Fundamentals of 3-D seismic
volume visualization
GERALD D. KIDD, Paradigm Geophysical Corporation, Houston, Texas
3-D volume visualization is a
method of seismic interpretation in
which the seismic reflectivity of the
subsurface is directly evaluated in
three-dimensional space by applying
various levels of transparency to the
data. The technology and philosophy
of 3-D volume visualization differ dra-
matically from conventional inter-
pretation and include new strategies
and methodology. This article will
present some basic introductory infor-
mation which should help geophysi-
cists adapt to this new technique.
It will probably be difficult for
some interpreters, particularly those
with considerable experience and
expertise in traditional methods, to
master this new, much different inter-
pretation technique. However, I sug-
gest they make the effort because this
method has several advantages. In
particular, integration of several kinds
of data allows examination of many
key features prior to significant digi-
tal interpretation. This, in turn, leads
to higher quality interpretations in a
shorter time frame.
Background. The two basic types of
visualization are map-based (or sur-
face visualization) and volume-based
or (volume visualization). Surface
visualization results from mapping
individual horizons and faults, and
then reinterpreting them collectively
in 3-D space as a 3-D model. This
requires two interpretation steps and
the data represent only a portion of
the 3-D volume. Surface visualization
is the logical end product of conven-
tional interpretation. Volume visuali-
zation is based on an entirely different
attribute of the datatransparency
and represents a major paradigm shift
in 3-D seismic data interpretation.
Volume visualization assumes that
the reflectivity of the subsurface is an
in situ 3-D model of the subsurface
which, by its nature, consists of inte-
grated structural, stratigraphic, and
amplitude features in 3-D space. Both
3-D regional and prospect-specific
evaluations, including identification
Editors note: The material in this article was
presented at the 1999 Offshore Technology
Conference, 3-6 May 1999. A longer version
of the article is in the OTC Proceedings.
702 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999
a) b)
Figure 1. (a) Seismic sample to voxel relationship. (b) ZS opacity editor and
its relationship to seismic.
of potential fluid contacts, can be per-
formed quickly by looking into the
volume. In contrast to surface visual-
ization (where surfaces constitute the
3-D model), the 3-D data themselves
constitute the model.
In voxel-based volume visualiza-
tion (Figure 1a), each data sample is
converted into a voxel (a three-dimen-
sional pixel with dimensions approx-
imating the bin spacing and sample
interval). Each voxel has a value that
corresponds to the parent 3-D vol-
ume, an RGB (red, green, blue) color
Figure 2. Workflow.
value and an opacity variable that
allows the degree of transparency to rected if necessary. Poor data scaling
be regulated. Therefore, each seismic (e.g., that severely underutilizes the
trace is converted to a column of vox- datas full dynamic range) or exces-
els. sive clipping greatly reduce the effec-
The data are scaled to eight-bit tiveness of volume visualization.
and displayed as a histogram repre- Next, data are prepared for opaque 2-
senting the distribution of the voxel D slice overviews by setting defaults,
values (Figure 1b). Data parameters parameters, and colors so that the data
such as phase, frequency, and seismic represent settings similar to those in
signatures should be reviewed prior conventional interpretation. Then,
to detailed visualization. This is crit- scanning is performed along all three
ical for guiding the application of primary axes for both 3-D regional
transparency and in designing visu- and prospect-specific overviews.
alization strategies for specific inter- After an objective is identified, a
pretation problems. focusing strategytime windowed,
New technologies introduce new detection, or horizon-keyedisolates
workflows. Figure 2 is a generalized it as preparation for application of
volume visualization workflow. Start- opacity. This is a critical step in vol-
ing at the top, survey parameters and ume visualization because it removes
data scaling are inspected and cor- extraneous data above and below the
JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 703
 objective interval. In low-dipping
strata, time windowed visualization
is very effective for evaluating geol-
ogy (Figure 3). Detection is based on
the physical connectivity of voxels
within a user-defined amplitude
range. The results can be immediately
evaluated for internal amplitude vari-
ations or to generate surfaces. This is
particularly useful in evaluating spe-
cific stratigraphic features, mapping
individual fault blocks, or creating
Figure 3. Volume visualization of regional surfaces. Horizon-keyed
a Lower-Frio bright amplitude focusing strategies are the most accu-
using a time-windowed strategy. rate method for evaluating an inter-
a)
b)
Figure 4. (a) Horizon-keyed visualization is used to encapsulate a complex
stratigraphic zone. (b) All events within the zone will contribute to the
interpretation.
a)
b)
Figure 5. (a) Various horizon and (b) sequence-keyed intervals for focusing
on dipping stratigraphic units.
704 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999
val because they only include data
within the zone of interest (Figure 4).
This is ideal for evaluation of struc-
tured depositional units. A single hori-
zon may be used to create a
bulk-shifted interval or any variation
from two horizons may be used to
customize sequence visualizations
(Figure 5).
After focusing, opacity is system-
atically applied, utilizing the zone
system (ZS), to achieve the highest
quality volume visualization.
Application. ZS, an iterative and sys-
tematic process, is based on the most
important tool of volume visualiza-
tionthe opacity editor. ZS involves
dividing the histogram into six verti-
cal zones, three positive zones corre-
sponding to peak amplitudes and
three negative zones corresponding
