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International Journal of
DIGITAL INFORMATION AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Original Articles
Engineering Mining a Large Scale Data Based on Feature Engineering, Metadata, and
Ontologies
Ahmed Adeeb Jalal 1 and Ouz Altun 2
12
Computer Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
1
Al-Iraqia University, Baghdad, Iraq
Ahmedadeeb80@gmail.com, oguz@ce.yildiz.edu.tr
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Scalability: In many of the environments in order preferred, rather than similar items that enable a
to find neighbors in collaborative filtering it simple substitution [3], [13]. In addition, a content-
requires a lot of time to doing the certain based filtering depends on well-structured attributes
computations until finding similar users or items, and reasonable distribution of attributes across items
because the data sets contain a million users and [14].
items. Furthermore, the number of users and items 1.3 Hybrid Recommender Systems
excessively increasing it becomes computationally
difficult to find similar neighbors. The hybrid recommender systems defined as a
Sparsity: Mostly, users do not rate the items, even combinations of various knowledge sources as the
the most popular items that they liked or inputs (such as user profile, community data, and item
purchased. Regarding the e-commerce companies, features) and multiple different recommender systems
it strives to increase the amount of items which together to get the outputs.
leads to increase sales and attract more consumers. The hybrid recommender systems could be luckier in
Inasmuch to extremely increasing number of the some cases in different application domains to get
users and items and very few ratings, most entries right recommendations to user in a timely manner. As
of the data sets matrix still remain zero. As a result, a result, there is one output for whatever the number
aggravation sparse problem. of recommender systems contributed to the formation
Cold start: Can be viewed as a special case of this the hybrid recommender systems. The collaborative
sparsity problem [12], it happens because the user filtering uses a certain type of information, user
does not have a sufficient rating or any rating at all. profile (user's ratings) together with community data
Some companies are forcing consumers when to derive recommendations, whereas the content-
login to the company's accounts to evaluate some based filtering rely on textual descriptions of item
of the most popular items in order to avoid this features and user's ratings. Thus, the type of
problem. Otherwise, it is difficult for recommender systems chosen determines which kind
recommender systems to provide an accurate of knowledge sources required. However, none of the
recommendation to users. basic approaches are able to use all of these
knowledge sources. It divides into three different
1.2 Content-Based Recommender Systems major categories of hybridization designs contain
The content-based filtering approaches are based on a seven hybridization techniques. Each of these seven
description of an attribute of the item features and the techniques operate under the context are different
profile of the users preference [15]. The from each other, although it's participated in one
recommended items at content-based filtering is hybridization design, that can be contributed to
matching predictions for the same kind of items that resolving some of problem as we mentioned.
user already liked compared with various candidate Monolithic hybridization design: Exploiting
items. So, it's considered a searched and compared different knowledge sources of inputs for several
process nearly, such as the processes used in the recommender systems that implemented and
information retrieval systems but, without requiring combined in one algorithm to produce the final set
user queries. of recommendations. Feature combination and
The content-based filtering retrieves information feature augmentation techniques can be included
from two knowledge sources the features items and its into this category.
rating that given by the user, simple approaches use Parallel hybridization design: Each recommender
the average values of the rated item. There are also systems participating in this design operates
more advanced techniques to infer to what is desirable independently of one another and each having its
by the user, such as decision trees, Bayesian own outcomes (i.e. separate recommendation
classifiers and cluster analysis algorithms. For lists). The outcomes of several existing
example, if the user has given a preferred rating implementations are combining to generate the
toward action movies, so it will recommend more final set of recommendations. The mixed,
action movies to him. In many cases, getting common weighted, and switching techniques classified
attributes is not easy and complimentary items are among this design.
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Pipelined hybridization design: Sequentially about one or more aspects of the available data, it is
outputs of previous recommender systems used to summarize basic information about the data
becomes inputs of subsequent one and final one which can make tracking and working with specific
produces recommendations for user. So, the data easier [29].
outputs of the first recommender systems affects 1.6 Ontologies
all chain of recommender systems that contributed
to formation this algorithm. Optionally, An ontology in computer science is a formal naming
subsequent recommender components may use and definition of the types, properties, and
parts of original input data, too [1]. The cascade interrelationships of the entities that really or
and meta-level techniques are examples of such fundamentally exist for a particular domain of
pipeline design. discourse which variables needed for some set of
computations and establishes the relationships
1.4 Feature Engineering between them [27], [28].
The feature engineering exploits the domain The ontology can be applied in many fields of
knowledge of training data set to creating testing data software engineering, systems engineering, semantic
set based on the features that managed machine web, and artificial intelligence in order to contribute
learning algorithms to work function properly. The the solving problems through limit complexity and to
feature is a distinguishing characteristic that might organize information.
help when analyze the problem in order to solve it Our work aims to overcome the very common
[17]. The quality and quantity of the features will have problems with the recommender systems through
great influence on whether the model is good or not create new feature from extracted attribute of movie
[18]. genres. These features represent testing data set that
The right features chosen require extensive testing to will be feedback to the content-based approach to get
pick up a relevant feature that achieves better results, average of distinctive genres ratings of the rated item
it's very important parts. The right features make a for each feature depending on item description and
model simpler and more flexible, and they often yield user's rates. The testing data set will be the inputs to
better results [17]. However, the success of an Pearson Correlation filtering.
algorithm is not entirely depending on the selected 2 RELATED WORK
features, the model and the data set represented an
important role in the success of the algorithm to We review some example of the hybrid recommender
achieving satisfactory results. The feature is a piece of systems that applying in a various domains. Netflix
information in the data set that might be containing Inc. [26] for the movie rent recommendation. It
many attributes, useful for prediction and will released a challenge in 2006 and offered grand prize
influence the recommendation that required to of one million US dollars to person or team who could
achieve. Any attribute could be a feature, as long as it succeed in modeling a given data sets to within a
is useful to the model [24]. certain specification [1], [2], [5]. It combines
collaborative filtering and content-based filtering
1.5 Metadata through similar habits of users as well as by higher
Metadata is data that provide information about other rates of shared movies characteristics.
data [16]. Three types of metadata exist: structural, Lawrence et al. [20] describes a personalized
descriptive, and administrative metadata [22]. recommender system to shoppers in supermarkets
Structural metadata indicates to the containers of data rely on their previous behavior towards the purchases
that contain the compound objects, for example, how to suggest new products for them. This system
web pages are ordered to form the site. Descriptive developed at IBM research has been implemented as
metadata uses the item description, it can include a part of SmartPad, a personal digital assistant based
features such as title, author, date, location, etc. remote shopping system. This system built based on
Administrative metadata provides information about combining content based filtering with collaborative
the management, such as creation, access, and file filtering to improve the recommendations.
type information. Metadata could provide information
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MovieLens [31] the online movie recommendation HetRec 2011 data set: The 2nd International
that used its data set in our approach, propose to new Workshop on Information Heterogeneity and
user login some watched movies which be most Fusion in Recommender Systems HetRec 2011
popular generally in order to evaluate it. Then, these [32], has released data sets from Delicious, Last.fm
ratings are exploited to recommend other movies not Web 2.0, MovieLens, IMDb, and Rotten
seen by the user. It also uses collaborative filtering Tomatoes. These data sets contain social
based on similar users according to these ratings. networking, tagging, and resource consuming
These two approaches are combined to create (Web page bookmarking and music artist
personalized recommendations. listening) information from sets of around 2,113
3 METHODOLOGY users. The rating values are ranging between 0.5 to
5 of around 2,113 users and 10,197 items.
3.1 Overview Table 1 summarizes the statistics of training data sets,
The overall procedure of our proposed approach is as where the ratings matrix density is defined as the
follows: fraction of number of ratings over the total multiplies
Tests all the item features to choose the appropriate number of user and items in the rating matrix. The
feature for the purpose of obtaining the better average number of the users who gave the rate of the
results. items and the average number of the items that rated
Extraction all the attributes of the selected item by user can be seen from Table 1.
feature. Table 1. Statistics of training data sets
Extracting the attributes without repetition. Statistics HetRec MovieLens
Creating testing data set with new features based Number of users 2113 6040
on these attributes. Number of items 10197 3883
Exploit the content based recommender systems to Number of ratings 855598 1000209
fill this testing data sets with average of distinctive Average number of ratings
404.921 165.598
genres ratings. by users
Average number of ratings
Get the recommendation through the score of for items
83.91 257.587
similarity between users depending on entire Density 3.97% 4.265%
testing data sets based on collaborative
recommender systems. The number of ratings given by one user to all items,
Evaluate the results of proposed approach using HetRec 2011 data set, ranging from 20 to 3410 with
two evaluation Metrics: predictive accuracy percentage from 0.2% to 33.5% respectively.
metrics and classification accuracy metrics to MovieLens 1M data set, ranging from 20 to 2314 with
verify the accuracy of recommendation, at the next percentage from 0.52% to 59.6% respectively.
section. The number of ratings given by all users to one item,
HetRec 2011 data set, ranging from 1 to 1670 with
3.2 Data Description
percentage from 0.05% to 79.05% respectively.
In this part introduces the data sets, we will describe MovieLens 1M data set, ranging from 1 to 3428 with
the data sets collection process and the feature percentage from 0.02% to 56.75% respectively.
representations for each data set, as well as some basic
3.3 Feature Learning
statistics of the data set. The two data sets used in this
study were downloaded from the GroupLens Machine learning, feature learning or representation
Research website [30]. learning is a set of techniques that learn a feature [19],
MovieLens 1M data set: GroupLens Research has [23]. The training data set (i.e. raw data) defined as a
collected and made available rating data sets from set of aggregated features, exploits to produce a sort
the MovieLens website [31]. The data sets were of representation that can make the machine learning
collected over various periods of time. The rating algorithms simpler and more flexible.
values are ranging between 0.5 to 5 of around The training data set in our paper consists of two
6,040 users and 3,883 items. major categories: users and items (movies), each one
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contains many of the features which include many Likewise, is represented all distinctive genres
attributes. For example, user's category contains of items (i.e. without repetition), whose structure can
gender, occupation, age and Zip-code, item's category be shown as:
contains title, genres, actors and year of release. Thus, 1. Adventure
a transformation of raw data into the sort of 2. Comedy
representation requires more than one feature testing 3. Romance
in order to determine useful features. Feature learning 4. Action (4)
is motivated by the fact that machine learning 5. Crime
algorithms often require appropriate inputs 6. Musical
mathematically and computationally. However, the 7. Animation
success of the algorithm depending on the selected Let denotes the average of distinctive genres
features besides the model and the data set to
ratings based on Eq. (4), then can be
achieving satisfactory results, as mentioned earlier.
Usually, the initial choice of feature based on our represented as:
experience and a prior knowledge about the existing = (5)
data set details.
Let denote training sample i, then can be Where is represented the value of ratings of item i,
represented as: TF is represented the term frequency of the distinctive
={ , , } (1) genre in the user's profile for rated items.
Where , and stand for the input Algorithm 1 explained the sequence operational for
vector and the two output vector for training sample i, creating testing data set and feedback this data set
with the average of distinctive genres ratings that
respectively. is represented all features of item
rated by user.
i, whose structure can be shown as:
Title (i) Algorithm 1. Creating testing data set
Year (i) 1: input: read the item features file.
Genre (i) 2: choose an appropriate step size
(number of items).
Location (i) (2) 3: for t=1,..,T do
Director (i) 4: extracting the genres of items
Actors (i) using Eq. (3).
Country (i) 5: end for
All the entries either textual or integers, Genre (i) is 6: extracting the distinctive genres
using Eq. (4).
the genre of item i that will be extracted from other 7: get the average of distinctive
features of the item, it is textual. genres ratings using Eq. (5).
Likewise, is represented all extracted genres of 8: output: creating testing data set
items, whose structure can be shown as: based on Eq. (4) and Eq. (5).
1. Adventure, Children, Fantasy Table 2 and Table 3 shows the structure and the
statistics of testing data sets (HetRec 2011 and
2. Comedy, Romance
3. Comedy MovieLens 1M data set) that have been configured
4. Action, Crime, Thriller after implemented Algorithm 1, respectively.
5. Adventure, Children, Action (3) Table 2. Structure of testing data set
6. Comedy D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn
7. Adventure, Children, Action U1 4.13 4.3 4.1 2.5 1.8 4.7 1.5 0
8. Animation U2 3.34 0 2.7 1 5 3.2 1 3.9
U3 1.5 4.2 3.7 0 2.3 0 3 4.6
9. Musical, Romance Um 2.17 3.5 3.26 4.7 0 3.26 0 0
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Table 3. Statistics of testing data sets Figure 1 shows the general schematic of proposed
Statistics HetRec MovieLens approach which applied in our paper.
