vouchers, etc.), y o u can conduct your full-scale survey. It
should pose n o problems if it is rigorously m a n a g e d .
Depending o n the area and the n u m b e r of persons covered, and

o n your resources and the competence of your inspectors, y o u
m a y opt for a m o r e or less centralized m a n a g e m e n t ; to facilitate
control, each questionnaire should have a space reserved for:
The identification of thefieldworker and the inspector.

Their signatures.
T h e date of interview and control.
The observations of the field worker and the inspector.
Obviously, an identification (serial number)
corresponding to that o n your lists of former pupils.
T h e completed questionnaires should be returned to y o u
5-9
TRACER STUDIES
regularly and as soon as possible, not only for verification but

also to avoid them getting lost. Whenever possible, make
copies (see stage 5.5) and file them carefully; you will thereby
save time and money.
The whole of the above organization is based on the example of
a face-to-face interview; this is the most complex form of
survey. In the case of a postal survey, the various stages are
similar. W e will make only a few specific remarks:
Each questionnaire must be accompanied by a letter

explaining the survey and its objectives and urging the
recipient to respond to it. It is up to you to decide what
'letter-head' and 'signature' will be most persuasive;
perhaps the Minister, perhaps the principal of the school
which the recipient formerly attended. It is also up to you to
circumnavigate any problems of precedence that m a y arise.
The identification number appearing at the beginning of

each questionnaire m a y be a factor of non-response; even if
the questions are commonplace, the individual m a y wonder
to what use his replies will be put (informing the tax
authorities of his salary or of amounts he earns 'on the side').
D o what you can to break d o w n this reticence. A phrase
such as "CONFIDENTIAL QUESTIONNAIRE: the information
provided will remain anonymous" m a y suffice. In some
countries there is a special legislation governing surveys;
state your authorization explicitly.
Except in countries covering a large area, or comprising

autonomous regions or states, the administration of the
survey and the return of the questionnaires will be centralised.
To obtain the m a x i m u m response rate, you will have to

send out the questionnaire several times. The second
dispatch is usually sent out to non-respondents three weeks
after the first, and sometimes a third is sent two weeks after
the second. A n accurate record of replies must therefore be
kept.
Accompany your questionnaire by a stamped and addressed

return envelope. To reduce the cost, try toobtain a special
rate - or a free rate - from the Post Office. This is all the more
MODULE ffS : IMPLEMENTING THE SURVEY
necessary in that the recipients sometimes remove the stamp

and d o not return the questionnaire!
The main problem is the validity of the addresses.

Whenever possible, it is better to send the questionnaire to
the address of the respondent's parents rather than to that of
the respondent himself. If need be, send it to both
addresses, so that any shortcomings in the postal service can
be compensated by family or community solidarity.
5-11
3 Heightening awareness of the survey
T h o u g h the response rate obviously depends o n the validity of

the mailing list, provision should nevertheless be m a d e for a
campaign to heighten people's awareness of the survey and to
encourage them to respond to it, whatever the form of
questioning (by mail or face-to-face). This can be done in
various ways: through press releases, radio and television
announcements, contacts with associations of former pupils,
etc.
Word your message clearly. Remember the case of a radio

announcement inviting former pupils to visit their school to respond
to a survey on the 'placement'of young people. They thought it
applied only to unemployed persons, and most of those who were in
employment did not turn up. The survey was a flop.
There are other w a y s of heightening people's awareness. For

instance, y o u can organise a contest with a prize for the first
hundred responses. O r y o u can arrange for the results of the
survey to be published in the press. It depends o n w h a t your
resources are, but you m u s t use your imagination too. Here w e
see the advantage of a follow-up survey; it is easier (and m o r e
fruitful) to interest pupils in a future survey while they are still
at school than after they have entered the working world.
5-12
The problem of field workers
Mostfollow-upsurveys make use offieldworkers. They are

among the essential elements of the success of your survey, for
the number and quality of the replies depends on them. Care
must therefore be taken in their recruitment, training, and the
control of their work.
Recruitment.
Generally speaking, if you are not accustomed to recruiting

field workers, you are advised to seek help from the
administrative departments that have already had recourse to
this type of manpower (Office of Statistics, Bureau of the
Census, etc. ). If your budget allows it, you may sub-contract
this part of the work to one or other of these departments,
provided that the terms of the contract are clearly specified, in
particular the extent of their obligations, which m a y range from
the mere selection offieldworkers to their control in the field
and the return of the completed questionnaires. M a k e
provision also for restrictive clauses and penalties if deadlines
are not met. As a rule, such sub-contracting, even to public
bodies, is costly, and should be reduced to a minimum.
If the young people to be questioned are spread over a very

large area, it is advisable to recruit teams offieldworkers in
different localities so as to limit transport costs and, in some
cases, to make allowance for regional language differences.
Each team offieldworkers will be headed by an inspector
responsibleforthefinalquality of the questionnaires.
There is no 'standard profile' of afieldworker. The work can be

done equally well by students, teachers, government
employees or retired persons. The inspectors, on the other
hand, must be very carefully selected; they must have the
necessary authority, if the need arises, to require afieldworker
to do his work over again or to suggest to you that he be
replaced. A senior staff member of an educational
5-13
TRACER STUDIES
establishment or of a local department of the Ministry of

Education is eminently suitable for this job. So far as is
possible, recruit people y o u k n o w .
Training
E v e n if you have recourse to a specialized b o d y and to semi-

professional field workers, y o u have to allow for two days of
training, apart from the previous training of inspectors.
T h e purpose of this training is to get them to understand the

significance of the questions they will ask. They have to acquire
a sufficient knowledge of the education a n d / o r training
system (schools, streams, certificates) together with the
principal nomenclatures used for jobs and sectors of activity.
This training must therefore be practical, and based o n d o w n -
to-earth exercises.
Training in interviewing techniques is less important; students

of psychology or sociology d o not necessarily m a k e the best
field workers. T h e main thing is the understanding, by the field
workers (and of course b y the inspectors), of the objectives of
the survey; and ultimately their motivation. Obviously, y o u
have to instruct the field workers not to induce replies; they
must remain neutral. In surveys of this type, the role of the field
workers is not to interpret, but to inform; they must confine
themselves to helping the respondent to understand the
questions put. This neutrality can be assured by taking care in
the construction of the questionnaire and eliminating
ambiguous questions.
Control
A golden rule:fieldworkers are paid only o n the basis of

correctly completed questionnaires. It isfirstof all the task of the
inspectors to m a k e a first check of the questionnaires before
handing them over to y o u forfinalacceptance. Only after this
double check are thefieldworkers paid. Even if it involves
s o m e extra cost, it is necessary for the inspector to interview
s o m e of the people w h o have already been questioned, for
purposes of verification. This has a two-fold advantage: it
MODULE ff 5 : IMPLEMENTING THE SURVEY
checks the w o r k of thefieldworkers on the spot, and it also

contributes to the training of the inspectors, w h o are better able
to judge the quality of the questionnaires.
Last recommendations
T o facilitate the follow-up and control offieldworkers,
establish an 'itinerary sheef for each of them. This should
comprise at least the full details of the n a m e s and addresses of
the persons to be questioned, the dates of their visits (including
fruitless visits), reports of w h a t steps they take to trace the
people they wish to interview, and travel expenses if these are
not included in their remuneration for the completed
questionnaire (see section 3).
Provide each field worker with the necessary accreditation.

This must be dated, and valid only for the duration of the
survey.
In the case of a survey covering a large n u m b e r of former

pupils, you will certainly need a n u m b e r of checkers to file the
questionnaires and administer the survey. They should be
selected w h e n recruiting and training thefieldworkers.
5-15
CL
<
X
5 Coding
D o not wait until the end of the survey before concerning

yourself with the coding of the questionnaires or, of course, the
processing of the data gathered. However carefully you m a y
have conducted your trial survey, coding problems can arise.
By beginning to code w h e n you have, for example, one tenth of
the completed questionnaires, you will still be able to correct
any possible errors.
Unless your survey covers a small number of individuals (in

which case you or one of your colleagues can do this) you will
have to recruit coding personnel. The remarks concerning the
recruitment and supervision offieldworkers apply also to
coders.
There are not m a n y questions coded on the basis of

nomenclatures (of jobs, qualifications or sectors of activity), but
they deserve close attention, especially in the early stages,
because the attribution of a code is partly subjective, whatever
the level of detail of the nomenclatures. There are different
lines of approach: specializing some coders on these questions,
adopting a double coding (using two separate coders) to
identify differences of interpretation, by eliminating general
categories (e.g., under 'jobs', such terms as 'other service
personnel' or 'other skilled workers').
The main thing is that every somewhat particular

interpretation of a reply be coded as and when it occurs, so that
all similar cases m a y be treated in the same way.
Coding is generally done on the questionnaire itself, to avoid a

proliferation of documents and facilitate controls. Boxes have
therefore to be foreseen (see examples in Module 4).
Once the coding is completed, you come to the data-processing

of the replies. In some cases, this can be done at the same time
as coding, at least for questions which do not need interpreting
5-16
MODULE hP5 : IMPLEMENTING THE SURVEY
(closed questions, of which examples were given in Module 4).
But your task is not finished. Y o u still have to 'dean u p ' the
data and cany out checksforcoherence for which provision w a s
m a d e w h e n you established your coding plan. For example, the
replies to the questions o n 'activity' must correspond to similar
information in other parts of the questionnaire. A person w h o
replied 'wage employmenf to one of the questions o n
employment must havetickedthe question 'activity'
accordingly. Y o u also have to m a k e the first computerized
counts to check that everything has been recorded. This is a
long and meticulous task that will oblige you to refer back to
the questionnaires m a n y times. Here again, foresee sufficient
time : you will widely gain from it w h e n the results c o m e out.
5-17
oc
6
ai
< A final note: the central question of time

X
To conduct a survey under satisfactory conditions, you must

take your time and work fast at the same time. This is not
necessarily a contradictory counsel. Y o u have to devote the
requisite time to its preparation (the first three stages on the
chart), and then work out a methodology, and assemble the
relevant documents. The operation itself, in thefield,is
performed in a shorter time so as to mobilize thefieldworkers
to the full and also for methodological reasons: in the space of a
few months, circumstances m a y change and your results will
then no longer be homogeneous.
The technical preparation of the survey is therefore very

important, and must be precisely planned in anticipation of
each stage, whose duration has been previously determined.
This schedule must be adhered to as closely as possible not only
to meet your Minister's request without delay, but also to
enable you to set aside the time necessary for your main task:
the analysis of the results.
Recapulative question
After reading this Module, you should be able to answer the
following question:
^ What are the different aspects of implementing a

follow-up or tracer study?
If you have difficulty in answering this question, refer back to

the corresponding chapters of Module 5.
5-18
MODULE 6
Analysis of results
by Jean Lamoure
IHSII i f International Institute for Educational Planning

MODULE
Analysis of results
^ou have now completed your survey; thefinalchecks and corrections

have been made, and you have a ready-to-use computerized set of data.
The analysis of the results of your tracer study can begin. Here again,
time is of essence. It would be a pity if the efforts made so far did not
rapidly produce results, especially as the minister is breathing down
your neck. But you must not expedite this analysis in a hasty and
peremptory manner.
This module will help you to organize your w o r k and to

reconcile speed with accuracy. It will enable y o u to satisfy your
minister and at the s a m e time meet your o w n legitimate research
objectives.
After reading this module, you should be able to plan your

orders for statistical tables and analyze the figures, making
a distinction between:
Frequency distribution and cross-tabulation
C o m m e n t s o n the tables and verifications of assumptions.