to trough amplitudes (Figure 1b).
Zone one positive (Z1+) includes the
highest positive amplitudes, zone two
(Z2+) the intermediate amplitudes,
and zone three (Z3+) the lowest pos-
itive amplitudes. A three-color scale
(in this case red, yellow and white) is
designed to correspond to each posi-
tive zone. The correlation between a
zoned colored-coded amplitude
within the semitransparent visualiza-
tion to its corresponding position
within the opacity editor serves as the
link which directs where and how
the opacity curve should be adjusted
to enhance that specific geologic fea-
ture. This process is iterated until the
geologic features are optimally
enhanced in all zones (Figure 3).
The number of data points within
each zone (Figure 1b) is generally
inversely proportional to amplitude
strength. Therefore, the magnitude of
the opacity adjustments in each zone
should decrease away from maxi-
mum amplitudes. In other words,
since the relative percentage of vox-
els in Z3 is very large, opacity adjust-
ments within Z3 should be relatively
small, because small Z3 adjustments
have a large impact on the visualiza-
tion. On the other hand, relatively
large opacity adjustments in Z1 have
less impact on the image due to the
smaller number of voxels.
The key to distinguishing features
with clarity is the geoscientists abil-
ity to enhance the contrast between
two features. The primary compo-
nents in feature enhancement are the
base color scale, their color variations
at different opacity levels, and the
background color.
The general process of managing
colors within conventional interpre-
JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 0000
 tation systems is simplethe colors
generally maintain their opaqueness
throughout the interpretation. How-
ever, in volume visualization, the
management of colors is complex. A
Figure 6. Interpretation objectives between 1448 and 1520 ms.
a)
c)
Figure 7. (a) Initial opacity curve with (b) key amplitudes classified by
zone. (c) Adjusted opacity curve increases the visibility of Z1 and Z2
amplitudes and decreases the visibility of Z3 amplitudes. (d) Resultant
visualization.
Figure 8. Detailed visualization of
complex channel fan systems using
time-windowed focusing and ZS.
0000 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999
single base color, red for example, can
be expressed in 256 variations, due to
the eight-bit opacity editor. Each opac-
ity level produces a different variation
of red. In practice, the interpreter usu-
b)
d)
a)
Figure 9. Volume visualization (a) and interpretation (b) of a lowstand
channel fan system.
ally would group the 256 base color
opacity variations into several
shades. The background color
becomes critical since it plays a key
role in foreground-to-background
contrast. A black background is best
for most visualization because black
provides the greatest contrast against
a wide range of colors, especially dur-
ing the enhancement of subtle Z3
amplitudes at low opacity levels. Not
all colors behave in the same way with
respect to background color and opac-
ity level. Therefore, colors can be clas-
sified into two groupscolors that
contrast well at high-opacity levels
and colors that contrast well at low-
opacity levels. This is critical, espe-
cially when working with subtle Z3
features, where Z3 amplitudes can be
further subdivided into subzones,
allowing additional contrast for very
subtle features. Therefore, in Z3 and
sub-Z3 visualizations, where opacity
levels are usually less than 50%, only
colors that remain bright at low opac-
ity should be used. Colors that work
well in low opacity (with respect to a
black background) are white, yellow,
green, and light blue.
A stratigraphic visualization. The
objective is to define the depositional
environment and delineate prospec-
tive stratigraphic facies in the upper
portion of a 400-ms channelized sec-
tion (Figure 6) with variable ampli-
tudes and discontinuous nonparallel
events.
After focusing on the interval, a
first-pass opacity curve sorts the fea-
tures into the three positive zones
(Figures 7a-b). Then, a visual or ampli-
tude inventory of each zone is made
according to color, and identifiable
geologic features are chosen for
enhancement. As a feature is
enhanced, ideas are generated to assist
b)
JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 705
 identification of other events, which
a) are then classified by zone and
enhanced. In this case, the opacity of
Z1 and Z2 amplitudes are increased
and opacity of Z3 decreased (Figures
7c-d). The process should be iterated
until the geologic features in all zones
have been visually optimized (Figure
b) 8).
Figures 9a-b show visualized
stratigraphic details and facies inter-
pretation of the northern lowstand
channel-fan system. Sand is inter-
preted to bypass the incised valley and
wide channelized zone, and have been
deposited basinward as an amalga-
c) mated unit. Updip, in the wide chan-
nelized zone, the southernmost
channel shows a south-trending cre-
vasse splay with two delta-like progra-
dational lobes. The amalgamated
sands and crevasse splay facies are
bright Z1 amplitudes. During back-
filling of the incised valley, fine grain
Figure 10. Correlation between volume visualization and 2-D cross-lines. sediments are interpreted to have been
(a) Proximal contourite (A) and crevasse splay (B). (b) Distal contourite (C). diverted and transported southward
(c) Braided fan (D). by transverse paleocurrents and
deposited as contourites. The con-
tourites are classified as Z2 amplitudes.
The very low amplitudes, outboard of
the contourites and north of the chan-
nelized zone, are classified as Z3 and
interpreted as sediment-starved areas.
Figures 10a-c illustrate the corre-
lation between three 2-D dip sections
and the time-windowed visualization
(Figure 8). In Figure 10a, cross-line 70
intersects the proximal portion of the
contourite (A) and the crevasse splay
(B), both of which exhibit southward
depositional directions. In Figure 10b,
cross-line 110 intersects the distal por-
Figure 11. 2-D lines showing reflection free channels. tions of the contourite (C), which are