Number of users 2113 6040
Number of items 19 18 Feature
Items Database Engineering
Number of ratings 25029 62484
Average number of ratings 11.85 10.35
by users
Average number of ratings 1317.32 3471.34 Feature learning
for items
Density 62.35% 57.5%
Items Database
In Table 3 the number of items in testing data sets has Contributing
been reduced. Therefore, increasing the ratings matrix Recommender
User's Ratings
density that contributes to solving the problems of the
recommender systems. The percentage decrease the
items by compared the two data sets before and after Learned Model
implemented the Algorithm 1 up to 99.8%.
The number of ratings given by one user to all items
in testing data sets. HetRec 2011 data set, ranging Actual
from 3 to 19 with percentage from 15.8% to 100% Users Ratings Recommender
Database
respectively. MovieLens 1M data set, ranging from 2
to 18 with percentage from 11.1% to 100%
respectively. Score
Meta-Level Technique
The number of ratings given by all users to one item
in testing data sets. HetRec 2011 data set, ranging
from 2 to 2110 with percentage from 0.1% to 99.9%
respectively. MovieLens 1M data set, ranging from Overall Score
630 to 6012 with percentage from 10.5% to 99.6% Figure 1. General schematic of proposed approach
respectively.
According to the description of testing data set above, In this section, the results obtained through creating
the Pearson Correlation similarity of two users i, j is testing data set can be summarized as follows:
defined as: Decreasing the number of items.
, , Increasing the ratings matrix density.
, (6) Increasing the ratings of users.
, ,
Increasing the ratings of items.
The formula used to predict the rating depending on Now, we have two important questions will be
the score of similarity, the user's rate of training data provable in the next section:
sets, and the distinctive genre rating which item How useful are the reducing items?
belongs to it, can be represented as: Can the proposed approach improve the accuracy
,
,
,
(7) of recommendation?
,
4 EXPERIMENTS
3.4 Meta-Level Technique
The recommender systems have been evaluated in
Meta-level technique is one of seven hybridization different evaluation metrics. Evaluating
recommendation techniques subordinates to the recommender systems is difficult because the
pipelined hybridization design, exploits to get a sort evaluation results mutable, it's based on algorithms,
of model which will be the input of the next technique. data sets and evaluation metrics together.
As a result, the contributing recommender completely Many algorithms have been designed some of it
replaces the raw data with a learned model that the applied effectively on some of the data sets, while not
actual recommender uses in its computation. worked with others. Also, a variety of data sets are
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available downloaded online, but some of it is not requires reducing time-consuming and the number of
valid for performed with some algorithms. As a result, similar users in order to make the software systems
there should be a consensus between the algorithm faster for getting the recommendations quickly. So, it
and data sets selected, a potentially overwhelming set was our approach focuses on reducing the items in
of choices. Finally, evaluation metrics can be divided testing data set to the extent that it can get satisfactory
into two major categories will be discussed later, the results. In addition, the testing data set increases the
first category based on the numeric value (i.e. error density of users' rates, it make to get the right similar
ratio) that represents the difference value of the user more flexible.
original rate and the predicted rate called predictive Figure 2 illustrated the percentage of increasing the
accuracy metrics, and the second category based on ratings of users for training and testing data sets.
the related as if that the predicted rate is relevant or We proposed a method of the hybrid recommender
irrelevant compared with the original rate called systems according to testing data set that combine two
classification accuracy metrics, this is the motivation approaches content-based filtering and collaborative
of the both types of the evaluation metrics applied in filtering Pearson Correlation approach.
this paper because every category follows a certain Let HRS denotes to combining two approaches
pattern for evaluation. It would be better to choose content-based filtering and collaborative filtering
one or more evaluation metrics in order to compare Pearson Correlation approach, and CFP denotes to the
the accuracy of different recommender systems [25]. pure collaborative filtering Pearson Correlation
approach.
4.1 Data Sets and Preprocessing
Then, we will compare our results that got it from
We used testing data set as the input data in our HRS method based on testing data set with CFP
proposed approach, which got it after implemented method based on training data set, for the two data sets
the algorithm 1 on the two publicly available data sets selected HetRec 2011 and MovieLens 1M.
HetRec 2011 and MovieLens 1M as we mentioned in Table 4 shows the advantage of reducing the items,
Section 3. The purpose of this process to improve through reducing the Time-consuming in order to
performance and get accurate recommendations. predict the rate and reducing the average number of
As is well known, today the increasing growth in the similar users for each predict operation with keeping
web with thousands of users who interact with an efficient result.
thousands of items if not millions. This growth
120 120
100 100
80 80
Items
Items
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1065
1198
1331
1464
1597
1730
1863
1996
1135
1513
1891
2269
2647
3025
3403
3781
4159
4537
4915
5293
5671
1
134
267
400
533
666
799
932
1
379
757
Users Users
Figure 2. Percentage of the users' rates for training and testing data sets
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| |
(8) (10)
| | (11)
= (9)
(12)
Where and represent the predicted ratings and the
real ratings of users, respectively, and T denotes to the
total number of predictions generated for all active The performance evaluations of classification
users in the data set. accuracy metrics for HRS method compared to CFP
The performance evaluations of predictive accuracy method according to the evaluation metrics:
metrics for HRS method compared to CFP method precision, recall and F-Measure, are summarized in
according to the two evaluation metrics: MAE and Table 6 and Figure 4.
RMSE, are summarized in Table 5 and Figure 3.
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0.9 1
0.8 0.9
0.7 0.8
0.6 0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4 CFP CFP
0.4
0.3 HRS 0.3 HRS
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
MAE RMSE MAE RMSE
HetRec2011 MovieLens1M
0.9 0.93
0.89 0.92
0.88 0.91
0.9
0.87
0.89
0.86 CFP CFP
0.88
0.85 HRS HRS
0.87
0.84 0.86
0.83 0.85
Precision Recall FMeasure Precision Recall FMeasure
HetRec2011 MovieLens1M
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Newsletter, 2007.
6. Abhinandan Das, Mayur Datar, Ashutosh Garg, and Shyam
RMSE Yes Yes Rajaram, Google news personalization: scalable online
collaborative filtering, In WWW, pp. 271280, May 2007.
Precision No No 7. Greg Linden, Brent Smith, and Jeremy York, Amazon.
Classification
Recall Yes Yes filtering, In Internet Computing, IEEE, 7(1): 7680, 2003.
8. Alexander Felfernig, Klaus Isak, Kalman Szabo, and Peter
F-Measure Yes Yes Zachar, The VITA Financial Services Sales Support
Environment, pp. 1692-1699, Vancouver, Canada, 2007.
9. Pankaj Gupta, Ashish Goel, Jimmy Lin, Aneesh Sharma,
5 CONCLUSIONS Dong Wang, and Reza Bosagh Zadeh, WTF:The who-to-
follow system at Twitter, Proceedings of the 22nd
In this paper, we proposed creating the testing data set international conference on World Wide Web, ACM New
that incorporates limited items in order to alleviating York, NY, USA, 2013.
the impact of scalability, sparsity and cold start 10. Francesco Ricci, Lior Rokach, and Bracha Shapira,
Introduction to Recommender Systems Handbook,
problem by increasing the ratings matrix density. As Recommender Systems Handbook, Springer, 2011.
an additional benefit, we used the testing data set as 11. Facebook, Pandora Lead Rise of Recommendation
the inputs for the hybrid recommender systems and Engines - TIME, TIME.com. 27 May 2010. Retrieved 1
evaluated the results according to two evaluation June 2015.
metrics to prove the accuracy of the recommendation. 12. Zan Huang, Hsinchun Chen, and Daniel Zeng, Applying
associative retrieval techniques to alleviate the sparsity
According to description above, we proved useful and problem in collaborative filtering, ACM Transactions on
effectiveness the proposed approach to all most Information Systems 22, no. 1, pp. 116142, 2004.
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its ecological manner in the third section. It also network in the Russian segment of the Internet,
describes some evaluations of our design namely, My.Mail.Ru (also known as "My World"
education and mentions its future expansion for in Russian). Their main goal was to study the self-
Internet-wide scale in the fourth section. And it disclosure patterns of the site users as a function
finally summaries our concluding remarks in the of their age and gender. Their paper compared the
fifth section. findings of their analysis to the previous studies on
Western users of SNS and discussed the culturally
2 RELATED WORKS distinctive aspects. Their study highlighted some
important cultural differences in usage patterns
This section reports four useful articles of related among Russian users, which called for further
works of ours. These articles focuses on case studies in SNS in various cultural contexts.
study about how to utilize SNS community for Ohbyung Kwon and Yixing Wen from Korea
information sharing, decision making and so on. explained Social network services which were
Sue Yeon Syn of The Catholic University of emerging as a promising IT-based business, with
America and Sanghee Oh of Florida State some services being provided commercially such
University report why SNS (social network site) as Facebook [3]. However, it was not yet clear
users do share information, knowledge and which potential audience groups would be key
experience on Facebook and Twitter [1]. Their social network service participants. Moreover, the
study examined why SNS users shared process showing how an individual actually
information, knowledge, and personal experiences decided to start using a social network service
with others on SNSs. Through an online survey, might be somewhat different from current web-
10 motivation factors were tested with Facebook based community services. Hence, the aims of
and Twitter users. Their findings indicated that the their paper were twofold. 1) They empirically
motivations of SNS users in sharing information examined how individual characteristics affected
could be attributed to various aspects such as actual user acceptance of social network services.
demographic characteristics, experiences of SNSs To examine these individual characteristics, they
and Internet usage, as well as the characteristics applied a Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
and features of SNSs. SNS users could be highly to construct an amended model that focused on
motivated by the learning and social engagement three individual differences: social identity,
aspects of SNS services. They also found that the altruism and telepresence, and one perceived
motivations could vary depending on the construct: the perceived encouragement, imported
characteristics of services. They said that results of from psychology-based research. 2) They
their study could be helpful for researchers in examined if the users' perception to see a target
understanding the underlying reasons for social social network service as human relationship-
activities as well as for SNS developers in oriented service or as a task-oriented service could
improving SNS services. be a moderator between perceived constructs and
Slava Kisilevich from University of Konstanz, actual use. They said their result discovered that
Germany et al. reported that online social network the perceived encouragement and perceived
services (SNS) provided an unprecedented rich orientation are significant constructs that affected
source of information about millions of users actual use of social network services.
worldwide [2]. However, most existing studies of Tristan Henderson, Luke Hutton & Sam McNeilly
this emerging phenomenon were limited to of University of St Andrews, UK reported about
relatively small data samples, with an emphasis on Ethics in online social network research [4].
mostly "western" online communities (such as They described that Social network sites (SNSs)
Facebook and MySpace users in Western and other online social networks such as Facebook
countries). In order to understand the cultural and Twitter represented a huge source of data for
characteristics of users of online social networks, research in many fields, including sociology,
their paper explored the behavioral patterns of medicine, anthropology, politics and computer
more than 16 million users of a popular social science. Such sites might contain sensitive
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information and care needs to be taken when giving reality to miniature. Scaling of miniature
designing experiments or collecting SNS data. will be from 1/10 to 1/8 possibly.
This case study outlined two such experiments and
discussed the ethical concerns within. They
described lessons learned, a set of experiments
designed to test some of these lessons, and an
architecture that addressed some of the ethical
challenges.
From these articles, it is confirmed that we had
better utilize knowledge and techniques of SNS
community. And at the same time we must choose
and/or determine more useful and reliable ones
among the proposed knowledge and information
from SNS community.
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prototyping is well-discussed and suitable enough community and carry out information exchanging
to produce real furniture. and sharing on the networks.
In the case of our proposal design education,
recycling resources of materials has been focused
and illustrated in order to reproduce some useful
products with recycled resources. We will explain
sample of utilization of SNS community, decision
making on the networks (i.e. resource finding,
knowledge obtaining to redesign, presenting by
miniature, discussing, etc.), reproduction of real
model, and evaluation.