Contents
Chapter 2 Providing r a w information 6-7
Initial counts 6-7
The basic tables 6-9
Specific tables 6-15
Chapter 3 Further studies 6-17
Descriptive studies 6-17
Specific studies 6-18

It is always difficult to resist the temptation to discover the
results of a survey b y 'browsing randomly' through the replies;
to explore this or that aspect of training-employment relations,
the u n e m p l o y m e n t rate a m o n g w o m e n graduates, or the
salaries of executives in the private sector, as your intuition or
your particular interests lead you. This is a natural tendency,
for y o u are in possession of unpublished information that has
usually never before been brought to light. Such browsing is
not only natural, but also useful; it is a n integral part of any
research activity. But it cannot be allowed to last too long, for
y o u have a deadline to meet, your minister, or whoever
requested the study, is waiting, and y o u must organize your
task of processing the results. T h e best w a y of doing this is to
revert to the operational objectives of the survey and establish a
list o frequency distribution tables and cross-tabulations which
will allow y o u to verify your assumptions.
Most of these terms are already familiar to you; if you have

followed the preceding Modules, you have already prepared a
document containing your objectives set against your principal
assumptions. Your processing task consists of sorting out the
data gathered, either by simply counting the replies to each
question (frequency distribution) or by relating the replies to t w o
or m o r e questions to one another (cross-tabulation). There are a
n u m b e r of other methods of analysing the results of a survey:
factor analysis, path analysis, etc. T h e development of
information technology has m a d e them easier to use, but their
interpretation remains complex for anyone other than a statis-
tician. Cross-tabulations can serve your purpose just as well.
A survey questionnaire usually comprises a few dozen questions, so it

is important to select precisely what information you wish to have,
otherwise you are liable to be submerged very quickly beneath piles of
tables and listings, most of which you do not need.
The analysis and interpretation of data takes time. Unless you

do not have to produce results by a given date, you will have to
supply the information required as soon as possible to the
person w h o requested it, and you have to justify the
expenditure you were authorized to incur. This is w h y the
present module is centred on two aspects: providing raw
information and studies.
By conforming to this organisation, you can soon satisfy your

minister (or whoever m a d e the original request) and proceed
methodically with the more thorough analysis of the results:
The information aspect corresponds to the production of a

series of tables meeting the operational objectives;
unemployment among former students or the employment
of former technical school trainees, for example.
The studies aspect corresponds to the quest for elements of

explanation of these situations: work on the former aspect
wl help you in dealing with the latter.
Providing raw information
2 Initial counts
First you have to know the replies to each of your questions.
Computer specialists are familiar with this task, they perform it
spontaneously to check data entry. It is simply counting u p the
number of answers of each kind to each question:
Q U E S T I O N 4. Did you sit the examination?

1.NO
YES Did you pass? 2. YES
3. NO
The frequency distribution gives you:
Q U E S T I O N 4. Did you sit the examination?

1.NO 125 4%
2. YES 1350 43%
3. N O 1650 53%
Questionnaires 3125 100%
This information enables you to check whether the people w h o

responded to your survey possess, where this criterion is
concerned, the same characteristics as the total population: 96
per cent of the persons questioned sat the examination, and of
them 45 per cent passed (43/96). It is therefore a necessary
item of information, but 'poor' in relation to your objectives.
6-7
Let us take another example: for the question "YJhat was your
activity on 15 December 1990?" (under ' A C T I V I T I E S ' , w h i c h y o u
examined in M o d u l e 4), y o u obtain the following frequency
distribution:
1. You are repeating your grade in the s a m e school as in 1989 421 13%
2 . You are a pupil (or student) in another establishment 118 4%
3. You are not working and you are looking for a job 1 253 40%
4 . You are doing your military service 0 0%
5. You help o n e of your family in his or her work, but you are
not paid for it 752 24%
6. You help one of your family and you are paid for it 430 14%
7 . You are apprenticed to an employer 18 0%
8. You are a wage-earning employee 129 4%
9. You work for yourself 4 0%
Questionnaires 3125 100%
This frequency distribution gives m u c h m o r e information: 40 per

cent of the y o u n g people questioned are u n e m p l o y e d , not
m u c h m o r e than half of t h e m are in e m p l o y m e n t (codes 5 + 6 +
7+ 8 + 9 = 42 per cent), a m o n g w h o m nearly half (24 per cent out
of the 42 per cent) help their family without being paid, a n d
self-employment (Code 9) accounts for only a tiny proportion.
If you sum up the percentages, they come to less than 100 per cent,
because the computer programme takes no account of anything under
1 per cent (Codes 4,7 and 9); but there are indeed 100 per cent of
replies. This is of little importance; in a survey of this type, one
cannot hope for an accuracy to the nearest 1 per cent.
A s w e have already said, the 'SITUATION' question is

important ( M o d u l e 4). This w a s easy to demonstrate, but the
s a m e is true of all the questions pertaining to e m p l o y m e n t .
MODULE W 6 : ANAL YSIS OF RESULTS
The frequency distribution for the question "State the exact

nature of your job" (a question which naturallyfiguresin every
survey; see Module 4) will give you the list of all the jobs held
by former pupils, and their relative frequency. This question
was coded in detail using occupational nomenclatures specific
to each country; you willfirstseek the frequency distribution on
the most detailed code, i.e. a list that can run to several hundred
different jobs (see M o d u l e 4, Chapter 8 and Module 5,
Chapters). Obviously you cannot use this list as it stands for
obtaining subsequent tables. O n the basis of the distribution
obtained, you have to group the jobs so as to get a shorter list.
The occupational nomenclatures are usually designed to be
used at two or three levels of grouping. For instance, at the
most detailed level you can make a distinction between
mechanics, welders and gardeners; at a less detailed level you
can distinguish between industrial workers and agricultural
workers; and at an even less detailed level you can group all
blue-collar workers together. If your survey covers university
graduates, it will be to your advantage to use the most general
grouping for blue-collar workers and the most detailed
grouping for senior executive jobs.
W h a t e v e r its apparent value, y o u will seek this frequency

distribution for all the questions; at the very least, the results
will serve to check the accuracy of the cross-tabulations
obtained in the second p h a s e .
The basic tables
The principle is to associate the distribution of replies with (at

least) t w o variables. Fundamentaly, this m e a n s relating the
independent variables to the dependent variables (the independent
variables are those w h o s e impact on the dependent variables
linked with the respondents' present activity which the study
tries to assess). In tracer studies the m a i n point is to reveal the
correlations between the educational or sociological
characteristics of the respondents and their activity:
unemployed or continuing their studies.
Clearly, an association can be established between all the

variables. For example, the association in the s a m e table of the
two indpendant variables 'sat the examination' and 'other
certificates or qualifications' (questions 4 and 5, M o d u l e 4,

Chapter 2) gives information on the real level of formal
qualification of the population under study. The table relating
to employment with job category (two dependent variables
corresponding to Questions 2 and 3, M o d u l e 4, Chapter 5)
enables you to pin d o w n m o r e accurately the nature of the
respondents' jobs.
The examples of frequency distribution given in section 1

above illustrate the typical basic table that takes priority. It is
important to have an initial idea of the comparative situation of
the former pupils according to whether or not they passed or
failed the e x a m . This gives a table like the following:
Table 1
Activity of former pupils/students
Question 4 : 1. Did not sit e x a m . 2. Passed 3. Failed Total
Situation question
1. Grade repeaters 5 0 416 421

2. Other school 1 117 0 118
3. Unemployed 30 631 592 1 253
4. Military Service 0 0 0 0
5. Work for family, unpaid 74 197 481 752
6. Work for family, paid 11 301 118 430
7. Apprenticed 3 1 14 18
8. Wage-earning employee 1 102 26 129
9. Self-employed 0 1 3 4
TOTAL : 125 1350 1 650 3125
This table can be interpreted as follows: of the 1 253 unemployed school leavers (Total column, line 3),
631 are formally qualified (column 2, line 3). The last row gives the total for each column. It should
correspond to the figures obtained in the frequency distribution for that variable. This table does not give
percentages; these are automatically calculated by most specialised computer software. In this case, only
the column percentages are of interest; they enable you to examine the respective situations of formally
qualified and unqualified school leavers.
6-10
MODULE life: ANAL YSIS OF RESULTS
The table alone provides a great deal of information; you n o w

know that those 118 w h o changed schools (line 2) are formally
qualified (one might have assumed that at least some of them
failed the examination or repeated their grade), that a majority
of those w h o work for their parents without being paid (line 5)
failed the examination, and that a majority of wage-earning
employees are formally qualified (passed the exam).
A superficial reading of the table can, however, lead you into

error. A rapid calculation shows that 46 per cent of
qualification holders (631/1,350) are unemployed, as compared
with only 36 per cent of formally unqualified individuals. D o
not allow the readers of your survey to deduce that there is no
point in obtaining a certificate/diploma: the unemployment
rate must be calculated not on the total population, but only on
that part of it which has actually left school (lines 3,5 to 9),
namely 1,233 qualified individuals and 1,234 unqualified
persons respectively. The percentage of unemployed among
both of these categories is then very m u c h the same (51 per cent
and 48 per cent respectively) and can lead to no definite
conclusion.
Question 4 also made it possible to identify former pupils w h o

had not sat the examination. This is a minority population, but
the table provides a valuable item of information: few of them
are grade repeaters, and most of them help a member of their
family without being paid. Such a result allows us to make
some assumptions: that these pupils left school for economic
reasons (the cost of school attendance, the need for manpower
in the family workshop or on the family farm, the need for help
in running the home, etc.) and not in response to the offer of a
job. These are only assumptions; the analysis of sociological
and employment characteristics will help to bear them out.
Another example concerning employment variables will help

you to compile your o w n list of tables.
It is often worthwhile to know the salary level of former

students of higher educational establishments. The frequency
distribution for the question "What was your salary last
6-11
month?" provides an initial item of information (10 per cent

earn less than US$100, 25 per cent between US$100 and US$200,
etc.), and perhaps you have calculated the average salary
yourself (e.g. US$355). Interesting though it m a y be, this initial
information is incomplete; it must be placed in relation to the
type of training (do law students earn more than arts students?
D o graduates earn more than non-graduates?) and of course in
relation to the nature of the jobs held and the sectors of
recruitment: w e know that teachers have lower salaries than
engineers and that in general large firms in the private sector
pay their employees more than small firms or the Civil Service.
Table 2 A - G r a d u a t e s only
Subjects Salary scale (+ average if need be)

studied salary < 100$ 100 $ < salary < 200 $ 200 $ < salary < 300$ etc....
-Arts
-Law
- Engineering
etc....
TOTAL:
Table 2 B - N o n - g r a d u a t e s only

studied salary<100$ 100 $ < salary < 200 $ 200 $ < salary < 300 $ etc....
-Arts
-Law
- Engineering
etc....
TOTAL:
6-12
MODULE APS: ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Other solutions are possible; you can compile tables of the kind
s h o w n below, combining graduates and non-graduates in each
subject.
Table 3 A - Arts students
Salary scale (+ average if need be)

salary < 100$ 100 $ < salary < 2 0 0 $ 200 $ < salary < 300 $etc...
- Graduates
- Non-graduates
TOTAL:
Table 3 B - Law students
Salary scale (+ average if need be)

salary < 100 $ 100 $ < salary < 200 $ 200 $ < salary < 300 $etc...
- Graduates
- Non-graduates
TOTAL:
Followed by as m a n y tables as there are subjects studied.
To avoid having too m a n y tables, you should compile cross-