a)

b)

c)

Figure 12. Volume visualization results after apply- Figure 13. Cross-referencing between (a) 2-D seismic
ing ZS to Figure 11. events, (b) digitization, and (c) volume visualization of a
point bar and cut bank.
706 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999 JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 0000
 a)

b) Figure 15. Visualized results of

strategies in Figure 14.
related to the northern incised valley.
Cross-line 210 (Figure 10c) intersects a
northwest-trending lowstand braided-
fan facies (D), sourced from the south-
c) ern incised valley. Multiple low-
sinuosity braided channels and lens-
shaped bars characterize the braided
fan facies. Without volume visualiza-
tion, in-line 210 could be misinter-
preted as massive contorted slump
Figure 14. (a) Wavy and discontinuous variable amplitude interpretation deposits. In this case, the initial depo-
objective. (b) Horizon-keyed focusing strategy. (c) Zonal classification for sitional model, based strictly on 2-D
application of visualization. lines, was significantly simpler than
that shown in the visualization.

Visualization-guided interpretation.
The information within volume visu-
alization is primarily a visual display
that cannot be physically grasped like
a paper map. If a standard hard copy
is made, the 3-D aspects are lost due
to projection onto a 2-D surface. To
grasp the seemingly nebulous visu-
alization, conventional interpretation
processes, mainly digitizing and map-
ping, are performed in conjunction
with the visualization. Normally, the
digital interpretation is independent
of the visualization and resultant sur-
faces are later inserted into the semi-
transparent volume to complete the
integration.
Figure 11 shows two 2-D sections
Figure 16. Zonal classification of a faulted reflector within a time- through a highly channelized interval.
windowed interval. The objectives are to map the reflec-
tion-free channels (arrows), under-
a) b) stand the complexity of the
depositional environment, and iden-
tify prospective facies. Due to the low
(Z3) reflectivity of the channel-fill
and geologic complexity, automatic
horizon and mapping tools are not
effective. As a result, conventional
interpretation would be time-con-
suming, difficult, and uncertain.
However, a technique called visuali-
zation-guided interpretation can
improve the situation.
Figure 17. (a) Zonal classification of a
faulted horizon with respect to the opac-
ity editor and color scale. (b) Opacity
adjustment, rendering peak amplitude
and fault reflectivity transparent.
0000 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999 JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 707
 Focusing on the objective interval
(1692-1720 ms) and application of ZS
generates an interpretation with two
primary sinuous channels and asso-
ciated channel facies (Figure 12). The
channels are represented by very low
amplitudes (Z3) and are visually
defined by enhancing the contrasting
data that confine them.
By utilizing multiple windows to
display 2-D lines as cross-sections
(Figures 13a-b) and using the semi-
transparent visualization as the geo-
logic depositional model in map
Figure 18. Structural visualization using ZS, rendering the seismic reflec-
tivity of the fault transparent.
Figure 19. Workflow for visualizing high-reflectivity amplitudes. (a)
Scanning and identifying the objective. (b) Applying opacity and (c) isolat-
ing the objective to determine (d) amplitude extent and structural relief. (e)
Internal amplitude variations and (f) depositional indicators.
708 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999
view (Figure 13c), a coupled cursor is
used to correlate features between dis-
plays. This correlation makes the 2-D
interpretation and digitizing process
easier, because an event on the 2-D
line can be directly correlated with its
map expression with respect to the
surrounding geology as revealed
within the visualization. For exam-
ple, in the interpretation of in-line 201,
the abrupt amplitude termination
(Figure 13a, at cursor location 2) cor-
responds to the cut bank in the visu-
alization (Figure 13c). Digitizing and
interpretation are continued until a