Generally speaking, reproduction of furniture may
be included with the following procedures, namely,
Network communities have been attractive and Of course, it is very difficult for only one or a few
useful for us to perform information exchanging designers to manage the above procedures
and sharing among the registered people who are efficiently. Several staffs and/or support team
living in the distance. If one describes some must be necessary for such designer(s).
resource is unnecessary in one's community, We describe schematic procedure for reproduction
others may rely those resources must be necessary during Design Education using SNS community in
in the other's community. And if one asks some order to improve effectiveness and efficiency
questions which need knowledge to be resolved, educational results.
others may reply the relevant answers which In order to accomplish retrieval of past track
include suitable knowledge for resolution. SNS records, we have utilized SNS community.
community is one of the efficient and effective Such a community can play important roles to
environments which can transfer information to provide huge and excellent database for
the relevant position/ people. retrieving.
In order to perform resource recycling and We have also utilized SNS Community to
discovering, it is very good to utilize SNS perform market research, trend watching,
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not be limited to local and/or domestic community or not, some colleague replies his/her information
in the same campus (College and/or University). It about according resource. Of course, it is possible
can be more widely spread and enlarged like SNS, that others do not reply in a short period nor reply
for example, Facebook[5], Mixi[6] and/or only they know nothing about such resources.
Twitter[7]. Probably suitable resources will be found
potentially in a short period through human
relation established with SNS community. This is
an example of "Resource Discovery through SNS
community".
In the same manners, if a user wants to obtain
some tools and know-how to re-produce furniture
efficiently, he asks his colleagues, "Does anyone
know where suitable tools are?" or "Does anyone
have adequate information how to re-produce such
kind of furniture?" This is also an example of
"Knowledge Discovery through SNS community".
Figure 6 shows that a user has obtained a
necessary tool from SNS community and he/she
can use the relevant tool for Design Education in
order to achieve his/her purpose in a short period.
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community by means of utilization of Know-How may be necessary to prepare some market research
which can be also discovered in SNS community. and securement of materials which are not only
Such a scheme is conceptually illustrated in Figure unused resources but also newly created ones.
7.
Even a beginner of design education may This section reports two types of evaluation,
sometimes be brought face-to-face with some namely qualitative and quantitative ones.
related problems and then he/she must
retrieve/utilize SNS community and solve them 5.1 Reproduction Qualitative Evaluation for
through such a community. In the case of re- Reproduction of Furniture as Recycling
production of furniture as an example of design Resources
education, he/she does really re-produce furniture
with powerful supports from SNS community. As evaluation of reproduction of furniture
With help of good tools and suitable knowledge described above, we explain the following three
how to manipulate as well as timely discovered items, namely cost-performance, feasibility study
material, the relevant beginner can perform his/her and human-relation based activity.
duty as his/her task for design education to re- Cost-performance: Recycling of resources is
produce some kinds of furniture. positive but necessity to transport
Figure 8 shows that even a beginner can re- tools/resources/products is negative. The
produce furniture by means of tools and former is a good effect for ecology, cost-
knowledge discovered in SNS community. And saving, and environmental protection.
he/she can accumulate not only all necessary Resources for furniture are almost woods so
techniques for tool manipulation but also their recycling can reduce some impacts from
knowledge about furniture reproduction through deforestation. Recycling also brings cost-
practical experience to use SNS community as saving normally. The latter is a bad effect for
well as to utilize resource, tools and knowledge. If emissions of carbon dioxide through traffic
needs are not very few, the next demands about increasing and all-too-easy way of borrowing
furniture re-production may occur potentially. tools and know-how. Emission of carbon
Such demands are steady and continuous so that it dioxide must increase by means of
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removed, as one of statistical analysis. The of learners at the end of design education. We
procedure is demonstrated as follows; have tried to evaluate quantitatively a scheme of
(1) Calculating 2, namely our proposal through the second questionnaire
2 = (22*2/10)2/(2*2/10)+(0 again in order to obtain some certain eligibility of
2*2/10)2/(2*2/10) + ~ +(1-2*2/10)2/(2*2/10) our proposal based on more scale of user size.
(2) Obtaining 2= 15.92 from the above Table 3 shows results of the above questionnaire.
(3) Degree of freedom of Table 3 is (4-1)*(4-
Table 3. Another comparison of SNS access times and
1)= 9 Satisfaction level for 15 learners.
(4) From 2-distribution table, we can get chi-
square percentile with degree-of-freedom= 9 at Name Total State
the 5% significance level and 10% one as Learner ID times*+ level**
follows; S01 4 5
2 = 0.05(9) : [2]at 5% level with 9 degree of S02 3 3
freedom = 16.9 and2 = 0.10(9) : [2]at 5% level S03 4 4
with 9 degree of freedom = 14.7, respectively. S04 5 3
In the above results of chi-square-testing, we can S05 5 4
describe the following; S06 5 5
S07 4 4
(a) If H01: Scheme of our proposal is not useful at S08 3 3
the 5% significance level ( = 0.05) is a null S09 3 2
hypothesis, based on expression: S10 5 4
2 = 15.92 < 2 = 0.05(9) = 16.9, at the 5% S11 5 5
significance level, H01 cannot be rejected. S12 4 3
Therefore, it can not be confirmed that S13 5 5
Satisfaction level is dependent on SNS-access S14 5 4
times. In other words, the former may be S15 5 5
independent from the later, namely, utilization of (NB) times*+ =SNS access times (if 5 and more, leaners are
SNS services is not significantly dependent on requested to express only 5 for convenient statistical
obtaining satisfaction of learners at the 5% analysis), level** =Satisfaction level.
significance level ( = 0.05).
(b) However, if H02: Scheme of our proposal is Just like the same way as the previous analysis, we
not useful at the significance level ( = 0.10) is will demonstrate statistical analysis about the
another null hypothesis, based on expression: relation between utilization level of Knowledge/
2 = 15.92 > 2 = 0.10(9) = 14.7, at the 10% Resource Discovery through SNS community and
significance level, H02 can be surely rejected. learner satisfaction level for our real Reproductive
Therefore, it can be confirmed that Satisfaction Design Education. Table 4 shows correlation
level is dependent on SNS-access times in this between access times for SNS community and the
case. In other words, the former may be dependent relevant satisfaction level.
on the later at the 5% significance level ( = 0.05).
Table 4. Correlation between SNS access times and
Satisfaction level.
5.3 Quantitative Evaluation (PART II)
access Satisfaction level
In order to investigate more precisely whether times 1 2 3 4 5
SNS-access times (namely, utilization of SNS 1 0 0 0 0 0
services) are significantly dependent on obtaining 2 0 0 0 0 0
satisfaction or not, after obtaining the above 3 0 1 2 0 0
evaluation results, we have decided to carry out 4 0 0 1 2 1
classroom-level questionnaire for larger numbers 5 0 0 1 3 4
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Based on Table 4, reduced correlation SNS access 2 = 14.72551 > 2 = 0.05(6) = 12.5916, so that H+
times and the relevant learners Satisfaction level can be definitely rejected at the 5% significance
for Reproductive Design Education is described in level ( = 0.05). Therefore, it can be surely
Table 5 and its auxiliary parameters for statistical confirmed that Satisfaction level of every learner
analysis are calculated and contained in Table 6. is dependent on SNS-access times, namely,
utilization of SNS services can be significantly
Table 5. Reduced Correlation between SNS access times dependent on obtaining satisfaction of learners.
and Satisfaction level for Table 4.
Our scheme of proposal for Reproductive Design
Education is useful and effective for learners to
access Satisfaction level
perform Knowledge and Resource Discovery even
times 2 3 4 5 subtotal
at the 5% significance level ( = 0.05)]
3 1 2 0 0 3
4 0 1 2 1 4
6 CONCLUSION
5 0 1 3 4 8
This paper describes a practical model of
subtotal 1 4 5 5 15
Reproductive Design Education utilizing services
based on Knowledge and Resource Discovery
Table 6. Auxiliary parameters for statistical analysis of
Table 5. through SNS community. And it also explains the
characteristics and advantages from scheme of our
access Satisfaction level proposal for Reproductive Design Education in
times 2 3 4 5 Detail. The paper illustrates a practical flow for
3 1*3/15 4*3/15 5*3/15 5*3/15 proposed Reproductive Design Education utilizing
4 1*4/15 4*4/15 5*4/15 5*4/15 several kinds of services from SNS community
5 1*8/15 4*8/15 5*8/15 5*8/15 with comparison of conventional design process in
design education. Knowledge, Resources, Tools
obtained from SNS community can realize a
The procedure of 2-test for Table 5 with Table 6
fruitful reproductive design education. In the case
can be expressed below just like demonstration in
of furniture reproduction, our proposed
the previous 5.2 Quantitative Evaluation (PART
Reproductive Design Education has brought
I);
important and significant values to learners as well
(1) Calculating 2, using parameters in Table 6, as their according SNS community. Such values
namely include resource recycling, tool sharing, energy
2 = (11*3/15)2/(1*3/15)+(24*3/15)2/(4*3/15) + saving, cost-performance, knowledge retrieving/
(0-5*3/15)2/(5*3/15) + (0-5*3/15)2/(5*3/15) + ~ mining and so on.
+(4-5*8/15)2/(5*8/15)
With the above discussion, it can be summarized
(2) Obtaining 2= 14.72551 from the above in this paper as follows:
(3) Degree of freedom of Table 5 is (3-1)*(4- Reproductive Design Education has provided
1)= 6, because of row=3 and column=4 the effect and evidence of recycling, ecology
(4) From 2-distribution table, we can get chi- and cost saving.
square percentile with degree-of-freedom= 6 at Reproduction of furniture, itself, as a good
the 5% significance level as follows; example of proposed Reproductive Design
2 = 0.05(6) = 12.5916, namely [2] at 5% level Education can play a certain role of utilization
with 6 degree of freedom. of services about Knowledge and Resource
In the above results of chi-square-testing, we can Discovery from SNS community.
describe the following; Reproduction, sharing and recycling with
Assuming that H+ [Satisfaction level of learners is support from networks seems to be some case
independent from SNS-access times, namely study of Resource and Knowledge Discovery
utilizing SNS services] is a null hypothesis, then through SNS community.
it is demonstrated below:
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Qualitative and quantitative evaluation have 9. Imai, M., Imai, Y. : A Scheme of Resource Discovery in
been performed for limited members of Reproductive Design Education. Proc. of The Fifth
International Conference on E-Learning and E-
learners as well as larger size of ones in Technologies in Education (ICEEE2016, @Asia Pacific
classroom level. University of Technology & Innovation, Kuala Lumpur,
Results from qualitative and quantitative Malaysia) on September 6-8, 2016) pp.68-76, 2016
evaluation can allow us to consider that it is ISBN: 978-1-941968-37-6 2016 SDIWC
confirmed for our proposed scheme to provide
learners satisfaction for Reproductive Design
Education utilizing SNS community through
Knowledge and Resource Discovery.
Acknowledgement
REFERENCES
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number of citations of the words QoE and QoS in applications. Finally, Section 6 draws the
abstracts of papers registered in IEEE database, conclusions of this research.
and also the ratio between QoE and QoS is shown.
The period of time used for comparison is three 2 DEFINITION AND APPLICATIONS OF
years, only the most recent period considers two QUALITY OF EXPERIENCE
and a half years.
In this section, firstly, we will review different
Table 1. Number of QoE and QoS Citations in Abstracts general concepts related to perception, quality, and
Obtained in the IEEE Database experience, on an individual basis, in order to
Period of Reference define the overall concept of QoE. Later, QoE is
QOE QOS QOE/QOS
(Years)
compared with the concepts of QoS and User
2002 - 2004 4 3451 0.12%
2005 - 2007 23 5328 0.43% Experience (UX). Finally, the application areas of
2008 2010 235 6689 3.51% QoE and their influence factors are introduced.