tables combining more than two variables, such as speciality/
salary/degree or employment/salary/degree.
Most survey software will enable you to produce the following

table at one go:
Table 4 - Salaries of former students b y subject studied

a n d w h e t h e r or not graduated

studied salary < 100 $ 100 $ < salary < 200 $ 200 $ < salary < 300 $ etc....
Arts:
- Graduates
- Non-graduates
Law:
- Graduates
- Non-graduates
Engineering:
- Graduates
- Non-graduates
etc....
TOTAL:
- Graduates
- Non-graduates
All these different models of tables obviously give you the

same information. You have to check whether the differences
observed are statistically significant. Here again, the survey
software will give you 'the confidence interval' based on
averages and standard deviations; for example, an average
salary of $253 has a 95 per cent probability of lying between
$245 and $261. Otherwise, you can ask the statistician to help
you to define your sample.
6-14
MODULE Wft ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
T o relate employment to salaries, in combination with

certification or other variables (employment in the public or
private sector, n u m b e r of people working for the employer,
etc.), y o u proceed in accordance with the s a m e principle.
It is not possible to give an a priori list of all the tables you must
compile; it depends o n the particular objectives of your survey
and the analysis of your frequency distributions, which will
guide your choice of the most relevant tables.
Specific tables
These are tables giving m o r e detailed information either o n the
variables or o n a part of the population questioned, depending
here again o n your objectives and assumptions (see M o d u l e 2,
Chapter 4).
For instance, the jobs held b y former pupils have to b e

presented not only in terms of the category but also in terms of
the size of the c o m p a n y or organization for which they w o r k
and its legal status (state or private c o m p a n y ) for the simple
entry 'building technician' can cover m a n y different things. If
you are concerned only with graduates or only with w a g e -
earners, it is pointless (at least at this stage) to produce tables
systematically presenting the results for the whole of the
population.
In any case, these specific tables will be m o r e complex than the

simple cross-tabulations referred to above, because they involve
m o r e variables. But any good survey software will enable y o u
to produce them without special difficulty.
The design of these tables therefore requires thought and care,

so that after thorough checking, a n d in combination with a
description of the population covered b y the survey (with the
help of the information obtained from the frequency
distribution) they m a y be the subject of an initial publication
useful to decision-makers. T h e wide circulation of these initial
results has two advantages: from the institutional angle, it
helps to m a k e the value of tracer studies better k n o w n and

recognized; and from the methodological angle, it givesriseto
comments which will enrich your initial formulation of the
problem and will be very useful for further in-depth analysis of
your data.
6-16
Further studies
3 The tables described above (see in particular Chapter 2, sections
2 and 3) are designed to meet the original request as soon as
possible; in many respects it is useful to accompany them by a
few comments in order to facilitate their interpretation. But
your task is not confined to producing tables, even annotated
ones; you have to verify your assumptions, and this is the most
rewarding stage of your work.
This analysis can take two different forms: it can give rise to
descriptive studies or specific studies, corresponding to two
different levels of approach.
Descriptive studies
These are essentially consolidated versions of the comments to

the tables you have already produced. They are of value to:
You yourself: the preparation of the tables has acquainted

you with the principal quantitative results of the survey,
but this knowledge will only become a reality if you write
down your observations and remarks. This is the only way
of formalizing your knowledge.
Your interlocutors: they usually have neither thetimenor

the technical knowledge to read thoroughly through all
the tables you submit to them. Your consolidated comments
will help to prevent errors of interpretation (see section 2).
In practical terms, you are advised to:
Set d o w n your comments on paper, even succinctly, as

and when the tables are produced.
Consolidate these partial comments, seeking c o m m o n or

specific trends observable in the interrelations of the
6-17
different variables; in short, m a k e an ordered whole in

function of your objectives. O n the basis of the preceding
example (Chapter 2, section 3) you can centre your
c o m m e n t s around the differences between graduates and
non-graduates: (i) the size and characteristics
(educational, sociological, etc.) of each population; (ii)
their comparative situations; (iii) the structure of
employment and sectors of activity; (iv) the certificate/
degree corresponding to each job, and so on.
Present these c o m m e n t s as clearly as possible, attaching

the most important tables, illustrating t h e m with graphs,
etc.
Your procedure m a y be s u m m e d u p as follows:
C
minium
t#fflllllll

Tables of data Analysis and comments Consolidation + illustrations - Descriptive study
Specific studies
These differ from descriptive studies in t w o respects:
Whereas descriptive studies involve the simple, but very

useful, task of shaping u p the principal results, the
purpose of specific studies is to verify your initial
assumptions. Y o u will therefore seek to reveal a certain
n u m b e r of causal relationships between the different
variables.
Whereas descriptive studies are m o r e or less necessarily

exhaustive (because they organise the information
obtained by your tracer study), specific studies are m o r e
thematic (e.g. the impact of certificates o n the
employment and mobility of young people).
6-18
MODULE ff 6: ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
To s u m up, one could say that specific studies make up in depth for
what they lack in scope. You will therefore not confine yourself
solely to the results of your survey; you will try to make use of
the results of existing surveys, studies and statistics on the
same subject. Let us take the example of a study of
unemployment among school leavers; thanks to your survey,
you have been able to calculate the level of unemployment, but
to be properly interpreted it has to be placed in the more
general context of unemployment among the population of
working age. This information lies outside your survey and
must be sought from specialized sources: the Ministry of
Labour or of Planning, employment surveys or the population
census, etc. Only by seeking this information can you reach any
conclusion as to the specificity of unemployment among school
leavers.
Three remarks in conclusion:
Studies can cover numerous subjects. You have to make a

choice, for perhaps you will not be able to do everything.
At this stage, do not hesitate to sub-contract studies that
you cannot handle yourself to outside bodies. Such sub-
contracting can constitute a sort of barter currency with
university and higher educational establishments, which
as w e have seen can help to conduct your survey in the
field (Module 5).
However good a job you may have done, all the questions
or assumptions you formulated at the beginning of your
survey will not necessarily have been finally settled.
Your analyses will also lead you to formulate other, more
precise, questions and assumptions; the results of follow-
up surveys usually generate as m a n y questions as they
answer.
In your capacity as a planner, you have perhaps farmed

out part of your survey under sub-contract (recruitment
of field workers, data acquisition, etc.). But the analysis of
the results cannot be entirely delegated to an outside
contractor. You can understand the results and use them
for operational decisions only if you yourself have
6-19
undertaken certain phases of the analysis. This task is

incumbent on you and your colleagues. This does not, of
course, rule out collaboration with other research workers
in the case of more specific analyses, in which case you
yourself become the sleeping partner (i.e. though you do
not do the work yourself, you are still responsible for its
satisfactory completion) (see Module 7).
This is the inevitable price you have to pay for your work; in
the short-term or medium-term it will oblige you to establish a
research policy enabling you to undertake tracer studies on a
regular basis.

> What are the principal instruments of analysis of

results?
> In what possible forms can the results be presented?
If you have difficulty in answering these questions, refer back

to the corresponding sections of this module.
MODULE 7
Medium-term prospects
by Jean Lamoure
mm ,,
'" ^ International Institute for Educational Planning
MODULE
Medium-term prospects
You have arrived at the end of this self-instruction manual. It may

be assumed that you have completed yourfirsttracer study to the
satisfaction of your superiors. This initial result has encouraged you
to continue, to analyze the activities of former pupils of other
educational institutions or to undertake a longitudinal study of the
cohort you have already investigated. The experience you have now
acquired is valuable; it enables you to envisage more rational forms of
dealing with such questions. In short, you have in mind a strategy for
the implementation of tracer studies on a regular basis.
ThisfinalM o d u l e will help y o u not only to take advantage of

the results of your first study, but also to discern m e d i u m - t e r m
prospects.
After reading this Module, you should be capable of:
Deciding h o w to disseminate the results of the

survey.
Persuading the relevant decision-makers of the desirability

of setting u p a permanent structure for follow-up a n d tracer
studies.
After having studied this manual, your main objective

should be to put your knowledge into practice and, as soon
as you can, let us k n o w the results.
Contents
Chapter 2 The publication policy 7-6
Chapter 3 The research policy 7.9
Chapter 4 In conclusion: some material and

h u m a n constraints 7-11
Introduction
T h e cost of tracer studies is not justified b y their results (which

are assumed to be reliable) but by their social utility for
educational planning and the planning of h u m a n resources
(Module 1) : this utility m a y be measured through their, m o r e
or less, intensive use.
T o a large extent, it is not y o u yourself w h o will decide to what

use the results of your surveys will be put, but you can have a
say in the matter; it all depends on w h a t publication policy y o u
adopt and o n the scientific recognition accorded to your follow-
u p studies, and this implies a research policy.
The more use is made of follow-up and tracer studies, the less they
will appear to cost, and you will thus be in a more favourable position
to lay claim to new resources which will enable you to develop your
surveys in greater depth.
7-5
O The publication policy
For all the reasons justifying the launching of follow-up and

tracer studies their results must be m a d e available to the
m a x i m u m number of potential users (Module 1). To this end,
you cannot make do with reproducing just a few copies of the
data you have gathered; you must enable the results to circulate
as widely as yearbooks of educational statistics. Your potential
public comprises not only those with w h o m you normally have
working contacts (educational administrators, school
principals) but also all those w h o work in thefieldof h u m a n
resources; if you do not k n o w them already, you can easily
identify them by consulting ministerial organization charts.
T w o other publics should also be mentioned:
The national and international scientific community:

planners and research workers in sociology and/or
economics of education.
International organisations active in these fields: the H E P

itself will naturally be the privileged recipient of your
results.
MODULE NP7: MEDIUM-TERM PROSPECTS
Y o u have here all the indications necessary to establish your

basis of circulation; n o w y o u have to decide what it is y o u are
going to circulate. T h e form of data processing makes it
possible to establish a n outline of this, ranging from the bare
essentials (tables and brief comments, corresponding to the
information aspect) to your definitive results (corresponding to
the studies aspect, cf. M o d u l e 5). Your publication policy will
therefore be diversified, depending o n the public aimed at and
the type of material y o u plan to send out. T h e chart below
shows h o w the various stages of your w o r k correspond to
different forms of publication:
DATA-BANK = : = = -> Computer disks, listings
PRODUCTION OF TABLES -> Statistical tables
DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES -> Information documents
SPECIFIC STUDIES * Study reports
* Articles in periodicals
These different forms of publication obviously have different publics;

computer disks, listings and statistical tables have a more restricted
public than information documents.
7-
The concept of an information document is wide-ranging; it can

be anything from a double-sided duplicated sheet to a m o r e
elaborate affair of several dozen pages; it all depends o n
financial and h u m a n resources. Whatever its size and h o w it is
produced, this type of document is a privileged m e d i u m for the
dissemination of your results and will have a wide readership
a m o n g teachers and educational specialists. In commercial
terms, it will be an attention-getter, encouraging its readers to
take an interest in your study reports and your tracer studies in
general.
But perhaps your ministry or institute already publishes a regular

information bulletin or newsletter, in which case information
concerning your survey can be included as a special feature.
There is no need to g o into the notion of a study report in detail;

it is the original document containing an account of your work
and your results, including your methodological approach, a
specimen questionnaire, etc. It is usually voluminous and
reproduced in only a small number of copies. This clearly
indicates the value of the preceding publication, which can take
the form of a summary of the intial results.
T w o final remarks to conclude:
D o not hesitate to pass o n copies of your computer

diskettes or listings of results to the relevant government
departments and institutions, once y o u are sure that they
contain no errors. It is a w a y of establishing a useful
dialogue with them, fostering n e w analysis of your data.
Such a publication policy is subject to few financial and

material constraints; the reproduction of tables and
studies costs very little in relation to the implementation of
the survey itself, a n d this cost is already provided for in
your budget (see M o d u l e 5).
The research policy
The publication policy and the research policy are closely

linked. It is all the more necessary to establish a publication
policy in so far as you plan to repeat your survey either among
other target populations, or on the same population if you wish
to study occupational mobility over a longer period (Module 2).
If your survey is a one-time operation, it is obviously not

necesary to have recourse to such a logistic, or to a publication
policy. W e m a y take it that the importance of tracer studies
(Module 1) and your initial results will convince the decision-
makers of the value of undertaking this kind of investigation
regularly. There are numerous reasons for this; for example:
They help to improve our knowledge of the internal and

external efficiency of education systems, which is useful
for purposes of educational management and also for
negotiating with national and international sources of
funding.
They can help to steer not only educational policies but

also employment policies, co-ordinated with the planning
of h u m a n resources.
Regular results will be more reliable, avoiding situational

uncertainties such as variations in examination results or
a slump in the labour market in a given year.
The cost of regular tracer studies can be lower than that of

the initial survey thanks to the experience acquired,
which will enable you to establish your budget more
precisely, the capital outlay on micro-computers,
software, etc., having already been made.
7-9
A research policy based on the general theme of tracer studies