sufficient grid is made and interpo-
lated into a map.
Horizon-keyed or sequence visuali-
zation. Interval objectives with sig-
nificant dip require surfaces to isolate
the data. Thick complex stratigraphic
units cannot be fully represented by
a surface; however, they are usually
associated with a nearby, mappable,
sequence boundary. Therefore,
sequence boundaries are often used to
isolate stratigraphic packages for
visualization. Since the sequence
boundary itself is not the economic
objective and its relief is generally
smooth, its interpretation should be
minimized.
Figure 14a shows data that would
be a difficult interpretation challenge
for conventional techniques. The zone
of interest is characterized by discon-
tinuous, wavy, and shingled reflec-
tors. Due to the high frequency of
discontinuities and cycle splitting,
auto detection tools are of little use.
Therefore, detailed and time-con-
suming line-by-line interpretation
would be performed.
However, horizon-keyed visuali-
zation can make the interpretation
quick and simple. In Figure 14b, an
underlying high-amplitude continu-
ous reflector was easily interpreted
and bulk-shifted upward twice (20 ms
and 48 ms) to encompass the zone of
interest (Figure 14c). Large arcuate
dune-like features are revealed
(Figure 15) and interpreted as deep-
water contourites. Small down-to-
basin fault complexes appearing as
lineaments in the center of the visu-
alization are perpendicular to paleos-
lope. Similar techniques can evaluate
seismic constructive and destructive
interference patterns at unconformi-
ties and onlap and downlap relation-
ships at sequence boundaries.
Structural visualization. The primary
benefit of structural volume visuali-
zation is to quickly show subtle and
complex fault patterns. In
conventional fault mapping, the inter-
preter chooses what faults to map and
not to map, and how each fault is con-
nected or not connected. As a result,
the quality and thoroughness of the
task is highly variable. The goal of
structural volume visualization is to
reveal all the faults in the seismic
record.
At the prospect level, subtle fault
definition becomes critical. Detailed
surfaces are usually available and
utilized in horizon-keyed visualiza-
JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 0000
 tions to define fault patterns and
extents. Prospect-level structural and
stratigraphic detail can be achieved
during regional reconnaissance visu-
alizations. Due to the wide variabil-
ity of fault orientation and dip, data
should be seen from many viewpoints
to determine optimal perspectives for
faults and fault blocks.
Faults can be delineated by using
their seismic signatures in conjunc-
tion with opacity. The mechanics
behind the application of ZS to visu-
alization of fault patterns depend on
several factors. In reflectivity vol-
umes, faults are normally picked at
abrupt amplitude terminations with
associated offset. The overall lateral
amplitude change at the fault is usu-
ally represented by a decrease in
amplitude, often to Z3 amplitude lev-
els (Figure 16). By lowering the opac-
ity of Z3 amplitudes to transparent
or semitransparent levels, the fault
will appear as physical gaps within
the horizon (Figure 17). To increase
the visibility of the fault gaps, a dark
background projects through the
brightly colored surface. Similar tech-
niques can visualize fracture zones
and carbonate reefs.
The fault patterns of a high-
amplitude (Z1) low-relief reflector
(Figure 16) are visualized by trim-
ming the volume along the time axis
and applying opacity with particular
attention to the weak Z3 amplitudes.
The volume visualization of the
objective interval, an 84-ms slab,
shows fault extents and interrela-
tionships (Figure 18). Since the visu-
alization is a volume of data, 3-D
perspectives of the interval provide
additional insight.
High-reflectivity visualization.
Visualization of high reflectivity (Z1)
amplitudes is easy with high-cut
opacity filters. Because Z1 ampli-
tudes constitute a small portion (a
few percent in many cases) of a 3-D
data volume, the number of compu-
tations is greatly reduced and the
visualization can be extremely fast.
To visually integrate high ampli-
tudes with surrounding geology,