2011 - 2013 853 5291 16.12% The terms perception and experience are defined
2014 Jun. 2016 826 4051 20.39% to understand the QoE concept. The process of
perception begins with the incidence of the
The application areas of QoE concept is very respective stimulus for one or more human
large, that include, communication and sensory organs. Perception is a conscious
multimedia services, educational solutions, processing of sensory information to which
medical applications, business models, humans are exposed, and involves two stages:
entertainment services, among others. Conversion of stimulus from a sensory
In this context, the main objective of this research organ into a neural signal.
is to demonstrate the relevance of QoE concept Processing and transmission of neural
and its applicability in different signals in the central nervous system to the cortex.
telecommunication services. The perception is influenced by events stored in
In this research is presented two case studies, both memory. As a result, neural features that belong to
of them are extended contributions of previous the same object are associated. According to
works [6]-[9]. Thus, the main contribution of this Cowan [10], Coltheart [11] and Baddeley [12],
paper is shown how important is the application of [13] different memory levels has been identified,
QoE, and how the existent metrics can be each one with their roles in the process of
enhanced. The motivation to present these case perception, and their duration of storage. Such
studies is to show the different steps of the memories are:
development process to model objective quality Sensory memory: the peripheral memory
metrics to be used in communication services. that stores short representations between 150 ms.
The first case study is related to assess users QoE to 2 s.
in video streaming service over HTTP/TCP, in Working memory: stores information
which a video quality metric named VsQM is lasting up to 10 s. [9]. It is also known as short-
modeled [6], considering psychological term memory.
approaches. The second case study treats about Long-term memory: stores information for
voice quality assessment during a phone call [7]- long times even years or a lifetime.
[9], in which a new quality indicator is proposed. The process of creation of quality concept may be
The remainder of this work is structured as viewed as a parallel process of cognitive high
follows. Section 2 presents an overview of level associated with the process of experiment.
definition of QoE and its applications. Section 3 The reflection can be triggered by an external task
describes the methods for audio and video quality to assess what has been experienced, during or
assessment. Section 4 introduces the first case after the process of experiment. It is important to
study regarding video streaming service. Section 5 note that the emotional state of the person as well
presents the study about the assessment of phone as your personality plays an important role in the
calls quality in cellular network and its procedures of quality assessment. Based on the
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concepts described, the term of quality refers to context of market research, considering the role of
feelings of individual perception, sensory the person as a customer. Perception can refer to
perception and concepts that occur in a particular both the perception during the meeting with the
situation, such as when a person experiences a service, and the concept of QoS related to a
multimedia service. particular company in terms of satisfaction or
According to Jackson [14], the word Qualia can be dissatisfaction of customers.
seen as a property to experience something that Another author defines QoE as "the characteristics
cannot be shared by verbal or technical of sensations, perceptions and views of people
descriptions, thus being an individual and about a particular service or product; these
subjective experience. Martens and Martens [15] characteristics can be good, fair or bad [5]. Also,
discuss two existing approaches to understanding one should emphasize that to determine the users
quality: (1) objective, rational and oriented to a QoE, the perceived quality of multimedia signal
product and (2) perceptual and subjective. The needs to be complemented by other criteria related
first approach focuses on the characteristics and to sensory processing, the human cognitive
properties of an item (product or service) in terms process and psychological approaches.
of quality; while the second approach requires
human evaluation considering terms of 2.1 Quality of Experience and Quality of
"assessment of excellence". Reeves and Bednar Service
[16] define quality in a more intrusive manner, for
instance, "the form that a product or service meets The difference between the concepts of QoS and
or exceed customer expectations"; this definition QoE can be shown in Figure 1, in which the QoS
comes from the marketing literature. For these must be ensured by the network providers, by
reasons, the definition of quality is based on managing some parameters such as delay, jitter,
standards, such as, the given by the International bandwidth and packet loss rate; these parameters
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the ISO must be measured and controlled to guaranty a
9000:2000 standard [17]: "quality is the ability of better service. While the QoS is more related to
a set of features of a product, system or process to technical aspects, the QoE cares about the
meet certain customer requirements, consumers customer service; therefore, the QoS can be part of
and other stakeholders" the QoE definition. Also, other features need to be
A definition of greater acceptance regarding to considered, such as the user preference and service
QoE concept, stated by ITU-T on P.10 costs.
Recommendation is: "QoE is the general
acceptance of an application or service, as
perceived subjectively by the end user." From this Network
definition we can see two points: (1) Includes full
performance of the end-to-end system. And, (2) User
User Application
equipment Server
can be influenced by user expectations and
context. QoS
In recent years there have been some criticisms
about the definition of QoE. The term QoE
"acceptability" included as a basis for the QoE is Figure 1. Differences between QoE and QoS in a mobile
not the most appropriated as stated by Moller [18] communication.
and other scientists; because acceptance is the
result of a decision which is partially based on Human aspects, such as user preference and
Quality of Experience". If a more service-oriented service preference, are related with the users
view is considered, arguing that quality is based QoE. Studies consider [19] the user preference for
on the comparison of perceptions with video content, in which the user makes a more
expectations. Aspects of expectation have been critical assessment, giving a low quality score,
addressed in a more comprehensive manner in the
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depending on his or her preference regarding the having a more practical view. Over the past years,
video content. several more holistic conceptual frameworks
begin to be presented in the literature, for instance,
2.2 Quality of Experience and User Experience taxonomy focused on QoE [25], the Gr@sp- QoE-
framework [26] and the approach of Quality of
QoE and User Experience (UX) are new research Experience centered in the user [27].
topics and they have become popular in recent The QoE is often represented in terms of the index
decades. They are also related to development named Mean Opinion Score (MOS). The MOS
studies and the validation of products and services. scale was already used before the QoE become a
In 2010, the ISO introduced its new standard ISO research topic [28].
9241-210 [20], which included the following
definition of the term User Experience: "The 2.3 Quality of Experience and its application
perceptions and responses of a person resulting areas
from the use of a product, service or system". This
standard highlights four UX features: For example, the IPTV is a service that has several
UX presents temporal and dynamic researches that includes QoE [29]-[31]. The area
aspects; therefore, UX changes through the time; of Cellular Networks also needs to concern about
UX is dependent on the context in which the users QoE; studies as [32] propose a new
each situation and experience lived by someone, Voice Quality Indicator and [33] evaluates voice
and this experience can be unique; quality index for mobile systems. Considering all
UX is considered subjective and these services, the perceived QoE becomes an
indispensable study. There are many application
individual;
areas that consider the QoE, among them:
The focus of UX is on enjoyment to use a
Telecommunication services: covering a
new technology, instead of highlighting problems
large variety of multimedia communications and
and difficulties when dealing with a computer. tradictional fixed and mobile networks.
Studies show that usability methods are not Assistive technology: wich goal is design
sufficient to measure UX and consequently, new and develop assistive and rehabilitative devices for
methods of measurement have been studied [21]. people with disabilities to improve their QoE.
Also, aspects like qualities and emotions are not in Cloud Computing [34]: this new
the scope of Human-computer interaction (HCI). technology must be transparent for the user, the
While QoE has its origin in the capacity to share, transfer and collaborate with the
Telecommunication area, the UX has its origin in cloud must maximize the users QoE;
the study of HCI. The origin and evolution of QoE Multimedia learning [35]: the use of
has always focused on industry, in order to avoid multimedia contents must be easy and natural with
users frustration when they are using certain cognitive resources, facilitating the access to
systems. Also, the approaches of economic aspects information.
and customer loyalty are related to the QoE. This Games: the quality of game software affect
economic dimension is less prominent in the directly the users QoE.
literature regarding to UX. In this context, it is Sensory Experience [36]: QoE must be
concluded that QoE is much closer to a global multi-dimensional and multi-sensorial, users need
customer experience than UX [22]. to have the impression to be part of the
multimedia asset. For this can be used sensory
Another difference between UX and QoE is that
effects (light, wind, vibration) and specific devices
UX is more focused on the user. Roto et al. [23]
and effects (air vaporizer, motion chairs).
emphasizes that the UX is not related to
technology. QoE is considered mostly dependent 2.4 Influence Factors of Quality of Experience
on QoS [24]. The QoE is focused on application,
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The task of determination of users QoE in its destination to the original one to evaluate the
telecommunication services is very complex quality of an audio transmission. One of the most
because the number of Influence Factors (IFs). accepted intrusive method is the ITU-T P.862
These factors can be classified in the following recommendation [35], most known as Perceptual
categories, human, system and context [37]. Evaluation of Speech Quality (PESQ), because its
Human IFs are regarding to the users subjectivity, high correlation with subjective tests.
such as, users preferences [19] and the The P.862 algorithm measures the voice distortion
characteristics of the Human Visual System effects and the noise in the speech quality.
(HVS). System IFs are related to the Basically, their algorithm compares an original
characteristics of end-users devices such as signal X(t) with a degraded signal Y(t) that is the
display screen or speaker, processing and energy result of passing X(t) through a communications
capacity; and also the characteristics of the system [39]. In the first step of PESQ the delays
network transmission [38]. Context IFs are between original input and degraded output are
concerned with the space and time in which a computed and an alignment algorithm is
service is used, considering social and economic performed. Later, the following stages are
aspects; for instance, the cost of a phone call, or implemented, a level alignment to a calibrated
the characteristics of the physical environment in listening level, a time-frequency mapping,
which a user watches a video. It is worth noting frequency warping, and compressive loudness
that all of the IFs are interrelated, and each one scaling.
adding some degradation on the global users ITU-T P.862 recommendation only evaluates the
QoE. effects of one-way speech distortion and noise on
speech; then, delays, echo, loudness loss and other
3 AUDIO AND VIDEO QUALITY impairments related to two-way conversations are
ASSESSEMENT METHODS not reflected in the PESQ scores. The scenarios
for which PESQ had demonstrated acceptable
In this section, the most relevant methodologies to performance are: speech input levels to a codec,
assess the quality of audio and video signals are transmission channel errors, packet loss and
briefly described. packet loss concealment, bit rates if a codec is a
multi-rate codec, transcoding, environmental noise
3.1 Quality assessment of Audio Signals at the transmission side, varying delay in listening
only tests, an different techniques of coding, such
Audio quality assessment methods can be
as waveform codecs, code-excited linear
classified in two main categories, subjective
prediction (CELP), adaptive multi-rate (AMR),
methods and objective methods. Subjective
among others.
methods are based on the users evaluation of the
On the other hand, non-intrusive methods are
content and objective methods are based on
based only on the degraded audio file; this method
algorithms that contain technical parameters
does not require a reference file.
related to network performance or content
It is important to note that non-intrusive methods
characteristics.
have a lesser correlation with subjective test in
Subjective methods are also classified in presence
relation to objective methods. However, non-
and remote tests, which in turn are separated into
intrusive methods are recommended for real time
utilitarian and analytical methods.
quality evaluation, since the only information
Moreover, objective methods can be classified as
needed is the audio itself. This characteristic is
intrusive, non-intrusive and parametric methods.
very important when considered that in most
Intrusive methods require a reference for the
online streaming applications, the original audio is
evaluation; thus, an original file is used; it is
not available.
necessary to compare the audio that has arrived to
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The most popular nonintrusive objective method is Several objective methodologies for video quality
ITU-T P.563 which predicts the speech quality of assessment are focused on determining the quality
a degraded signal without a given reference of human visual perception considering videos
speech signal [40]. with spatial impairments [47]-[48] or temporal
The parametric method uses physical measures of interruptions [49]-[52]. In the last 6 years, some
the system, including the network, codecs and researches [53]-[59] investigate the impact of
acoustic parameters. The E-Model is a parametric video resolution changes on the users QoE.
method that is standardized as ITU-T G.107 Hence, many communication service providers
Recommendation [41]. This metric tries to predict measure the user satisfaction to find a manner to
the audio quality by analyzing some parameters of improve their services, and other solutions were
the network transmission. Although, these metrics developed in order to improve existing image and
are considered state-of-the-art standard, some video quality metrics [60]-[63].
studies [42]-[44] suggest different algorithms to Also, measure the quality in audio and video
improve the voice quality assessment metrics. multimedia services is very important, and some
The subjective tests methods for audio quality other studies [64]-[69] are dedicated to describe
assessment are used in tests conducted under the impairments, quality models, components, and
laboratory conditions, in which the instructions are metrics. In the next section, additional video
explained by a supervisor to assessors. Assessors quality metrics are treated.