(i.e. the relationship between education and employment) is of a
specific nature, for it must generate information and organise
this knowledge. It will therefore be both applied (the response
to 'requests' received) and more fundamental, tied in with the
problems developed in this field by the various subject areas of
social studies. Depending on the experience of the institutions
in each country, each of these two aspects will be more or less
developed.
The w a y of institutionalizing this policy so as to enable it to be

put into effect is to set u p a working unit, a training-employment
unit. In practice, this unit should be a component of the
educational planning policy and placed under the authority of
the person or body responsible for that policy. It will then be
able to meet specific needs for information. Its tasks would
be to:
Gather, process and disseminate information.

Carry out studies and research on the basis of the
information gathered.
This operational distinction will have practical forms of

application depending to a large extent on the h u m a n resources
available among this training-employment unit. At least, it will
confine itself essentially to the former task and, for example,
support studies by university and research bodies.
Besides its interest for educational planning, this working unit

can also be used to reinforce the links with other institutions of
h u m a n ressources planning (Ministry of Planning, and so on.).
It will provide them with a specific information while it will
benefit from their o w n surveys and studies (employers surveys,
for example). To s u m up, such an institutionalisation of your
education-employment studies will enter them into a network
of exchange of information which constitute the best guarantee
for valorizing your results and your efforts.
7-10
4 In conclusion: s o m e material and
h u m a n constraints
The following constraints, which d o exist, are impossible to

evaluate precisely because they are influenced by political
factors. They are also very relative, because these extra items of
expenditure represent only a tiny fraction of the general budget
of any Ministry of Education.
Material constraints: these depend o n the logistics which

the working unit can share with the planning
departments or the institution to which it is attached,
particularly where the production of questionnaires is
concerned. This unit must however be given m i n i m u m
facilities to ensure its autonomy, namely a micro-
computer and the requisite software; this minimum is
obviously related to the magnitude and frequency of
tracer studies.
Human constraints: there is obviously no question of

setting u p a permanent team offieldworkers, statisticians
and analysts; it w o u l d cost far too m u c h . At the very
least - and in a n u m b e r of cases this could be sufficient -
the unit should have someone in authority w h o is
specialised in tracer studies, assisted by one or t w o
colleagues : the best guarantee of the quality of the results
will not be the n u m b e r of staff m e m b e r s but their
competence.
The tasks assigned to this 'unif will require the strengthening

of links with other bodies concerned with planning, h u m a n
resources and employment, as well as with education
departments responsible for curriculum development. It is
along these lines that tracer studies will render the fullest service
to both education and training policies and employment
policies.
7-11
IIEP TEACHING MATERIALS
EXERCISE 1
Definition of operational objectives
and scope of the survey
by Jean Lamoure
IIEP Programme Manager: Franoise Caillods
linn nyiInternational Institute for Educational Planning

Exercise 1
Definition of operational objectives and
scope of the survey
For this exercise, you should:

>Refer to M O D U L E 1 and M O D U L E 2.
>-Read all the accompanying documents before answering the questions.
You willfindthe solution to this first exercise in the document entitled

'Solution to Exercise 1'.
Subject of the exercise

The Minister of Technical Education has asked y o u to set u p a n
information system o n the e m p l o y m e n t of former pupils of
technical secondary schools.
Q u e s t i o n 1 : W h a t preliminary questions should y o u ask

him? List t h e m in order of importance, a n d justify them. These
questions will relate in particular to the conditions under
which the study is to b e undertaken, a n d the resources allotted
to it. T h e y m u s t help y o u to understand exactly w h a t the
Minister wants so that y o u m a y subsequently express his
requirements in terms of objectives (see Question 2). Before
answering this question, refer to paragraphs 1 a n d 2 of
M O D U L E 2.
Q u e s t i o n 2 : Y o u r Minister has confidence in you, a n d is

liberal. W h a t objectives d o y o u submit to h i m ? Confine
yourself to five objectives, a n d justify them.
Q u e s t i o n 3 : For each objective, try to formulate s o m e

assumptions, with the help of the documents which follow and
referring to M o d u l e 2, in particular paragraphs 3 a n d 4.
1
Now read the following six documents. They will familiarize you with the
context in which the Minister's request lies. To answer the questions, use the
sheets at the end of the documents.
Document 1.1: Letter from the Minister
Minister of Technical Education,

Republic of Qwerty
For the attention of the Director of Planning.
Dear Sir,
O u r technical secondary schools are a m o n g the most important components of the

education policy and the h u m a n resources development policy of the Republic of
Qwerty. A s our President reminded us in his address to the Q w e r t y Party, our
graduates are the spearhead of our public enterprises. Inaccordance with the President's
wishes, I w o u l d be glad if y o u w o u l d submit to m e an outline plan for an information
system o n e m p l o y m e n t .
W o u l d y o u please give thought to this request a n d let m e have your proposals at a

meeting in m y office at 8 a . m . tomorrow, prior to the Cabinet Meeting at which this
matter will be discussed.
I thank y o u in anticipation, a n d remain, etc.

Document 1.2:
Structure of the education system of the Republic of Q W E R T Y
Primary education (6 years)
Lower secondary education (3 years)
Upper general Technical

secondary education secondary
education
(3 years)
Higher
Higher
technical
education '
institutes *
* Competitive entrance examination.

Document 1.3:
Numbers of pupils and graduates in 1990
6th year of primary education: 56,065 pupils

3rd year of lower secondary education: 19,461 pupils
1 st year of upper secondary education: 10,710 pupils
3rd year of upper secondary education: 8,340 pupils
1st year of technical secondary education: 1,523 pupils
3rd year of technical secondary education: 1,361 pupils
1st year of higher education: 7,221 students.
1st year of higher technical institutes: 2 8 7 students
Certificate of primary education: 25,035 holders

Certificate of lower secondary education: 12,233 holders
Certificate of upper secondary education: 5,224 holders
Certificate of technical secondary education: 3 5 4 holders
Document 1.4:
Geographical locations of technical secondary schools
PROVINCE Subject specialities
AQWE Woodworking
Electricity
Surveying
Car mechanics
Secretarial work
Accountancy
PLOME Dressmaking
Building trades
Engineering production
Electricity
Secretarial work
Accountancy
SAEDE Agriculture
Woodworking
Car mechanics
Electricity
DAESEA Civil engineering

Car mechanics
Accountancy
Secretarial work
Note: there is only one technical secondary school in each Province, except in Saede, where agricultural
technicians are trained in a specialized establishment.
Document 1.5: Available information on pupils
* School principals d o not keep their pupils' records after they have left secondary technical
schools, as to whether or not they have obtained a certificate.
T h e school principals have the addresses of the families or guardians of pupils currently
enrolled, and they also have a list of pupils holding the certificate of technical secondary
education.
EXERCISE 1
Document 1.6: The structure of the working population
Sector of activity Number % Including, in the

modern sector
Primary sector 281,796 69.3 1,624
Secondary sector 33,578 8.2 7,227

including:
- Mining 7,278 1.8
- Industry 1,541 0.4
- Handcrafts 15,194 3.7
- Building and public works 9,565 2.4
Tertiary sector 91,608 22.5 25,541

including:
- Transport, trade 62,709 15.4
- Services 28,899 7.1
TOTAL 406,725 100.00 34,392
Source: Republic of Qwerty, 1979 Population Census.
7
Replies:
Write your replies here:
Reply to Question 1 :
What preliminary questions are you going to ask the Minister? (list them in order of importance,
and justify them).
QUESTIONS JUSTIFICATION
1.
8
EXERCISE
Reply to Question 2:
Your Minister has confidence in you, a n d is liberal. W h a t operational objectives d o
you suggest to him? (Confine yourself to five objectives, and justify t h e m ) .
Objective 1:
Justification:
Objective 2 :
Justification:
Objective 3 :
Justification:
Objective 4 :
Justification:
Objective 5 :
Justification:
Reply to Question 3:
For each objective, try to formulate s o m e assumptions, with the help of the preceding
documents and M O D U L E 2 .
Assumptions concerning the:
1st objective:
2nd objective:
3rd objective:
4th objective:
5th objective:
You will find the solution to this exercise

in the document enf/f/ed'Solution to Exercise V
W
EXERCISE 2
The construction of a questionnaire
by Jean Lamoure
llllll .If International Institute for Educational Planning

Exercise 2
The purpose of this exercise is to help you to draft a questionnaire.
To do so, you may refer to Module 4, but do not simply reproduce the
questions in that Module!
Before beginning the exercise, read carefully the documents contained in

the pages that follow; you will find them very useful.
Subject of the exercise
You are involved in the Training and Employment Unit of the

National University of Q W E R T Y , and you have been instructed
to submit a draft questionnaire for a tracer study. Fortunately for
you, the objectives of the study and the coverage of the survey
have already been established. The postal services in Q W E R T Y
operate satisfactorily, so you can envisage a postal survey. But
your task is not so easy, because the project chief has asked you
not only to produce a questionnaire, but also to prepare its
coding; he has read Modules 4 and 5, and knows that the two
exercises go together.
What you have to do is therefore:
Question 1 : Construct a complete questionnaire, with

especially detailed emphasis on questions relating to the
respondents' activities.
^ Question 2: Submit a coding system only for the questions

' D E G R E E H E L D ' , 'ACTIVITY', and ' S A L A R Y ' whichfigurein
the pages that follow.
1
Two recommendations before you begin this exercise:
Remember that this type of questionnaire is usually in four parts:

(i) educational background; (ii) sociological background; (Hi) activity
at the time of the survey; (iv) employment record. However, you are
free to organize the questionnaire as you wish.
Remember that the coding system is intended for the use of the
coding personnel, not the respondents. What you have to do is to
define how each reply can be quantified (i.e. expressed in terms of a
numerical value).
EXERCISE 2
Document 2.1: The coverage of the survey
T h e National University of Q W E R T Y is a complex organization comprising ten or so different

establishments (the L a w Faculty, the Science Faculty, the Institute of Journalism, the Institute
of Management Studies, etc.).
W h e r e a s anyone holding a certificate of general secondary education (cf. Document 3 ,