opacity curves should be designed
to include Z2 and Z3 amplitudes. Z1
visualization difficulties can arise
when high-amplitude reflectors are
included and/or numerous ampli-
tudes confuse the view. In these cases,
horizon- or sequence-keyed volume
visualization, subvolume detections,
or specialized amplitude extraction
methods should be used.
Figure 19 is a workflow to iden-
0000 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999
Figure 20. Application of ZS on a detected amplitude. (a) Amplitude extent
and relief, (b) internal amplitude variations, and (c) enhanced depositional
indications.
tify and evaluate an amplitude. In
Figure 19b, Z1 amplitudes are
revealed and a particular amplitude
selected. Subvolume detection iso-
lates the amplitude (Figure 19c)
where extent, structural relief, high-
amplitude sweet spots, and possible
stratigraphic information are deter-
mined. This method is useful when
high reflectivity is associated with
hydrocarbons and internal amplitude
variations showing stratigraphic and
structural details are critical. Figure
20 illustrates the opacity curves used
to reveal structural, amplitude, and
stratigraphic details within the objec-
tive.
Tips and pitfalls. During the initial
stages of volume visualization, many
significant conclusions may be
accomplished in a few hours. Early
consensus on key structural, strati-
graphic, and prospect issues can be
achieved, especially in an immersive
environment. Leads can be identi-
fied and prioritized and key hori-
zons selected for mapping. During
the digitizing process, volume visu-
alization usually assists in the task
and may resolve interpretation prob-
lems. Because a large amount of
information is revealed in a short
period of time, it is recommended
that the work be documented as it
proceeds. Experienced volume visu-
alization geoscientists can easily have
a fairly detailed presentation of
whats in the 3-D in one working
day.
Because of the speed and advan-
tages of volume visualization, it is
recommended that geoscientists
review as many drilled prospects as
possible and become familiar with
the visualization characteristics and
parameters required to see what was
encountered. The goal is to build a
visualization knowledge, skill, and
expertise base as quickly as possible.
However, application of conven-
tional interpretation philosophies
and workflows to volume visualiza-
tion can lead to pitfalls and substan-
dard visualizations. A thorough
understanding of visualization and
the results of its various processes
must be kept in mind during all
stages of visualization. The most
common pitfalls are misinterpreta-
tions of objects in 3-D space due to
the visual alignment of unrelated
events, false truncation of events due
to the physical limits of 3-D volume,
and misuse of opacity. One of the
best quality control checks is simply
checking interpretations and ideas
with key 2-D lines. Pitfalls related to
the opacity editor, decimation, flat
events, seismic phase, improper
dynamic range, and amplitude eval-
uations need detailed discussion and
such articles are planned for the near
future. LE
(Continued on p. 712)
JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 709
Acknowledgements: Thanks to James L. Allen
of Mayne & Mertz for valuable suggestions and
editing, to thank Kimberly Madsen-Cline of
Paradigm Geophysical for creative contribu-
tions toward image enhancements and visual-
ization techniques, and to Amy Jacobsen for
tireless efforts in preparing text and figures for
publication. I also thank Veritas DGC and the
Bureau of Economic Geology for the use of
their 3-D data. I am very thankful for the ener-
getic support and guidance of Oz Yilmaz, also
of Paradigm Geophysical.

Corresponding author: G. Kidd,

gkidd@paradigmgeo.com

Gerald D. Kidd attended Wright State

University where he earned a bachelors degree
in geology (1978) and a masters in geophysics
(1980). He is currently a 3-D visualization
geophysicist at Paradigm Geophysical
Corporation. He has more than 17 years of
interpretation experience, including six years
in the application of volume visualization on
numerous 3-D data sets in both exploration and
production environments around the world.