listen to different audio files and grant an adjective
score using different scales. The most popular 4 FIRST CASE STUDY: QOE IN VIDEO
scale is the five-point Mean Opinion Score (MOS) STREAMMING SERVICE
scale described in the Absolute Category Rating
(ACR) method, which is introduced Table 2. This case study is based on a previous work [6]
and its goal is to show how a new metric that
Table 2. Absolute Category Rating (ACR) quantifies the users QoE in a video streaming
Estimated session is modeled. Hence, our motivation to
Score
Quality present this case study is show the development
1 Bad process of a video quality metric, considering the
2 Poor
different steps involved, such as, the identification
3 Fair
4 Good of key degradation factors in this specific service,
5 Excellent initial subjective tests, mathematical model
definition, technical implementation, and finally,
3.2 Quality assessment of Video Signals the validation tests.
It is worth noting that the proposed metric can be
In general, the video quality assessment applied in many realistic applications, such as,
methodologies can be classified in two groups, adaptive video streaming, in which the video
subjective and objective methods. coding characteristics depends on the video
Nowadays, the most popular subjective tests quality assessed in conjunction with other
methodologies for video quality assessment are parameters as network capacity at end user device.
stated in ITU recommendations ITU-R BT-500 Nowadays, most of video streaming services are
[45] and ITU-T P.910 [46]. These subjective tests running over HyperText Transfer Protocol
are conducted in a laboratory environment with (HTTP), which uses Transmission Control
special requirements concerning lighting and Protocol (TCP). In order to minimize the network
acoustics conditions. In order to conduct the congestion effects, TCP implemented different
subjective tests, a supervisor explains the test congestion control mechanisms [70]-[72]. When
instructions to the assessors. Then, they score each TCP detects packet losses in the network, the
video assessed using a MOS scale, such as, the number of transmitted IP packets decreases, and if
scale presented in Table 2 or another quality scale. this new rate is smaller than the playback rate, the
player takes all the buffer information and then
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enters into a rebuffering process. In this 4.1 Subjective Test Methods for assessing Video
rebuffering time period, no information is Quality
displayed and this negatively affects the users Nowadays, subjective test methodologies do not
QoE. consider the effects of temporal interruptions, such
A customized player was implemented to extract as the pauses. Especially, in the video streaming
information regarding the player buffer states service over HTTP/TCP, degradations do not
during a video streaming. These states are the happen in the spatial domain, because TCP
application layer parameters and they indicate: the guarantees the packet delivery.
number of pauses and their frequency, mean pause In general, the video impairments can appear in
length and temporal location. the temporal or spatial domain. In Figure 2 the
In subjective tests of video quality, the human temporal and spatial impairments are presented
perception on the quality of the tested material is using TCP and UDP as transport protocol,
quantified by a score and the global quality of the respectively. It can be observed that the users
service is evaluated according these results. QoE is affected in different ways.
Results of subjective tests are very important,
because product improvements are based on users
requirements [73].
It is important to note that objective metrics such
as: Mean Squared Error (MSE), Peak Signal-to-
Noise Ratio (PSNR), Structural Similarity (SSIM)
[47], Video Quality Metric (VQM) [48] and Figure 2. Effects of transport protocols in the video quality:
algorithms based on Region of Interest [74] or (a) Impairment using TCP. (b) Impairment using UDP in a
packet loss scenario.
visual attentions maps [75], [76] are not indicated
for video streaming running over TCP, because
4.2 Limitation of Current Subjective Test
they do not take into account the characteristics of
Methods for assessing Video Streaming Quality
degradations on the temporal domain. Some
solutions based on application parameters consider
As stated before, most of the subjective test
the temporal degradations, specifically the number
methods are described in the ITU
and duration of the temporal interruptions
recommendations: ITU-R BT-500 [45] and ITU-T
[49],[50]. In this case study, subjective test results,
P.910 [46]. Furthermore, others works compare
from experimental tests, are related with the
these subjective methods [77]-[81].
application layer parameters and, as a result, the
ITU-R BT-500 described the following methods:
metric named Video streaming Quality Metrics
Double Stimulus Impairment Scale (DSIS),
(VsQM) was established. This approach
Double Stimulus Continuous Quality Scale
considered the temporal location of each temporal
(DSCQS), Single Stimulus Continuous Quality
interruption or pause. Therefore, QoE does not
Evaluation (SSCQE) and Simultaneous Double
only depend on the number of pauses and their
Stimulus for Continuous Evaluation (SDSCE).
mean period of time, as stated in [49]-[59]. For
In the DSIS method the test sequences are
video streaming service over TCP, the temporal
presented in pairs: the first stimulus presented in
location of each pause must be considered.
each pair is always the source reference, while the
Moreover, the proposed metric is used in a useful
second stimulus is the impairment video [82].
scenario, in which a feedback mechanism sends
DSCQS method requires the evaluation of two test
the quality metric score from end user device to
videos. One of each pair is unimpaired while the
the video server. This scenario can be used for
other video might or might not contain
different purposes such as monitoring, reports or
impairment; but the assessors do not know which
as input of a Rate Determination Algorithm
video is the reference. Also, the position of the
(RDA) to improve the user satisfaction or the
reference picture is changed in pseudo random
network performance.
order [82].
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The SSCQE methodology is recommended for more useful to evaluate the performance of a
longer video sequences. The original video is not particular encoder. Thus, the effects of
used as reference to reproduce viewing conditions degradation caused by pauses cannot be properly
that are similar to real situations [45]. The evaluated by these methods. Also, it is important
assessors give a score at each certain period of to note that, in some cases, the length of pauses is
time during the overall video; therefore, there is almost equal to the total video length.
not a sole global score for a video sequence test.
SDSCE has been developed taking as reference Table 3. Parameters of Video Quality Assessment Methods
the SSCQE method, in which the presentation of Video Explicit Hidden Simulta- Continuous
Methods Length Refe- Refe- neous Quality
video sequences, and the rating scale had some (s) rence Rence Stimuli Scale
variations [45]. DSIS 10 Yes No No No
The ITU-T P.910 recommendation introduces the DSCQS 10 No Yes No No
following methodologies, Absolute Category SSCQE 300 No No No Yes
Rating (ACR), Absolute Category Rating with SDSCE 10 No No Yes Yes
SAMVIQ 10 Yes Yes No No
Hidden Reference (ACR-H), Degradation
ACR 10 No No No No
Category Rating (DCR) and Pair Comparison ACR-HR 10 No Yes No No
method (PC). DCR 10 Yes No No No
The ACR methodology is a category judgment, in PC 10 No No No No
which the test sequences are presented one at a
time and are rated independently on a category As stated before, the SSCQE methodology is
scale. The ACR-H methodology is a variant of indicated for longer videos. However, grant a
ACR, in which the assessor does not know which score during a pause would not be reasonable,
is the original video sequence [46]. because there is not visual information. Also, there
The DCR methodology is characterized because is not any spatial degradation in the video frames
the first stimulus presented in each pair is always because the streaming service uses the TCP.
the source reference, while the second stimulus is
the same source with some impairment [46]. 4.3 The Proposed Subjective Test Methodology
In PC methodology the video sequences for
testing are also presented in pairs; however, both In subjective tests performed in this case study,
of them are representing different impairments the variability of the cognitive processes of
[46]. assessors is considered. They have different
Another method named Assessment Methodology cognitive characteristics, such as, attention, speed
for Video Quality (SAMVIQ) is introduced in in information processing, short-term and long-
[83], [84] and it considers some variants of the term memory, prior knowledge about technology,
ITU-T methodologies. Table 3 presents the main and even preferences of video content.
parameters of the previous described The main differences of the proposed subjective
methodologies. The parameters used to compare test methodology in relation to the described in
these methods are (1) the video length; (2) the Table 3 are the length of the test video sequences,
explicit reference, the assessor knows which are and the global score given by the assessors at the
the original and impairment video; (3) the hidden end of the video test. Therefore, the proposed
reference, the original video is presented but the method is in accordance to the current video
assessor does not know; (4) simultaneous stimuli, streaming services.
in which two videos are presented at the same The subjective video tests were conducted in a
time; and (5) continuous quality scale, the assessor laboratory using the recommendation introduced
score several times during a sole video sequence. in Table 4 [6]. These recommendations try to
As presented in Table 3, the focus of all these establish a realistic environment of the video
methods, except SSCQE, is to assess the effects of streaming service.
spatial degradation, because they consider a video The results demonstrated that a metric for
length around 10 seconds. These methods are
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4.3.3 Test Scenario and Application As stated before, twenty different impairment
models were built for each video content type
A video server, a video client and a network considered. The content types used were sport,
emulator were used in the test scenario. The news and documental; thus, in total 60 impairment
network emulator is used to insert network video were created following one of the 20
impairments. The HTTP/TCP protocols were impairment models; five of these impairment
used. models (S1, S2, S3. S4 and S5) are depicted in
Different impairments, such as, reduction of Figure 5, which is adapted from [6].
bandwidth and packet were considered. These The main characteristics of the three original
impairments are responsible of pauses with videos are: video and audio format followed
different lengths. H.264/ACC standard, spatial resolution of
In order to monitor the buffer behavior, a 640x360, temporal resolution of 30 fps and video
length of 240 seconds. Figure 6 presents a
customized player that captures all the events
snapshot of the content information of each
related to buffering and playing status was used
original video.
and it is described as follows [6].
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S5
S4
Test Scenarios
S3
S2
S1
TA TB TC TD t
1,4
stored in the personal computers used in the
1,2
experimental tests.
1,0
4.3.3.3 Service Application Scenario 0,8
0,6
Figure 7, adapted from [6], introduces an useful 0,4
scenario, in which, VsQM metric was sent from 0,2
the end users device to the service provider using 0,0
WA WB WC WD
a feedback mechanism. Temporal Segments
In this work, VsQM value is obtained
Figure 8. Weight of Temporal Segments: W A, WB, WC and
automatically in a pre-defined time period.
WD .
Depending on this period, it is possible to use
VsQM as input of an RDA; thus, the number of It is important to note that pauses at the beginning
users utilizing the service is increased. of the video, have a higher negative effect on the
For non-real-time applications, the video quality user QoE.
metric can be used to prepare reports or to perform Figure 9 shows the relation between the proposed
operations and maintain tasks. The feedback metric [6] and the subjective test results. The
mechanism was implemented using a socket exponential model is very confident, because the
interface [87]. maximum error obtained was 0.013 at 5-point
MOS scale and a Pearson Correlation Coefficient
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parameters, such as signal strength reception, co- call was not established due congestion or
channel interference (C/I), and others, not always coverage problems.
are correlated with the voice quality. Thus, MDT
not only will be focused to discover coverage 5.2 Overview of the Minimization Drive Tests
problems; additionally, MDT will be able to Solution
monitor the voice call quality.
To improve the cellular network performance,
5.1 Parameter Indicators used for assessing the field engineers perform tasks called drive tests.
Service Quality of Cellular Networks in Brazil Thus, radio frequency (RF) parameters are
collected to discover some coverage holes or weak
According to ANATEL reports [99], the number coverage areas. It is important to note that the
of prepaid users represents about 77.5% of the drive tests cannot be performed in all the coverage
total cellular users of cellular networks in Brazil areas, because some areas are access restricted.
and the main service used for prepaid subscribers Also, drive test tasks are expensive in both time
is the voice call service. and money.
The quality control of cellular networks operators In this context, MDT solution deals with the two
in Brazil is supervised by ANATEL. Indicators are problems mentioned above, because user
important to evaluate system performance [100]. equipment's (UE) from the real subscribers are
The ANATEL resolution number 335 of April, used to collect RF parameters. As a consequence,
2003 [93] established the definitions, methods and the costs regarding to drive tests are reduced
frequency of collection of Personal Mobile considerably, and the network measurements can
Services (PMS) quality indicators. Table 5 be performed in all different places of the network
introduces the indicators and quality targets for coverage area in short periods of time.
PMS.
5.2.1 Main characteristics of MDT solution
Table 5. Key Parameter Indicators of PMS In Brazil.
Target The main characteristics and functionalities of the
Index Description Value
MDT are [39]:
PMS 1 Rate of complaints 1%
PMS 2 Rate of coverage and congestion 4% There are two MDT modes to capture the
Rate of call completion by call 98% network parameters: (i) The logged MDT,
PMS 3
centers where the UE captures the RF parameters, then
Attendance by telephone / 95% they are stored for a certain period of time
PMS 4
electronic service before the data is sent to the MDT server. This
PMS 5 Rate of completed calls 67%
PMS 6 Rate of call set-up 95% MDT mode is performed when the UE is in
PMS 7 Rate of call drops 2% idle state. (ii) Immediate MDT is referred
PMS 8 Rate of user response 95% when the UE captures and reports immediately
Rate of response to requests for 95% the RF parameters to the MDT server. This
PMS 9
information mode of MDT is performed when the UE is in
PMS 10 Rate of personal service to the user 95%
Rate of Assistance to the user 5% active state.