Exercise 1 ) m a y enrol in a Faculty, those w h o wish to enter one of the Institutes must not only
hold that certificate but also pass a competitive examination.
For reasons of prudence (this is the first survey conducted by the Training and Employment Unit)
and also for reasons of policy (the University has very m a n y students, and has been accused
of swelling the ranks of the unemployed) it has been decided to confine the survey to the Arts
and Humanities Faculty (FAH for short in what follows).
The purpose of the survey is to gather detailed information on h o w F A H students enter

employment; not only the time it takes them to find a job, but also what kind of job they take up.
T h e central (and problematical) question is what b e c o m e s of these students n o w that civil
servants are no longer being recruited (see under heading ' C below).
Document 2.2: Background information on F A H

In 1990,1,679 students were enrolled in the Arts and Humanities Faculty. The course normally
lasts four years.
There is only one condition for enrolment in F A H : possession of the certificate of general
secondary education, independently of the subject area in which that certificate has been
obtained (Arts, Philosophy, Science, etc.). It has been noted that nearly 15 per cent of F A H
students qualified in science subjects at the secondary level.
F A H has five departments: Arts, Plastic Arts, Sociology, Psychology, and History/Geography.
The breakdown of F A H students in 1990 was as follows:
Numbers of F A H students by years of study (1990)
1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year TOTAL
Arts 563 252 145 151 1,111

Plastic Arts 20 15 8 6 49
Sociology 82 61 55 54 252
Psychology 41 31 29 23 124
History/Geography 88 31 18 6 143
TOTAL 794 390 255 240 1,679
During the four-year course, FAH awards only one certificate of qualification on successful
completion of the course: the university degree, specifying the subject area for which it is
granted.
At the end of 1990 the breakdown of graduates was as follows:

Arts: 34% (51 graduates).
Plastic Arts: 100% (6 graduates)
Sociology: 59% (32 graduates)
Psychology: 65% (15 graduates)
History/Geography: 83% (5 graduates)
4
EXERCISE 2
T h e organization of F A H is centralized; a single general secretariat m a n a g e s the throughput of

students and keeps examination records. For s o m e years past these records have been
computerized; w h e n he enters F A H , the student completes an individual data-sheet providing
details of his personal characteristics, his h o m e address, his parents' address, and the
Department in which he is enrolled. These data-sheets are fed into a microcomputer and
regularly updated. T o facilitate this task, each student receives an identification number w h e n
he first enrols. This is an appreciable advantage in that full information on his university progress
in FAH is readily available.
Document 2.3: Other relevant data
Graduates in the Arts, the Plastic Arts and History/Geography m a y sit the entrance examination
of the Higher Pedagogic Institute, which will train them as general secondary school teachers.
If they pass the examination, they are considered as trainee Civil Servants. After one year of
training, they are all assigned to a secondary school (there are no failures).
All students w h o have entered their second year in F A H can be recruited as primary school
teachers. After two years of intensive training during school holidays they are assigned to a
primary school.
The Q W E R T Y Restructuring Plan has suspended the recruitment of Civil Servants; theoretically
no Civil Servants or teachers have been recruited in the past year.
Document 2.4: Population covered by the survey
The survey covers all students w h o left F A H in 1990. In the light of the information
contained in A and B above, it has been decided to mail a questionnaire to all students w h o
left F A H in the course of the past year, whether or not they graduated, including those w h o
dropped out in the course of the 1990 academic year. Since the dropout ratio is particularly
high, it has been decided to question all students w h o left F A H before completing their
studies. T h e general secretariat of F A H is able to provide the n a m e s and addresses of all
these students.
The students are to be questioned in June 1991, i.e. at least six months after they left F A H
(the university year began in January and ended in November 1990).
6
EXERCISE 2
Replies:
Write your replies here:
R e p l y to Q u e s t i o n 1 : draft questionnaire for former F A H students.
Recommendation: this is a postal questionnaire; if you want a good percentage of

responses, do not try the patience of the respondents. Make it short; thirty or so questions
are amply sufficient. It is up to you to decide what questions to put.
QUESTIONNAIRE.
Important:
1. EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
(Number the questions in each section; e.g. in this section
number them 1.1,1.2, etc.).
2. SOCIOLOGICAL B A C K G R O U N D
3. ACTIVITY
4. EMPLOYMENT
(Possibly including one or two questions relating to unemployment; see objectives ofthe survey
under heading A above).
Have you forgotten anything?
Have you remembered to state at the beginning of the questionnaire

(under the sub-heading Important) that the respondent will remain
anonymous in respect of any subsequent use that will be made of the
information he or she provides?
Have you remembered to identify each questionnaire before it is sent out?

The records of F A H students are computerized; choose the same
identification number as in those records, so as to facilitate subsequent
marrying of the information provided with the person who provides it,
especially information concerning educational background and personal
details. The position of this identification in the questionnaire is
unimportant.
Remember, too, that the questionnaire must be accompanied by a letter

encouraging the addressee to reply to it, and also an envelope for the reply.
This is not really part of the exercise, but it should be borne in mind.
EXERCISE 2
R e p l y to Q u e s t i o n 2 : Coding the questions o n degree obtained, activity,ax\6 salary.
This coding applies to the questions under these headings which you have formulated
in reply to Q U E S T I O N 1.
Indicate the codes assigned to these three items in your questionnaire, and in each
case state the coding instructions for the coding personnel.
At this stage, give thought to what use is going to be m a d e of the foreseeable

results (cross-relations of variables, calculation of averages, etc.).
You will find the solution to this exercise

in the document entitled 'Solution to Exercise 2'
9
EXERCISE 3
Analysis of the results of tracer studies
by Jean Lamoure
linn ms I \f International Institute for Educational Planning

Exercise 3
Table 1 w a s compiled in France o n the basis of the survey of the transition from school
to w o r k of secondary school leavers during the school year 1990-1991. T h e survey
covered a nation-wide sample of 4,500 schools (out of a total of 11,000), a n d w a s
conducted in February 1992, seven m o n t h s after the pupils in question left school.
T h e survey covered all schools, public a n d private, under the authority of the Ministry
of Education, and all pupils w h o left the education system between the second year of
secondary schooling (7th grade) a n d the final year (12th grade), with the exception of
pupils in theirfinalyear of general secondary education.
T h e survey w a s conducted m y mail, through the Principals of the schools which the
pupils in question h a d attended. T h e response rate ranged from 55 per cent to 75 per
cent, depending o n grades. T h e figures w e r e adjusted to allow for non-respondents.
Table 1 lists the u n e m p l o y m e n t rates of pupils w h o left vocational secondary school in

thefinalyear, b y course subject, certificate studied for, a n d sex.
The Vocational Certificate and the Technical Certificate are granted at the end of short
vocational secondary schooling; the Technical Certificate is the higher qualification of the two.
T h e ' A ' Level Technical Certificate and the ' A ' Level Vocational Certificate are granted
at the end of technical a n d vocational secondary schooling. T h e latter testifies to a
m o r e specialized level of training than the former.
Q U E S T I O N 1 : C o m m e n t o n the results contained in Table 1,

with reference to three variables:
- Specializations.
- Certificates studied for.
-Sex.
- Q U E S T I O N 2: Please state your hypotheses o n h o w the

present school system could b e improved, based o n your
evaluation of Table 1.
1
Table 1
U n e m p l o y m e n t rates o n 1st February 1992 of pupils w h o left
vocational secondary school at various levels in 1990-1991
Metropolitan France (not including the Paris educational area).
Vocational Cert.'11 Technical Cert.!2' A Level Tech.' 3 ' A Level Voc.'4>

Boys Girts Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
Building industry 22.8
Plumbing, roofing 18.5 12.6
Painting 27.1
Sheetmetal working 33.1 22.8 10.5
Mechanical engineering 29.7 20.8 27.4 14.0
Electricity 30.0 21.5 14.9 14.1
Electronics 29.8 20.4 27.6
Photography, Graphic Industry 39.1
Chemistry, Physics, Biology 43.0 29.8 21.5
Cookery 22.1 13.1
Tailoring 50.2 40.9 33.9
Woodworking 20.5 17.2
Building & Public Works
Draughtsmanship 23.9
Industrial Draughtsmanship 12.8
Business Management 18.5
Secretarial work 51.2 34.7 36.6 19.3 35.0 24.7 31.3
Accountancy, Bookkeeping 35.8 38.3 25.5 32.7 29.5 28.0
Commerce 31.0 44.2 24.4 33.7 19.2 25.2
Health care 24.8 26.0
Hairdressing, beauty care 30.6
Htellerie 24.3 36.6 19.5 24.0 5.0
All specializations 26.8 41.6 22.8 35.5 23.8 32.3 17.3 29.0
Boys + Girls 35.1 30.8 30.3 25.2
(1 ) CAP 3 ans in the French system

(2) BEP in the French system
(3) BTn in the French system
(4) Bac Pro in the French system
N B : N o answers are given w h e n they are non applicable or unavailable
Source: Note d'information 92.43, Ministre de l'Education Nationale et de la Culture, November 1992
2
EXERCISE 3
Tables 2,3 ande show the results of a repeat-run tracer study conducted by Anders Nrman
in Kenya in 1984 and 1986. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the results of the
introduction of industrial training in general secondary education. Thefirststudy covered
20 schools, 15 of which had introduced industrial subjects into their curricula. The pupils
are divided into three categories:
Thefirstcategory comprises all pupils w h o opted for industrial subjects

in the general secondary education leaving certificate (KCE).
The second category comprises pupils w h o did not opt for these subjects,
although their school offered them the possibility of doing so. In the
course of their schooling, most of them had an opportunity of doing
practical work.
The third category comprises pupils w h o attended schools whose

curricula did not include industrial training.
The pupils questioned sat the K C E examination in 1983. In an initial survey conducted one
year later (1984), 1,500 pupils were questioned by mail. The response rate was over 70 per
cent.
A second survey was conducted in 1986 among a sample of 1,503 pupils. The response rate
was 59 per cent. This second run m a d e it possible to discover what happened to these
pupils and what their circumstances were three years after the school leaving examination.
- QUESTION 1: C o m m e n t on Tables 2, 3 and 4 in that order, and

draw a general conclusion as to the effect on pupils' subsequent
circumstances of introducingindusiruiZ subjects into the curriculum.
QUESTION 2: Table5 gives additional information on the transition

from school to work of former pupils w h o were in work in 1986.
What do these results tell you about the relationship between
education and employment?
3
Table 2
A break-down of activities for the respondents one year after the K C E e x a m s in 1983
(percentages)
Activity Cat.1 Catll Catlll Total
School/training 50 50 55 51
Work 6 7 5 6
Looking 44 43 40 43
Total (100%) (320) (555) (205) (1 080)
Table 3
Occupational status three years after the K C E e x a m s
(in total n u m b e r a n d percentages)
Activity Catl Catll Catlll Tota
N % N % N % N %
School/training 75 (27) 112 (26) 46 (26) 233 (26)
Work 106 (38) 140 (33) 70 (40) 316 (36)
Looking 95 (34) 178 (41) 59 (34) 332 (38)
Total (100%) 276 430 175 882
Table 4
A comparison of activities in 1984 and 1986
(in absolute n u m b e r s a n d percentages)
Activity in 1986 School training Work "Looking" Total
N % N % N % N %
School/training 123 (27) 17 (24) 89 (26) 229 (27)
Work 156 (35) 43 (61) 108 (31) 307 (36)
'Looking' 171 (38) 10 (14) 147 (43) 328 (38)
Total (100%) 450 70 344 864
4
EXERCISE 3
Table 5
Kind of w o r k for respondents - 1 9 8 6
(percentages)
Kind of w o r k Cat.l Catll Catlll Total
Technical/practical 22 19 9 18
Office 16 22 15 18
Teacher 46 35 46 41
Business/service, etc. 15 23 31 22
Total (100) (130) (68) (298)
Source (tables 2-5): A. Nrman, Practical Subjects in Kenyan Academic Secondary Schools: Tracer Study
II Industrial Education, Education Division Documents, No.39, SIDA, September 1988.
5
Exercise 3.3
Table 6 w a s obtained from a survey of former students of Tunisian Vocational Training
Centres. The survey w a s conducted in 1988 and covered students w h o left the Centres in
1985. T h e table contains a great deal of information, and m a k e s it possible to monitor the
situation of each cohort of former students from one three-month period to the next
(Tl = first three months, etc.).
Q U E S T I O N 1 : for each three-month period (Tl to Til), calculate

the proportion of people in stop-gap employment (line 5) a m o n g
the total n u m b e r in employment (line 7), and add one or t w o
sentences of c o m m e n t s .
In the survey, stop-gap employment is understood to mean employment
which the subjects accepted provisionally, even though they may have
considered it unsuitable, below their capabilities, precarious, or not what
they aspired to.
REPL Y: The proportion of subjects in stop-gap employment is calculated
as follows:
(stop-gap employment/total employment) X 100 for each three-month
period.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11
Proportion of stop-gap employment:
Q U E S T I O N 2: Calculate the unemployment rate for each three-

m o n t h period (Tl to Til). Define unemployment in the sense that
you use the term in this case. W h a t d o y o u observe?
REPL Y: Definition of unemployment rate:

[ /( )+( ] X 100 =
Unemployment rate in each three-month period:
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11
Unemployment rate:
6
Table 6
Transition from school to work: all centres
Sample: 184
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11
Studying or
in training 2 6 8 9 12 11 11 12 5 6 6
% 1 3 4 5 7 6 6 7 3 3 3
O n a course 54 56 20 8 6 7 4 2 3 1 1
% 29 30 11 4 3 4 12 2 1 2 1
O n military
service 3 6 10 13 16 20 24 24 20 17 11
% 2 3 5 7 9 11 13 13 11 9 6
Seeking
employment 106 91 91 83 84 76 66 60 68 72 66
% 58 49 50 45 46 41 36 33 37 39 36
In stop-gap
employment 11 19 52 60 55 58 57 58 59 52 54
% 6 10 28 33 30 32 31 32 32 28 29
In definitive
employment 5 8 13 16 18 29 32 34 40 6 50
% 3 4 7 9 10 16 17 18 22 25 27
Total
unemployment 16 27 65 76 73 87 89 92 99 98 104
% 9 15 35 41 40 47 48 50 54 53 57
Source: S . Zouari Bouattour, IIEP/Prg. FC/90.003, January 1990

SOLUTION T O EXERCISE
Definition of operational objectives

1
and scope of the survey
by Jean Lamoure
lilil i f r International Institute for Educational Planning

Solution to Exercise 1
Definition of operational objectives and
scope of the survey
Strictly speaking, there is not one single solution to this exercise, but several, all of
them equally valid provided they are supported by reasoned argument. This is
particularly true of Questions 2 and 3. Each trainee's experience and his penchant for
one or more subjects of study or research can lead to the formulation of particular
operational objectives on the basis of the same data. Therefore the solutions which
follow are purely indicative; they are intended as a general framework in which you
can assess your o w n replies.
Though the Republic of QWERTY and the Minister's remarks are imaginary, the documents
relating to the education system and the population of working age correspond to real
situations.
Question 1 w a s : W h a t preliminary questions should

you ask the Minister? List them in order of importance,
and justify them.
c> REPLY:
There are m a n y questions you could ask the Minister, apart from
thefiveexamples given below. Their purpose is to establish the
limits and constraints on your assignment; h o w long you have to
carry it out, and the material and h u m a n resources allocated to
its implementation. These questions also have a pedagogic
aspect; you will show that a survey on training and employment
cannot be reduced to an 'information system'; at the very least, it
depends on a particular methodology.
First question: Have a budget and special resources been

allotted to this project?
Justification: This is an essential question which defines your

possibilities of action. But as w e have said, the Minister is
liberal. The question also gives you a clearer idea of the kind
of system (permanent or one-off) the Minister has in mind.
1
Second question: Is it to be a stable system (involving the

setting u p of a permanent structure) or a one-off survey that
will not necessarily be repeated?
Justification: This question is intended to clarify the terms

used by the Minister (Document 1); perhaps what he has in
mind is simply a survey enabling him to meet a one-off
requirement, and not a permanent system.
A one-off requirement m a y be more or less urgent. If it is

urgent, it can be met empirically by a survey covering public
enterprises only, or by questioning the principals and teachers
of technical secondary schools. It is not possible to undertake a
follow-up study since school principals have no record of
pupils' addresses. In short, if it is a matter of a one-off
requirement, you will have to work fast and the results will
necessarily be approximate.
- If the one-off requirement does not have to be met in less
than a year, you can m a k e arrangements to follow u p pupils at
present in their final year after they leave school.
- Setting u p a permanent system calls for ad hoc resources and
also takes time. It is in your interest to arrange for it to be set
up in stages covering only one type of school and one or two
training areas (electricity and secretarial, in technical
secondary schools in three provinces, and concerning
employment in both the secondary and tertiary sectors - see
Document 4). This will give you time to test your
methodology economically while meeting the Minister's
request fairly quickly.
Third question: H o w soon do you want this information
system to become operational (i.e. to begin to produce
results)?
Justification: This question makes it possible to amplify the
answer to the previous one in respect of urgency and the type
of survey to be preferred (a tracer study or a follow-up study).
Fourth question: Are partners from outside the Ministry of
Education ( e.g. the Ministry of Labour, the National Bureau of
Planning or Statistics) to be brought into this operation?
SOLUTION TO EXERCISE 1
Justification: This question forearms you (and your Minister)

against any subsequent criticism from those w h o w o u l d have
liked to be associated with the project. If it is a one-off survey,
it is perhaps unnecessary to involve too m a n y other partners,
unless y o u wish the survey to cover public enterprises (see
above).
Fifth question: Is the survey to cover only former pupils w h o
have obtained a certificate, or all former pupils of technical
secondary schools, in all areas or only some?
Justification: In his letter, the Minister refers to technical
secondary schools (hence to all former pupils), and also to
graduates. Try to persuade him that all former pupils should be
surveyed; even if he is interested only in what he calls graduates,
it is very likely that w h e n he sees the initial results he will ask
you about the different activities of graduates and n o n
graduates. Y o u will need this comparison for your o w n purposes.
QUESTION 2 w a s : Your Minister has confidence in

you, and is liberal. What operational objectives do you
submit to him?
^ REPLY: Here are s o m e examples of operational objectives:
Objective 1: Estimate the proportion of technical secondary

school leavers w h o are in employment.
Objective 2: Evaluate the role played by the possession of a

certificate in securing various types of employment.
Objective 3: C o m p a r e the employment difficulties

encountered b y former pupils in each area (unemployment,
underemployment, etc.).
Objective 4: Investigate former pupils' capabilities of

becoming self-employed.
Objectives: Evaluate the extent of the flow of former technical

secondary school pupils to Higher Technical Institutes (see
Document 5).
3
These objectives have relevance to the characteristics of the

Republic of Q W E R T Y :
Even though non-graduated former technical secondary

school pupils are proportionally fewer than at other levels of
education (Document 3), they are none the less in the majority;
the external evaluation of technical secondary schools cannot
therefore be confined to graduates alone.
The distribution of the working population (Document 6)

shows the importance of the tertiary sector, which accounts for
nearly a quarter of the working population. D o pupils w h o
studied subjects in the tertiary sector have less difficulty in
finding a job than those who studied subjects in the industrial
sector? (The secondary sector accounts for less than 10 per cent of
the working population, and the industrial sector for less than 1
per cent). Your results can help in school mapping.
The modern sector is relatively underdeveloped (less than

10% of the working population - see Document 6). Does the
training received in technical secondary schools enable pupils to
become craftsmen or self-employed?
Entering employment is not the only possibility open to

technical secondary school leavers; they can also try to enrol in
Higher Technical Institutes (HTI) (see Document 2). True, this
possibility is limited; there are less than 300 first-year HTI
students, and some of them may come from general secondary
schools (see Documents 2 and 3). Nevertheless it can be
worthwhile to identify the reasons for this choice, not only for
those w h o actually enter HTIs, but also all those w h o sit the
entrance examination, w h o are probably m u c h more numerous.
This last remark can also give you the idea of widening your
survey to include former HTI students; this will give you
information on all the types of technical education available in
Q W E R T Y , and it only involves a few hundred extra
questionnaires.
4
To these specific objectives m a y be added three general

objectives relating to the overall approach:
1. The establishment of a permanent system covering all

technical secondary school leavers.
Justifications:
The Minister is liberal, which means that you have the
possibility of creating a special survey unit possessing its o w n
data-processing resources - an opportunity not to be missed!
A single survey gives a picture of the situation at a given

time, but the situation necessarily evolves and your data soon
becomes outdated. There are not all that many technical

secondary school
Document 3) so that it does not cost m u c h to repeat the survey

among every outgoing cohort.
2. This permanent follow-up system is to be used not only by

the Ministry of Education, but also in connection with the
planning of h u m a n resources. Partners from outside must be
brought in.
Justifications:
M O D U L E 1, and also M O D U L E S 5, 6 and 7, show the value

of such a partnership both for h u m a n resources planning and
for the dissemination of your results. Remember that though
training and employment studies provide m u c h information,
for your purposes you will probably need information from
other sources (the Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of
Industry, etc.). By bringing in partners from outside, you will
have easier access to their o w n data w h e n you need it.
3. The system will be used to conduct follow-up studies.
Justifications:
The information held by school principals does not include

the addresses of former technical secondary school pupils
(Document 5), so your survey can cover only pupils w h o are
still enrolled.
5
- The value of these studies is that they can be used for both
the internal and external evaluation of the education system
(in this case, technical secondary schools). This type of survey
can produce a better response rate (see M O D U L E 5). For m o r e
rapid results, you can initially (in the months following the
Minister's authorization) conduct a survey a m o n g the latest
cohort of technical secondary school leavers: this will give you
time to 'run in' your survey techniques and methodology.
- This methodological value (more substantial information) is

paralleled b y a political value; you will thus meet all your
Minister's subsequent requests for information o n technical
secondary schools (internal efficiency, pupils, etc.).
QUESTION 3 was: For each objective, try to

formulate s o m e assumptions, with the help of the
documents.
O REPLY:
Objective 1: Estimate the proportion of technical secondary

school leavers w h o are in employment.
Assumption: In view of the limited size of the m o d e r n sector,

access to it is probably confined to a small n u m b e r of former
pupils. A thousand or so, graduates or non-graduates, enter
the labour market; thisfigurehas to be set against the total of
33,000 jobs in the m o d e r n , secondary a n d tertiary sectors. It is
likely that m a n y former technical secondary school pupils will
be unemployed and that others will be employed as unskilled
workers in jobs that d o not correspond to their education.
Others will be in the informal sector.
Objective 2: Evaluate the role played by the possession of a

qualification in securing various types of employment.
Assumption: A s a general rule, a qualification helps the holder

tofinda better job more quickly, but not to the same extent in all
specialities. There are 'public enterprises' in the Republic of
Q W E R T Y ; even without any other details concerning their legal
status, one can check whether they specifically recruit graduates
and then m a k e a useful comparison with non-graduates.
Objective 3: Compare the employment difficulties

encountered by former pupils in each speciality
(unemployment, underemployment, etc.).
Assumption: O n e cannot draw u p a complete balance-sheet of

the circumstances of former technical secondary school pupils,
as the Minister's letter suggests, without taking account of the
specific features of each speciality. There is every likelihood
that activities will differ greatly between one speciality and
another, depending on the characteristics of the national
economy (Document 6 gives an indication of this) and the job
prospects where each speciality is concerned. It m a y be
assumed that the balance-sheet of technical secondary schools
will be nuanced; the differences between specialities being just
as, or even more, marked than those between graduates and
non-graduates irrespective of specialities. Like the possession
of a certificate, the training speciality will therefore be an
essential independent variable in your analysis (see Module 4).
Objective 4: Investigate former pupils' capabilities of

becoming self-employed.
Assumption: Given the expected level of unemployment, a

number of technical secondary school leavers, especially non-
graduates, will enter the informal sector after they have been
unemployed for a few months. A knowledge of h o w school
leavers enter other forms of employment (self-employment,
hand crafts, etc.) is a preliminary to any consideration of
auricular content. This fact has consequences on the
construction of the questionnaire, which must not be centred
exclusively on the modern sector.
Objective 5: Evaluate the extent of the flow of former

technical secondary school pupils to Higher Technical
Institutes.
Assumption: A number of secondary school graduates

continue their studies in Higher Technical Institutes, but
because of their inadequate general education there is a high
drop-out rate at this level.
7
In the light of these few indications, you can n o w assess your

o w n replies. R e m e m b e r that the main purpose of this exercise
is to help you to match a particular survey methodology toa
given assignment, to express the task in terms of the objectives
to be attained and the population to be questioned.
by Jean Lamoure
IIIS1I Yfir International Institute for Educational Planning

Preparation of a questionnaire
QUESTION 1 w a s : Construct a complete

questionnaire, with especially detailed emphasis on
questions relating to the respondents' activity and
employment
^ REPLY:
There are m a n y possible questionnaires, all of them equally valid
provided they meet a certain number of conditions, such as
comprising four parts (as indicated on your reply sheet) and
being clearly formulated (see Module 4). The main difficulty in
this case was to take full cognizance of the information on F A H
and its context. Five essential points had to be borne in mind:
1. The former students must be asked the date w h e n they left

FAH.
You left FAH in 1990; in what month?
(Write the month in full: January, February...): MONTH:,
Those w h o graduated certainly left at the end of the university

year, as did those w h o failed the degree examination. But you
also want to question those w h o dropped out during the
university year. If you wish to k n o w h o w long they were
unemployed or w h e n they entered their first job, you have to
k n o w w h e n they left F A H . But you can simply ask them h o w
many months they were unemployed before entering their
first job.
1
2. T h e respondents must be asked whether they have

embarked o n other courses of study.
O n the basis of the records kept b y F A H , there is only one

thing of which you are certain: the students in question have
left F A H . But you d o not k n o w if they have transferred to
another Faculty, or sat - and perhaps passed - the entrance
examination for admission to one of the Institutes.
Several questions are possible:
Have you embarked on any other course of study since

leaving FAH?
NO 11] YES [2]

If so, which?
(You m a y list the different Faculties or Institutes here, and

add a note headed 'other studies' if you consider that your list
is not exhaustive).
Have you sat an examination for admission to an Institute?
NO [1] YES [2]
If so, which Institute?
(You m a y list the various Institutes, including the Higher

Pedagogic Institute (HPI) and perhaps m a k e provision for
m o r e than one reply if students are allowed to sit more than
one examination).
Did you pass that examination?
NOll] YES [2]
2
(For students who reply 'yes', the questions on employment are

inapplicable).
It is possible to ask other questions; the main thing is to be

able to identify those students w h o have continued their
studies; they will obviously be discounted in your calculations
of unemployment rates. This information is also valuable in
that knowing the respondents' subject specializations w h e n
they left secondary school, you can seek a possible
relationship between secondary education and these changes
of direction (remember that some F A H students obtained their
certificate of secondary education in science subjects).
3. Y o u can also question former students on their reasons for

dropping out
This is a tricky question, for it could be regarded as a question

of opinion. If you really want to know, choose a closed
question (one with a list of possible answers) and make
provision for more than one answer. This will enable you to
pin d o w n the replies more satisfactorily.
Why did you leave FAH? (You may give more than one reason):
-1 had no grant.
-1 could have repeated my year but I didn't want to.
- 1 could not repeat my year.
-1 found a job.
-1 was in employment, and could no longer attend classes.
-etc.
These are just a few examples which far from cover all the
possible reasons for leaving (e.g. military service, parents'
wishes, family circumstances, marriage, etc.). The trial survey
(see chart, Module 5) will enable you to polish up this type of
question.
3
4. For the questions on A C T I V I T I E S w h i c h you have certainly

thought of formulating, it m a y be necessary to include a
section under the heading 'work + studies'; the two are
obviously not mutually exclusive.
W e have seen in M o d u l e 4 that there can be several

circumstances where w o r k is concerned, and it can be too
lengthy a business to single them all out (working in the h o m e
+ studying, working for an employer + studying, working o n
one's o w n account + studying, and so on). Y o u can adopt a n
'economical' solution by doing a w a y with a section in the
questionnaire specifically headed ' w o r k + studies' and simply
asking the respondent to tick t w o boxes under the question o n
ACTIVITIES:
If you are working while following your course of study, tick the
two corresponding boxes.
5. Finally, s o m e indications concerning the questions o n

employment
It m a y be assumed that the teaching profession is one of the

prime choices open to F A H graduates; not only for those w h o
gain a university degree in the Arts, the Plastic Arts or
History/Geography (through access to an HPI) but also for
those admitted to the second year, w h o m a y b e c o m e primary
school teachers. Y o u have already identified the respondents
w h o have entered a n H P I in the question o n the continuation
of studies (see above), but it m a y b e useful to question them
explicitly o n employment in the teaching profession (not only
as primary school teachers, but also as teachers in other non-
Civil Service categories), independently of the general
question o n w h a t employment they have entered.
4
What is your present job?
(State the exact nature of your job, e.g. insurance broker, book-
keeper, airline office clerk, bank cashier, etc.).
Are you a teacher?
(Specify the type of school in which you teach - primary school,

private school, etc.).
Officially, Civil Servants are n o longer recruited; but d o not

exclude the possibility of Civil Service e m p l o y m e n t a prion.
Apart from occasional possibilities of recruitment in this sector,
s o m e respondents m a y h a v e been able to enter g o v e r n m e n t
e m p l o y m e n t without being classed as Civil Servants. Y o u can
find this out b y asking w h a t the status of the employer is.
7s your employer:
(1) The head of a private company?
(2) The head of a suite-owned enterprise?
(3) A ministry?
(4) A local authority?
(and so o n , the nomenclature being adapted to the country

concerned).
5
QUESTION 2 was: Submit a coding system only for

the questions on ' D E G R E E H E L D ' , and 'ACTIVITY'.
The solutions given here are to be regarded simply as examples.

The coding depends on h o w you have formulated your
questions.
o REPLY: the question on degree obtained
1.2 Do you have a university degree? N O [1] Y E S 12]
(Reserved for coding:1.2.\_\)
If YES, in what subject?

Arts 131
Plastic arts [4]
Sociology [51
Psychology 16]
History/Geography 17]
Coding instructions: eight codes are normally possible (from 1 to

7, + 0 for "no reply"). But thanks to the F A H records, you know
whether or not the respondent to this question is a graduate; the
code 0 need not be used. Code [2] (reply: YES) is reserved for
questionnaires which contain no information concerning a
degree. This is necessary because many of your analyses will
involve the respective circumstances of graduates and non-
graduates, and 'no replies' to this question would make the
questionnaires unusable.
So you need only one box to code this question: (1.2.1 _ I ).
6
o REPL Y: the question on activities
THE QUESTION O N ACTIVITIES
2. What were your activity on 15 December 1991?

(Circle the appropriate box).
(coding: 2.1_l_l)
[1] Y o u were repeating your year in the same educational establishment as in

1990.
[2] Y o u were a pupil or student in another establishment
. In what establishment? ( N a m e and address):
. In what grade and in what subject?
[3] Y o u were not employed and you were seeking employment

Y o u had been seeking employment since:
month: year: 19.... 2.1. month I _ I _ I 191 _ I _
[4] Y o u were doing your military service.
Y o u had been doing it since:
month: yean 19 2.2 month l_l_l 1 9 I J J
[5] You were helping a member of your family in his or her work, without
being paid for doing so.
[6] You were helping a member of your family in his or her work, and being
paid for doing so.
[7] You were apprenticed to an employer.
[8] You were working for an employer as a salaried employee.
[9] You were working on your o w n account.
7
Coding instructions: to code the ACTIVITY questions, you need

a 'comb' in a position corresponding to nine possible
codes (1 to 9). If you put questions which m a y have more
than one answer (e.g. work + study), as in the example given
here, you will have to have a two-position comb (e.g. 2.
I _ I _ I ) because additional codes will be required, such as
[10] = [2] (studies) + [6] (helping a member of the family);
[11] = [2] + [7], etc. Obviously these new codes do not figure
in the questionnaire, but only in the instructions given to the
coding personnel (see Module 5). For coding dates (2.1 and
2.2) you need four-position combs, the first two positions
corresponding to the month (January = 01 to December = 12):
month I _ I _ I 19 I _ I _ I. The establishments and classes in
which the respondents are enrolled are not coded, but they
m a y subsequently be analysed qualitatively.
^ REPLY: the question on salaries
1st Q U E S T I O N O N S A L A R Y
3. W h a t w a s your monthly salary in June 1991?
(Circle the appropriate box):
[1] Less than 1,000 Blinis. D

[2] 1,000 to < 1,200 Blinis. D
[3] 1,200 to < 1,400 Blinis. D
[4] 1,400 to < 1,600 Blinis. D
[5] 1,600 to < 1,800 Blinis. D
[6] 1,800 to < 2,000 Blinis. D
[7] M o r e than 2,000 Blinis. D
(Reserved for coding: 3. 1 J
Coding instructions: there are 8 possible codes (1 to 7 + code 0 in

case of 'no reply*). But if you confine yourself to these codes you
will not be able, for example, to calculate an average salary
unless you attach a value in Blinistothem w h e n you perform the
calculation (i.e. w h e n the tables are produced). What value do
you assign to codes 2 to 6? The answer is relatively easy: you
assign them the value of the mid-point of the salary bracket; for
example, [2] = 1,100 Blinis, [3] = 1,300 Blinis, etc. The value to
assign to code 1 is more tricky, since it lies theoretically between
0 and 1,000 Blinis. The m i n i m u m wage in Qwerty is 500 Blinis a
month, so you can assign a value of 750 Blinis to code 1 (500 plus
1,000 divided by 2 = 750). But there is no upper limit of salary;
you can only assign a value to code 7 after finding out (by
examining job offers, salaries paid by large companies, etc.) what
the highest salaries are for newly recruited employees, and then
proceed as for code 1; for example, 2,000 plus 3,000 (the highest
salary) divided by 2 = 2,500 Blinis.
But this is an approximate method of calculation, and so in your

questions concerning the transition from school to work the
formulation on the next page is preferable.
2nd QUESTION O N S A L A R Y
3. What was your monthly salary in June 1991?
(Enter it here - onefigurein each box): 1 _IJJ- .1 Blinis)
Coding instructions: There is no special coding problem, since

the respondent has entered the salary infigures(for example
1 350 Blinis, 2 720 Blinis...). The four boxes are amply sufficient,
for they can contain a salary of up to 9,999 Blinis, nearly twenty
times the national minimum! But check that the salary has been
correctly entered (1figureper box) and that salaries below 1,000
Blinis are preceded by a 0 in thefirstbox (e.g. 956 Blinis must be
entered as 101915161 and not 1915161 I so that the computer
m a y perform the calculations correctly; otherwise 191516 I will
be interpreted as 9,560 Blinis).
9
Coding a questionnaire is quite easy really, but it has to be

done precisely; d o not rush it, and m a k e your coding
instructions as detailed as possible so as to avoid any
ambiguity.
10
by Jean Lamoure
mil International Institute for Educational Planning

QUESTION 1 was: C o m m e n t on the results contained

in Table 1 (unemployment rates a m o n g former pupils of
the final year of vocational education) with reference to
three variables:
- Specializations.
- Certificates studied for.
- Sex.
=* ANSWER
Disparities with reference to specializations.
Disparities with reference to specializations are marked.
U n e m p l o y m e n t rates range from 10.5 per cent (sheetmetal
working; A Level Voc.) to 43 per cent (Chemistry, physics,
Biology; A Level Tech.) a m o n g boys and from 24 per cent
(Hotel trade; Technical Cert.) to 51.2 per cent (Secretarial
work; Vocational Cert.) a m o n g girls. These results reflect very
contrasting conditions from one sector and from one
specialization to another. Nevertheless, the differences are just
as marked, within a given specialization, between one type of
certifcate and another.
Disparities with reference to the certificate studied for.