PMS 11 Collection and report of network parameters
accounts
PMS 12 Rate of failures recovery 95% by the UE. The measurement logs captured for
the UE consist of multiple events logged in
As can be seen from Table 5, none of the PMS different timestamps.
indicators correspond to the voice signal quality. Network operators can choose specific
These PMS are more related to the service geographical regions to perform the MDT
assistance of call center of cellular operators. measurements.
Also, some PMS treat the cases when the phone
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the possibility of predicting musically induced research is determined. Preprocessing and feature
emotions, with lyrics and audio features. retrieval tasks are executed in phase 2 whereas
phase 3 deals with forming a music specific
emotion model using tags. Identification of
1.3 Research Problem emotion related tags has been initially executed
The primary research problem addressed in this following which dimensionality of emotion space
paper is evaluating capability of automatically has been reduced via combining synonyms and
predicting the emotions associated with a music executing hierarchical clustering. Subsequently,
piece, with a fair level of accuracy. Emotions classification algorithms; Nave Bayes [5], Random
perceived by an individual when listening to a Forest [6], Support Vector Machine (SVM) [7] and
certain song, is referred to as emotions associated C4.5 [8]; have been attempted in phase 4. This last
with a music piece in this study. This research phase is executed separately using audio and lyric
problem would be addressed by modelling several features.
data driven approaches for prediction of musically
induced emotion and evaluating them to ascertain
their level of acceptability. Thus, its required to 3 DATA ACQUISITION
identify the classes of emotion which are elicited in Six popular music datasets; RWC database,
people by music, since music may be expressive of GTZAN genre collection, Uspop2002,
merely some emotions but not all. Furthermore this MagnaTagATune, Musicbrainz and MSD; were
is necessitated by the distinction of musically benchmarked based on relevance, quantity and
induced emotion from the general class of quality. While the magnitude of the former 3
emotions [4]. Subsequently, a model which has the datasets were inadequate considering the existence
capability of automatically identifying the of larger music collections, audio features were
emotions expressed by a song must be identified. required to be obtained separately for
This model may utilize either lyrics or audio MagnaTagATune and Musicbrainz datasets.
features, based on what appears to be most Considering the magnitude of dataset and
promising in the field of MER, according to our availability of features necessary to conduct
research. research, MSD was opted for.
The lyrics of songs in the MSD have been
obtained from musiXmatch which is presently the
2 METHODOLOGY
largest lyrics catalogue in the world. Lyrics have
The methodology devises a music specific emotion
been represented as bag-of-words in this dataset.
model and evaluates the capability of different
classification algorithms to predict the emotions MSD provides with song level tags, which were
expressed by a song. The research was based on the utilized in the research for determining emotions
Million Song Dataset (MSD). MSD comprises of a associated with each song. Tags are terms which
million songs whereas tags, lyrics and audio song listeners have associated with the music
features associated with these songs are provided pieces in the MSD, via the API provided by
by musiXmatch, last.fm and Vienna University of Last.fm . Due to this being a site used by millions
Technology respectively. of people around the world to satisfy their musical
requirements, tags appearing in this dataset reflect
Figure 1 depicts the architectural view which
the opinions of a global community, thus making it
comprises of four primary components. Phase 1 of
the research is dedicated to evaluating and a suitable resource based on which to determine
benchmarking several music datasets, to evaluate emotions perceived by music.
their aptitude for achieving the research objectives. Furthermore, the Vienna University of Technology
Each dataset is benchmarked with relation to has provided with a multitude of audio features for
relevance, quantity and quality subsequent to 994 960 tracks in the MSD.
which the most suitable dataset to utilize for
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= (2)
4.1 Data Preprocessing
Initially the data files were organized as ARFF
and CSV files since utilized tools (R, Weka,
Final TF-IDF value of term t in document d is
RapidMiner, etc.) supported these formats.
calculated by multiplying these two values; (1)
The lyric words associated with songs were then and (2). It reflects importance of t with respect
weighted by Term Frequency Inverse to d.
Document Frequency (TF-IDF) value. TF-IDF Using IDF together with TF helps give more
weighting helps determine the importance of a importance to words that often occur in a given
term in a document, with relation to a collection song, but less in the collection of music.
of documents considered [9]. This extensively Furthermore, it helps minimize the importance
applied score in document classification context given to frequently occurring terms such as the
could be utilized in our research by considering and a.
songs as documents and words from song
Using this measure, the importance of each lyric
lyrics as terms. Rather than merely depicting
word with relation to a specific track was
the presence or absence of a word from song
calculated. If TF-IDF of a word was less than
lyrics, using TF-IDF value allows reflecting
the average TF-IDF value of all words for
how important a word is for a song. Calculation
corresponding song, we considered the word to
of TF-IDF score is as follows.
be of no significance for that song. Commonly
Term Frequency (TF) calculates the frequency occurring words were thus removed from the
with which a term occurs in a document [9] (1). lyrics dataset. This reduced the lyric feature
dimensionality from 5000 terms to 1536 English
words. A CSV file corresponding to this lyric
=
(1) ARFF file was created,
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JMIR
Compactness A measure of the noisiness of a
4.2 Feature Selection recording. Found by comparing
Feature selection is the mechanism of selecting the components of a windows
magnitude spectrum with the
a subset from feature space, which is most magnitude spectrum of its
relevant to class attribute values. Feature neighboring windows.
redundancy analysis, otherwise known as Spectral The standard deviation of the
correlation based feature selection is a renowned variability magnitude spectrum.
filter technique used for selecting subset of Root mean A measure of the power of a
features. Linear correlation coefficient , which square signal over a window.
is the primary measure adopted in this Zero The number of times the
technique, is defined in (3), where xi, yi are two crossings waveform changed sign in a
variables and , are their respective means. window. An indication of
is between -1 and 1 where equality to -1 or 1 frequency as well as noisiness.
signifies complete correlation. Features Fraction of The fraction of the last 100
depicting high correlation are considered to be low energy windows that has an RMS less
windows than the mean RMS of the
redundant, thus reflecting that retaining only one
Marsyas
last100 windows.
of such a feature pair is adequate for
Timbre Measurement on the Fast
classification. Subsequent to applying this features Fourier Transformation (FFT) of
algorithm using (+/-) 0.75 as threshold, ten sounds generated by octave
audio features were retained. notes.
( )( ) (3)
=
( )2 ( )2
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6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION via studying the class label prediction of each
tree. Each tree is constructed using a sample of
6.1 Classification Algorithms the training dataset, where each sample is
Four renowned classification algorithms were created with replacement, adhering to
attempted in this study, each of which has been bootstrapping mechanism. The overfitting
extensively applied in former machine learning problem of general decision trees is minimized
research work. Classification algorithms are by this classifier.
supervised learning techniques, where a labelled
6.2 Experimental Setup
dataset is required to be fed to them to obtain
As mentioned before, merely the seven majority
results.
emotion classes were retained for further study.
Support Vector Machines (SVM): SVM [7] Since this dataset depicts class imbalance
attempts to construct optimum hyperplanes (number of data points from each class is not
which best separate a dataset into classes. A equal) to a certain extent, classification
good separation is said to be obtained by finding experiments were executed on undersampled
the hyperplane which has largest distance to and oversampled datasets as well. The
nearest training record from any class. undersampling algorithm applied, strives to
Sequential Minimal Optimization (SMO) reduce the number of data points from each
implementation of SVM was utilized in this class, to equal number of data points in class of
research. smallest magnitude (C1). In oversampling
Nave Bayes: Nave Bayes [5] is based on mechanism suitable percentages must be
Bayes Theorem which describes the probability provided for creation of synthetic data points in
of an event, based on conditions that might be each class, to render magnitude of each class
related to the event. Nave Bayes algorithm is closer to magnitude of two largest classes; C7
depicted by (5) where vj depicts value of class and C17 (i.e. 200% adds another 2404 data
attribute and ai refers to value assumed by each points to C1 thus resulting in 3606 data points).
of the other attributes. (There are j number of Table 3 represents data distribution subsequent
classes as v1, v2, . vj). to undersampling and oversampling the dataset.
(5)
= arg max ( ) ( | ) Table 3: Undersampling and oversampling the dataset
=1 Emotion class No. of data No. of data
points after points after
undersampling oversampling
Nave Bayes assumption depicted by (6) is C1 1202 3606
applied when using this algorithm.
C2 1202 3468
C3 1202 3278
(1 , 2 , . . , | ) = ( | ) (6)
C7 1202 3821
C17 1202 3723
C4.5: C4.5 [8] is a decision tree algorithm C22 1202 3502
which is a variant of the original ID3 algorithm
C25 1202 3600
devised by Ross Quinlan. Information gain is
the function used in this method to determine
the attribute to be chosen at each level of the
The evaluation metrics utilized to assess
tree. Attribute with highest gain is chosen as
aptitude of classifiers are as follows.
root whereas the next attributes are chosen in
descending order of their gains. (The abbreviations stand for; TP True
Positive, TN True Negative, FP False
Random Forests: Random forests algorithm [6]
Positive and FN False Negative.)
forms a combination of prediction trees and
produces the eventual result using ensemble Recall: Also known as true positive rate,
methods. Thus the final class label is predicted sensitivity and hit rate, this helps evaluate the
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probability of correctly labeling members of the Table 4: Classifier performance based on AUC value
target class [13]. Area under the Curve Reflection on performance
Recall = TP/ (TP + FN). 0.9 - 1 Excellent
Precision: Also known as positive predictive 0.8 0.9 Good
value, this helps evaluate the probability that a 0.7 0.8 Fair
positive prediction is correct [13].
0.6 0.7 Poor
Precision = TP/ (TP + FP). 0.5 0.6 Fail
F-measure: This is the harmonic mean of
precision and recall [13]. Classified as
F-measure = Positive Negative
2 * Precision * Recall/ (Precision + Recall).
Positive Negative
True Positive False
(TP) Neagative (FN)
Actual class
False Positive Rate: Otherwise known as false
alarm rate, this reflects the probability of falsely
rejecting the null hypothesis for a particular test
(i.e. classifier inaccurately states that an instance False True Negative
belonging to negative class is positive) [13]. Positive(FP) (TN)
False Positive Rate = FP/ (FP + TN) Figure 2: Confusion matrix
Accuracy: This measure evaluates the
proportion of correct predictions by a classifier.
Accuracy = (TP + TN) / (TP + TN + FP + FN)
Area under the Curve: AUC [13] is a
graphical measure which depicts the area under
Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve.
ROC curve represents true positive rate against
false positive rate, thus providing with an
indication regarding overall performance of
classifier. Table 4 depicts classifier evaluation
based on AUC value.
Figure 2 depicts the confusion matrix on which
each evaluation measure is based. The two
classes concerned are the positive class and the
negative class. Classification output is labelled Figure 3: Accuracy of audio based classification
as TP, TN, FP and FN by considering the actual
Table 5: Legend for figures 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
class of a data point and the class into which it is
OS Oversample + SVM
classified. Obtaining relatively high values for OR Oversample + Random Forest
Recall, Precision, F-measure, Accuracy and ON Oversample + Nave Bayes
AUC is preferred, whereas acquiring low values OC Oversample + C4.5
for False Positive Rate is desired. US Undersample + SVM
6.3 Audio Based Classification Experiment UR Undersample + Random Forest
UN Undersample + Nave Bayes
Figure 3 depicts accuracy of audio based UC Undersample + C4.5
classification. Thus, Random Forest with NS Non-sample + SVM
oversampling could be inferred as the best NR Non-sample + Random Forest
solution, based on Accuracy metric. NN Non-sample + Nave Bayes
NC Non-sample + C4.5
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Legend related to Figures 4 to 13 is depicted in Figure 5 depicts results obtained for precision
Table 5. metric.