Scrutiny ofTable 1 reveals that the unemployment rate declines as
the level of training rises. Nevertheless, where long courses of
vocational secondary education ( ' A ' Level technical and
vocational) are concerned, employers seem to give preference to
a more specialized training ('A' level vocational).
- Vocational Certificate:
For boys, the greatest difficulty of insertion into the labour market
1
occurs in the 'Photography' section and, for girls, in the 'Tailoring'

section.
- Technical certificate:
T h e highest u n e m p l o y m e n t rates for boys occur in the
'Accountancy, Bookkeeping 7 section a n d for girls in the
' C o m m e r c e ' section.
H o w e v e r , for girls as well as boys, u n e m p l o y m e n t rates in the
s a m e speciality are systemically lower for those students with
a Technical Certificate rather than a Vocational Certificate.
T h e Technical Certificate seems to permit a quicker insertion
into the labour market.
- 'A' level vocational certificate:

For boys, the highest u n e m p l o y m e n t rate is in 'Chemistry'.
Girls with secretarial qualifications at this level have the
greatest difficulty in finding e m p l o y m e n t .
- 'A' level technical certificate:

A s for the technical certificate, the u n e m p l o y m e n t rate is
highest for boys in 'Accountancy, Bookkeeping 7 . T h e
u n e m p l o y m e n t rate for girls is highest in Tailoring7.
Disparities with reference to sex.
M o s t industrial specializations are accounted for b y boys; it is

therefore not possible to compare b o y s ' transition from school to
w o r k with that of girls for a given course of training. T h e s a m e is
true in the case of the tertiary sector and tailoring, sectors which
are mainly accounted for by girls.
But o n the whole it can b e observed that at a given level, the

unemployment rate a m o n g girls is appreciably higher than a m o n g
boys.
2
QUESTION 2 was: Please state your hypotheses on

h o w the present school system could be improved,
based on your evaluation of Table 1.
ANSWER
Pupils with the highest levels of certification encounter the least
difficulties in finding work. This observation raises the question
of the expediency of measures to extend the duration of studies.
Finding a job is particularly difficult for those w h o have studied

certain specialities:
- Tailoring (for girls).

- Secretarial work (for girls).
- Accountancy and bookkeeping (for girls and boys).
This should lead to reconsider the utility and the intake capacity
of the sectors in question (reduction of the n u m b e r of pupils taking
such courses, curricular reform, or even doing away with certain
certificates).
T h e concentration of girls in a few specializations is an impediment

to their success in finding work. A targeted guidance policy
should help to give girls wider access to the range of training
available.
For a given specialization, pupils holding the Technical Certificate

are m o r e likely to find a job than those holding the Vocational
Certificate. T h e range of training should perhaps be reviewed, and
certain sections of the Vocational Certificate be transferred to
Technical Certificate courses.
Lastly, scrutiny of the results raises the question of the

complementarity, or conversely the duplication, to which the co-
existence of ' A ' level technical and ' A ' level vocational courses
gives rise.
3
QUESTION 1 w a s : Tables 2, 3 and 4 are taken from

the results of a repeat-run survey conducted in Kenya
in 1984 and 1986. C o m m e n t upon them, in numerical
order, and draw a general conclusion as to the effect on
the circumstances of former pupils of introducing
practical subjects into the curriculum.
o ANSWER
Table 2 (1984)
- O n e year after taking the K C E examination, more than half the

pupils were still attending school.
- A small proportion were in work.
- Most of the pupils w h o had left school were in the stage of
transition, looking for work.
- T h e structure of the results is m u c h the same for all three
categories. Only category HI differs slightly, showing a higher
proportion of pupils still attending school, and a correspondingly
lower proportion looking for work.
Table 3 (1986)
- T w o years later, the activities of the respondents had changed
appreciably. M a n y of them had left school.
- 50 per cent of those w h o had left school had found work.
- The proportion w h o were still looking for work had dropped
markedly, except in category n , where it remained almost
unchanged.
- Here again, there are only slight disparities a m o n g the three
categories; the proportion of those w h o found work is slightly
lower in category II.
Table 4 (1984/1986)
- A m o n g the pupils w h o were still attending school in 1984,
more than one quarter were still at school two years later, the
others being equally proportioned between working and looking
for work.
- A m o n g the pupils w h o were in work in 1984, only 61 per cent
were still in work in 1986; a significant proportion had resumed
their studies.
- It is worth noting that 43 per cent of those looking for work in
1984 were still looking in 1986.
In conclusion:
The differences between activities a m o n g the three categories were
marginal, and remained so three years after taking the K C E
examination. Category I, which is the subject of the evaluation, does
not show a higher rate of employment than the two others, either in
1984 or in 1986. Since the differences are not significant, the results
are indeterminate. This being so, it is not possible, on these bases, to
draw any categorical and definitive conclusion as to the effect of the
introduction of industrial subjects on the activities of school leavers.
In particular, the fact of having received instruction in technical
(industrial) subjects does not seem to have any significant bearing on
their likelihood of finding work, either as employees or as self-
employed persons.
QUESTION 2 w a s : What additional Information does

Table 5 give concerning the relationship between
education and employment?
* ANSWER
The majority of respondents in employment at the time of the
survey were teachers. This type of employment predominates in
all three categories.
5
The highest proportion of respondents employed in technical and

practical occupations are in Category I. Nevertheless, this trend
does not compensate for the marked predominance of the teaching
profession.
These results confirm the analysis of the previous tables and

indicate that it is not possible to establish a link between the
introduction of industrial subjects in general education and:
(i) the probability offindingemployment, or
(ii) the entry of school leavers into technical employment.
Exercise 3.3
Q U E S T I O N 1 was: For each three-month period
(T1 to T11), calculate the proportion of people in stop-
gap employment (line 5) a m o n g the total number in
employment (line 7), and add one or two sentences of
comments.
* ANSWER
Theproportion of employed people in stop-gap employment is:

[number in stop-gap employment/ total n u m b e r in
employment] X 100.
For thefirstthree-month period, this gives:

[11/16] X 100 = 69%. M a k e the same calculation for the other
three-month periods:
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11
Percentage in stop-gap employment:

69% 70% 80% 79% 75% 66% 64% 63% 60% 53% 52%
Comments: The proportion of people in stop-gap employment

rises steadily during the first year after the trainees leave school
(Tl to T4), after which it steadily drops. There seems to be a link
between stop-gap jobs and definitive jobs; the formerrisewith
the number of respondents w h o are on a course of training (line
2) and diminish with those looking for a job (line 4). Beyond the
first year (Tl to T4) the proportion of people in definitive
employmentrises,but the proportion in stop-gap employment
still remains higher, and stands at 52% of the total in the last
three-month period (Til).
QUESTION 2 was: Calculate the unemployment rate

for each three-month period (T1 to T11). Define
unemployment in the sense in which you use the term
in this case. What do you observe?
^ ANSWER
The unemployment rate is:

[number of respondents seeking employment (line 4)/number
in employment +number seeking employment] X 100.
For Tl, this comes to: [106/16 + 106] X 100 = 87%.
Make the same calculation for the other three-month periods.

The result is:
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11
Unemployment rate:
87% 77% 59%52% 54% 47% 43% 39% 41% 42% 39%

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HEP TEACHING MATERIALS

Follow-up and Tracer studies

H E P P r o g r a m m e Manager: Franoise Caillods

I" ^ International Institute for Educational Planning

Emphasizing IIEP's fundamental task of strengthening the

Ensuring the widest possible geographical coverage of

Encouraging the gradual assumption by Member States of

Training has always been the Institute's major activity. In spite of

The teaching materials are based largely on the Institutes' own

Assistant Director-General, UNESCO

These self-instruction materials are intended primarily for

T o tackle w h a t follows, it is not necessary to possess any

After studying the material, the reader will be capable of

Conducting follow-up and tracer surveys is primarily a matter

Module 1: The definition and value of follow-up and

Module 2: Defining the objectives of the survey.

Module 3: Problems of sampling.

Module 4: The construction of the questionnaire.

Module 5: Implementing the survey.

Module 6: Analysis of results.

Module 7: Medium-term prospects.

These modules are independent of one another and can be

Some aspects (sampling techniques, coding, methodologies of

You will alsofindaccompanying the modules:

Exercises: there are three practical exercises. There is no

These modules were prepared by Jean Lamoure,

Follow-up and tracer studies

IIPE P r o g r a m m e Manager: Franoise Caillods

The seven modules on studies of transition from school to

Trainees need not have any special qualification in statistics

Purpose of the modules

(i) a briefing function by showing the role of follow-up or

authorities. In the employment system they can contribute

(ii) a learning function as it serves as an initial approach to the

The modules are designed in such a w a y that they give

General plan for the self-instructional modules

After the general introductory Module 1, Modules 2,3 and 4

important than the modules concerning the policy and insti-

Purpose of the exercises and solutions

A s exercises require concrete results, they cannot be set for all

Apart from checking o n knowledge, the exercises and their

reasoning. Similarly, if the trainer k n o w s of any recent follow-

Although a trainer must be responsible for the entire course,

Trainers are not conventional teachers: their role is well defined

Organization of the course

(i) Selection of trainees

There is no o p t i m u m size for a group of trainees. Although

modules, the exercise sessions, w h e n they are supervised, and

A s a rule, it is preferable to organize several courses for small

(ii) The trainer's personal preparation

The trainer m u s t have read (and re-read) all the modules,

The trainer will also prepare the additional documentation

(Hi) Trainee preparation

H o w e v e r the course is organized (see General Comments, Section

The trainer should also provide a short introductory paper o n

This short paper of about two pages could be accompanied by

! before starting the course", or " Y o u are urged to read this

(iv) Organization of the course

A s it is a matter of the time available to the trainer and the

Although the ideal solution is to complete the entire course o n

(v) Duration of the course

The 30 hours or so required are, however, only an estimate.

N . B . : D o not underestimate the time needed to do the exercises,