According to Figure 4 which depicts values Best precision for classes C1, C2, C3, C22 and
obtained for recall metric, classes C1, C2 and C25 has been obtained with Oversampling +
C25 have achieved the best results with Random Forest. Classes C7 and C17 however,
Oversampling + Random Forest. C3 and C22 have depicted best performance with Non-
have obtained best results with Undersampling sampled Nave Bayes.
+ SVM whereas classes C7 and C17 have
obtained best results with Non-sampled SVM.
Figure 4: Recall: Audio based classification Figure 5: Precision: Audio based classification
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Figure 6: Area under the curve (AUC): Audio based Figure 7: F-measure: Audio based classification
classification
Figure 6 depicts values obtained for area
under the curve measure (AUC). Best results Figure 7 depicts results obtained for f-
were obtained for each class when Random measure. Classes C1, C2, C3, C22 and C25
Forest algorithm was executed on have obtained best values for f-measure with
Oversampled dataset. According to Table 4 Oversampling + Random Forest. Classes C7
classification performance of Random Forest and C17 have achieved best results with Non-
with Oversampling could be categorized as sampled SVM.
good for classes C1 and C3, whereas it has
performed fairly for classes C2, C22 and
C25.
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C4.5 = 0.257
SVM = 0.2
Random Forest = 0.4
Nave Bayes = 0.143
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similar to other data points in the respective Table 8: Music emotion classes identified with emotion
class. On the contrary, undersampling results model
in loss of certain information, which is a Musically induced emotion
probable reason why oversampling performs Joyful, Danceable
better than undersampling. Witty
Random forest is an ensemble method, where Calming, Melancholic, Romantic
a multitude of decision trees are created when Sensual
creating classification model. This allows Cool
Psychedelic
selecting the most probable emotion class of
Nostalgic
a given song. The other three classification
methods attempted however, do not adopt this
A series of experiments were conducted to
ensemble method. Rather, they classify a song
attempt classification of music into
to a single specific emotion class alone, due to
recognized emotion classes. Of the
those being devoid of an interim phase where
classification attempts, the best music
several probable classes are found. Since a
emotion prediction model was provided as a
given song often has the potential of evoking
combination of Random Forest with
several emotions, Random forest seemingly
oversampling. This fact is supported by the
has performed better at predicting the most
aptitude scores provided in Table 9, which
likely emotion class to which a song belongs.
summarizes the performance of each classifier
for audio and lyric based classification.
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The emotion model formed in this study was [5] I. Rish, An empirical study of the naive Bayes
reliant on the assumption that emotion related classifier, Int. Jt. Conf. Artif. Intell., vol. 3, no.
tags associated with music convey perceived 22, pp. 4146, 2001.
emotion. This assumption may not always be
[6] L. Breiman, Random Forests, Mach. Learn.,
valid since words such as love could be
vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 532, 2001.
conveying that the song is a love song, but not
that the emotion was felt by a person. This [7] I. Steinwart and A. Christmann, Support Vector
limitation could be resolved by collecting Machines. New York: Springer, 2008, pp. 1
information from a number of people 25.
regarding what emotions they experienced
when listening to songs from a dataset. [8] N. V Chawla, C4 . 5 and Imbalanced Data
sets: Investigating the effect of sampling
method , probabilistic estimate , and decision
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Learning, Workshop Learning from
Imbalanced Data Sets II, 2003, p. 8.
[1] Princeton University, About WordNet.
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https://wordnet.princeton.edu/. [Accessed: 02- [9] P. Kanters, Automatic mood classification for
Aug-2015]. music, Tilburg University, Netherlands, 2009.
[2] A. Gabrielsson, Emotion perceived and [10] J. Han and M. Kamber, Data mining: concepts
emotion felt: Same or different?, Music. Sci., and techniques, 2nd ed. Elsevier, 2006.
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[11] S. Guha, R. Rastogi, and K. Shim, ROCK: a
[3] K. R. Scherer and M. R. Zentner, Emotional robust clustering algorithm for categorical
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[4] M. Zentner, D. Grandjean, and K. R. Scherer, [12] T. Hill and P. Lewicki, Statistics: Methods and
Emotions evoked by the sound of music: Applications, 2nd ed. StatSoft, Inc., 2007, p.
characterization, classification, and 800.
measurement., Emotion, vol. 8, no. 4, pp.
494521, Aug. 2008. [13] D. M. . Powers, Evaluation: From precision,
recall and f-measure to ROC, informedness,
markedness & correlation, J. Mach. Learn.
Technol., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 3763, 2011.
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Proposition of an Intelligent System for Predictive Analysis Using Medical Big Data
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, a number of technologies including
Emerging technologies such as mobile application, cloud computing, mobile phone, big data and
cloud computing, big data analytics, predictive predictive analytics have been identified as
analytics revolutionized all sectors. This is particularly Emerging Technologies (ET) [1]. (ET) are defined
true for the healthcare system as a sensitive sector. as innovation in a constantly and accelerating
Nowadays, healthcare industry mainly depends on
evolving and touch every sector resulting a big
information technology to provide best services.
change in process and procedure, efforts are
A big-data revolution in healthcare starts with the
vastly increased supply of health data. In fact, these multiplied now to applying ET in sensitive sector
new technologies are applied to improve the medical like healthcare system.
sector. Digitized information is omnipresent because Data
This paper proposes an intelligent system that is growing and moving faster than healthcare
combines big-data analysis with data-mining and organizations can consume it. This mainly is due
mobile healthcare techniques for self-monitoring. The to the efforts of researchers in the medical field
system attempts to exploit the healthcare data through and their discoveries take as an example human
an intelligent process analysis and big data processing. DNA. Widespread use of the electronically
This approach aims to extract useful knowledge to be medical records wishes totally transforms medical
used in decision making and to ensure a real-time care [2]. the latest innovations concerning genetics
medical monitoring.
and smart home or smart places enables patient
self-monitoring and treatment by using simpler
KEYWORDS
devices[3]. The appearance of sensing technology
like M-health [4]; healthcare data appears like a
Emerging Technologies, Healthcare Data Analysis,
Mobile Application, Cloud Computing, Big Data digital flood creating puddles and lakes, creeks
Analytics, Data Mining, Learning Algorithm and torrents, of data , and this increases in parallel
with the rapid growth in the use of mobile devices
like smart phones, laptops, tablets, personal
1 INTRODUCTION sensors .
Large data volumes at high velocities were
originally an option that characterizes
supercomputers, nuclear physics, military
simulations and space travel. Late in the 20th
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century, bigger and faster data appeared in airline health data is managed in the appropriate database,
and bank operations, particularly with the growth doctors / nurses can investigate the relevant data
of credit cards. Starting in 1990, The Human according to their requests and the necessary
Genome Project was the launch of Big Data in information to self-healthcare are provided by the
healthcare [5], and this was due to a statistic that Web service [6].
showed that 80% of medical data is unstructured if we talk about Cloud computing as new
and is clinically relevant and much significant. technology applied in the healthcare system ,it
This data resides in multiple places like individual brings many benefits ; by creating a network
EMRs, lab and imaging systems, physician notes, between doctors; patients and healthcare institutes
medical correspondence, claims, CRM systems, and facilitates access to medical information
and finance. anywhere and anytime [7],
The potential of Big Data analytics allows to slow Cloud computing provides healthcare a much
the ever-increasing costs of care, help providers to appreciated services concerning data handling by
practice more effective medicine, empower ensuring [8, 9]:
patients and healthcare providers, support fitness
and preventive self-care, and dream about more Resiliency: platforms offers by cloud
personalized and predictive medicine. Yet, social service providers are characterized by a
media, cloud computing, and using the intelligent powerful infrastructure that provides
procedure for managing analyzing and extracting
redundancy and storage of any data
information from Data; this approach will
transform healthcare system and gives the power quantity to ensuring high availability
to explore, predict and why not anticipate the cure. anytime and anywhere.
Big-data analysis promises and affirms that future
is no longer mysterious. Mobility: the cloud infrastructure is
We discuss the great role played by new providing the backbone for medical
technology in the field of health like healthcare personnel to access all sorts of information
analysis, and then we present our proposed system from any location and from a whole set of
and its contribution. devices; the communication will be done in
The rest of this paper will present as follow: in
an easier way given that the facility of
section II, we present related works concerning
technologies applied in the healthcare system and access will be the same to one patient or
researchs work in this field. Section III is several in the same time.
reserved for description of our proposed platform.
And the last section gives conclusions and Privacy: cloud computing platforms are
perspectives. characterized by a very high level of
security than local IT department in a
hospital can ensure.
2 RELATED WORKS
External management: By cloud provider
dont need doing updates or installing the
The medical industry has been swamped by new certificates or repairing blocking systems .
technologies because of many proofs, we take as
an example the implementation of e -health In addition to all these benefits, cloud adapts
systems. Such as Kagawa University that was to all situations to ensure ease of access at a
designed and implemented for the academic health high level.
education. E-Healthcare is a form of private cloud
service for university students who can get their Many researchers are currently focusing on the
health records from physical measurement devices benefits of new technologies [10, 11], for their
with their authentication based on smart card, their advantages and promises, including the great role
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of cloud computing in the stage of managing can serve both roles of organizing and data
healthcare data that are becoming increasingly analyzing tool .Hadoop can handle very large
large. volumes of data with different structures or no
More than that, some of them give the design of a structure at all. But Hadoop is a little difficult to
cloud computing-based Healthcare SaaS Platform install, configure and manage, and people with
(HSP) to deliver healthcare information services Hadoop skills are not easily found. In addition, for
with low cost, high clinical value and high these reasons, it appears organizations are not
usability with the high level of security [12,13]. quite ready to embrace Hadoop completely.
Knowing that the adoption of EHRs and
Big data analysis specially in healthcare area is electronics data, prepared a submitted base for
considered as a revolutionary approach to applying analysis and become the norm in
improving the quality of healthcare service [14, healthcare, it enables the building of predictive
15], because analytics figures to play a pivotal role analytic solutions. These predictive models, as we
in the future of healthcare system and as a result of know have the potential to lower cost and improve
research to develop healthcare sector [16] systems the overall health of the population. As predictive
found obliged to receive a new form of data such models become more pervasive, some standards
as: human DNA, data genetics; hence the necessity appear to be used by all the parties involved in the
of leveraging all these resources and embitter modeling process: like The Predictive Model
human health. Analytics also are now applied in Markup Language (PMML) [22].It allows for
healthcare to compare the cost and effectiveness of predictive solutions to be easily shared between
interventions, treatments, public health policies, or applications and systems. And it can be used to
medical devices to reduce failed investments. expedite the adoption and use of predictive
In fact, this kind of analysis can give the best solutions in the healthcare industry.
solution to prevent medical disasters. For example,
infectious diseases can be predicted by data According to our research, we found that there are
healthcare analysis and the health authority could many efforts to creating platforms based on cloud
manage this situation and save the humans. computing for managing medical records and
Also we will soon be awash in genomic data [17], simplify access to data. The patient does not care
given the incredible size and dimensionality of about the way with his doctor manages his medical
these datasets, the field of analytics will need to data. But the most important for him is what is the
borrow techniques to face it and to make it useful. positive impact of this, on his health situation?
What we propose is a platform that combines the
in addition to that , some predictive analytics benefits of mobile healthcare and big data
platform for disease targets across varying patient analysis. Making as the primary objective,
cohorts using electronic health records (EHRs) are exploration and extraction of useful knowledge
created to facilitate specific biomedical research and self-monitoring in real time for patients.
workflows, such as refinement of hypotheses or
data semantics [18].
A lot of tools are used now to create platforms for 3 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
big data analytics, the most known is the open-
source distributed data processing platform or
Hadoop (Apache platform) [19]. It belongs to the 3.1 System Characteristics:
class of technologies "NoSQL" that have evolved
to managing data at high volume. Hadoop has the The proposed solution is an intelligent system that
potential to process extremely large amounts of we gave the name of Intelligent Predictive
data mainly by allocating partitioned data sets to Healthcare System (IPHCS), it analyzes
numerous servers (nodes), each of which solves medical data which coming from different sources
different parts of the larger problem and then in a real-time, this process helps to decide about
integrates them for the final result [20,21]. Hadoop patient health condition by using the extracted
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information from his own data . So the system The captured information is sent and subsequently
will: managed by the system, which monitors in real-
time.
The doctor intervenes on the basis of the received
be hosted in a cloud and can be accessed report, and the patient will be contacted for the
anytime, anywhere, and by any necessary. (Figure1).
communication equipment,
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The second layer is characterized by the great role 1. Macharia, P., Singh,U.G., Zuva,T.: Improving, Quality
and Access to Healthcare by Adopting Emerging
of Map-Reduce module for the process of Technologies, International Journal of Digital
predictive analysis. And to reinforce more and Information and Wireless Communications (IJDIWC) ,
more the system in matters of prediction, it must 2016, vol,6 pp, 41,45
be equipped a powerful predictive algorithm or 2. Richard, H., James, B., Anthony, B., Federico, G.,
learning algorithm to ensure the important phases Robin, M., Richard, S. and Roger, T.: Can Electronic
Medical Record Systems Transform Health Care?
of the process and build a suitable model of Potential Health Benefits, Savings, and Costs. Health
prediction. Affairs, 24, no.5 (2005):1103-1117 .
Data mining technology like a delicate process , 3. Marianthi, T., Nikos, T.: Smart Home Solutions for
executed by predictive algorithms, which have Healthcare: Privacy in Ubiquitous Computing
shown a strong effectiveness and efficiency in Infrastructures.
4. Santosh, K., Wendy, J.: Mobile Health Technology
predicting , take as an example supporting vector Evaluation ; ELSEVIER ; Volume 45, Issue 2, August
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and Naive Bayes (NB) [26], as They Are 5. Bonnie, F., Ellen M., Tobi, S.: Big Data in Healthcare
Currently classified Among the top 10 Hype and Hope; Business Development for Digital
classification methods Identified by IEEE Python Health; October 2012.
6. Miyazaki, M., Kamano, H., Imai, Y.: An e-Healthcare
& Related Resources [27]. System for Ubiquitous and Life-long Health
For that, our system should be equipped with a Management, International Journal of Digital
learning algorithm among the cited ones or a Information and Wireless Communications (IJDIWC),
combination of several learning algorithms to 2016, vol. 6, pp 163-172.
benefit from its performances and build a powerful 7. Madhusudhana, R., Rambhupal , B.: Survey of Adapting
Cloud Computing in Healthcare; International Journal of
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And Biomedicine, SCPE; Volume 16, Number 1, pp. 1
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9. Sanjay, P., Sindhu, M., Jesus, Z.: A Survey of the State
of Cloud Computing in Healthcare; Canadian Center of
Science and Education. Vol. 1, No. 2, 2012 , September
19, 2012 .
Certainly predict the future is no longer a difficult 10. Jonathan, N., Brian, M., Sharat, K.: Healthcare in the
task, with emergent technologies , medical field cloud: the opportunity and the challenge. MLD.
will benefit from all the voluminous medical data 11. Lena, l. , Hans-Ulrich, P.: A scoping review of cloud
to extract knowledge for helping to decision computing in Healthcare ; BMC Medical Informatics and
making, reduction of cost and go beyond the Decision Making (2015) ; DOI 10.1186/s12911-015-0145-7.
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20. Borkar, V., Carey, M., Chen, L.: Big Data Platforms:
What's Next? ACM Crossroads 2012, 19(1):4449.
21. Zikopoulos, P., Eaton, C., DeRoos, D., Deutsch, T.,
Lapis, G.: Understanding Big Data Analytics for
Enterprise Class Hadoop and Streaming Data. McGraw-
Hill: Aspen Institute; 2012.
22. Alex, G.: Predictive Analytics in Healthcare the
Importance of Open Standards. ZEMENTIS IBM
Developers Worker. 29 November 2011.
23. Alfredo, C., Yeol S.: Analytics Over Large-Scale
Multidimensional Data: The Big Data Revolution;
DOLAP11, October 28, 2011, ACM 978-1-4503-0963-
9/11/10.
24. Cristianini, N., Shawe-Taylor, J.: An Introduction to
Support Vector Machines and Other Kernel-based
Learning Methods, Cambridge University Press, 2013,
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25. Rahman, R., Rabbi, F.: Using and comparing different
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26. Ang, S., Ong, H., Chin Low, H. .: Classification Using
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24 (1) 205 211 pp, (2016)]
27. Top Data Mining Algorithms Identified by IEEE &
Related Python Resources:
http://www.datasciencecentral.com/profiles/blogs/pytho
n-resources-for-top-data-mining-algorithms
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creating private or public messages. To send tually similar and whether writers of credible
public messages, users mention about their tweets form a closer clique in the graph. In
friends user names in tweet content by adding order to achieve this, we created links between
@ character in front of it. This practice is tweet-tweet nodes only if their contents cosine
called as mentioning and this tag is called as similarity is bigger than a predefined thresh-
mention tag. Similarly users can use another old. Also we used followership relations be-
tag by adding # character in front of a spe- tween authors to create user-user links between
cific word to create hashtags. Twitter displays nodes. Finally tweet-author relations are used
the tweets containing same hashtags together to link a tweet node with a user node in the
so that users can follow and contribute to spe- graph.
cific discussions. On the other hand, we proposed a definition
Twitter enables researchers to read, query and for credibility as well. Credible is defined as
collect tweets of users who do not disable pub- "able to be trusted or believed" by Cambridge
lic visibility of their statuses. Our data set dictionary2 . By its nature, credibility is a sub-
is created from those publicly written tweets jective matter and it is always open to discus-
which are tweeted for news and discussion sion. In addition, its measurement depends on
programs broadcast on the television weekly. individual opinions and changes greatly from
Many TV programs ask and encourage their person to person. Fogg and Tseng [1] state
audience for participation through Twitter ac- that credible information is believable informa-
counts of programs. Most of them have Twit- tion and they describe credibility as a perceived
ter accounts in order to enable their audience quality composed of multiple dimensions. So
to contribute in the program flow by asking we based credibility definition on three dimen-
questions, making comments and expressing sions: being free from offensive words, being
their feelings by writing tweets consisting of free from spamming and being newsworthy.
program specific hashtags and/or mention tags. Our study is conducted with binary rating
Hosts of those programs read those tweets and while deciding dimensional values of credibil-
direct the program flow accordingly if they de- ity. The proposed hybrid method is used to
sire to do so. However separating junk from assign yes or no statuses to each dimension.
useful information in the tweet flood is a big Each one of those three dimensions is exam-
challenge and time consuming. ined separately and final credibility decision
is made according to those three dimensions
To analyse the credibility of a tweet, we pro-
overall results. A tweet is labelled as credi-
posed a hybrid method in this study. Con-
ble only if it is free from offensive words, free
tent based techniques and collaborative filter-
from spams and it is newsworthy. The perfor-
ing based techniques are hybridized in our
mance of the proposed method is analysed by
method. Moreover, we improved our method
comparing it with the human volunteers clas-
by deploying word-checking algorithms from
sification results. Since those dimensions are
a slang-word dictionary. The proposed method
likely to be interpreted variously by different
is composed of two phases namely supervised
people, each tweet of our data set is read by
learning phase and graph based improvement
three volunteers and majority voting is used for
phase. Firstly, in supervised learning phase,
each dimension.
we applied machine learning classification al-
gorithms on the tweet set and then the classifi-
cation results are improved in the graph based 2 RELATED WORKS
phase. We examined both tweets and users in In 2012, Kang et al. [2] proposed two defini-
order to create a connected graph from them tions for tweet credibility as degree of believ-
with links between user-user, user-tweet and ability that can be assigned to a tweet about
tweet-tweet elements. This graph is used to
2
investigate whether credible tweets are contex- dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/credible
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a target topic and expected believability im- social environment. They encourage5 their
parted on a user as a result of their standing in users to report both profiles and individual
the social network. In addition to these, they tweets for spamming. Moreover they present
stated later that [3] credibility is a function of technical solutions such as link shortener (t.co)
perception consisting of the object being per- to detect whether links lead to malicious con-
ceived and the person who perceives it. tents as well.
Fogg [4] expressed website credibility in terms To detect Twitter spam, there are two different
of prominence and interpretation which are de- approaches in the literature: focusing on the
fined as likelihood of being noticed and judge- user classification and examining tweet con-
ment of the people who noticed the element in tent. In the first approach, profile details of
his study. the user, number of followers and friends, re-
Castillo and Yamaguchi studied both cred- cent activities in the previous weeks, user be-
ibility assessment and newsworthiness of haviours and tweeting frequencies are investi-
tweets [5]. In their study, they focused on cred- gated. Studies like [9], [10] and [11] aimed to
ibility of information and used the term credi- classify users as spammers and non-spammers
bility in the sense of believability. They classi- according to these user attributes. The sec-
fied tweets as credible or not. They randomly ond approach considers topics of the tweets,
selected 383 topics from Twitter Monitor3 [6] duplications between the tweets, urls in the
collection and get it evaluated by Mechanical tweets, number of words and characters in the
Turk4 by asking evaluators if they consider that texts. Martinez et al. [12] presented an ex-
a certain set of tweets as newsworthy or only ample of this approach in which they detected
informal conversations. Then they asked an- spam tweets without any previous user infor-
other group to read the text content and state if mation but by using contextual features ob-
they believe that those tweets are likely to be tained by natural language processing. Clark
true or false. In this evaluation, they consid- et al. [13] proposed a solution to the problem
ered four levels of credibility and asked evalu- of separating automated spam generators from
ators to provide justification in that fuzzy for- human tweeters by a classification algorithm
mat. They proposed a supervised learning operating by using linguistic attributes like url
based method to automatically assess the cred- count, average lexical dissimilarity and word
ibility level of tweets which has a precision and introduction rate decay.
recall rate between 70% and 80%. There are hybrid solutions of user based and
Detecting and preventing spam is another as- content based approaches like [14] and [15].
pect of credibility. Not only individuals write Bara et al. [15] proposed a three step solu-
those spam tweets but also designed tweet gen- tion in which they firstly look for malicious
erator tools are used to carry out this annoy- links provided by Twitter database, secondly
ing and potentially malicious activity. Ferrara they look for pattern similarities between spam
et al. [7] stated that hundreds of thousands of tweets and original tweets and finally they con-
social, economic and political incentives pre- struct a bipartite network between users and
sented by highly crowded social media ecosys- corresponding tweets.
tems attract spammers to design human imitat- Pal et al. [16] studied tweet credibility from an-
ing bot algorithms. Forelle et al. [8] stated that other perspective by classifying tweet writers.
bots are used for political lobbying in several In their study, they tried to find most interest-
countries like Russia, Mexico, China, UK, US ing and authoritative authors among millions
and Turkey. of Twitter users for given specific topics. They
Twitter attaches importance to the fight against computed self-similarity score for authors be-
the spammers in order to sustain a spam-free tween their last two tweets so as to measure
how similar an author writes. This score is
3
http://www.twittermonitor.net
4 5
http://www.mturk.com/ https://support.twitter.com/articles/64986?lang=en
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used to explore the width of the users interest nodes. Then they applied ObjectRank [20] on
area. They also classified tweets into three cat- the user-tweet schema graph to evaluate the
egories: original tweets, conversational tweets users authority scores.
and repeated tweets. They counted the num- Similarly, Gun and Karagoz [21] proposed a
ber of tweets in different categories of authors hybrid solution combining feature based and
while deciding about their interestingness for graph based methods for credibility analysis
clustering the users. problem in microblogs. They focused on mes-
Other than classification approaches, there are sage, user and topic relationship in the graph
graph based solutions as well. Graph based based part of their study. They gathered 43 fea-
solutions are basically use variations of well- ture attributes from tweet, topic and user data
known PageRank [17] and HITS [18] algo- in order to use them in feature based classifica-
rithms. Page and Brin, with PageRank, aimed tion. They tried to label tweets as newsworthy,
to measure and rate relative importance of Web important and correct for determining which
pages mechanically. In this algorithm, the link- information in Twitter is credible.
ing design among the web pages is consid-
ered in a graph structure. Being query inde- 3 DATA COLLECTION AND CON-
pendent and more sophisticated than simply STRUCTION OF THE GOLD STAN-
counting links, PageRank ranks pages accord- DARD
ing to their importance of back links and for- Our data set consists of tweets, their authors
ward links which directs to and are directed and the ground truth evaluations obtained from
from the web pages. With HITS algorithm, volunteers. In order to carry out this study,
Kleinberg [18] aimed to extract information we crawled tweets with specific query key-
from the link structure of network environment words related with weekly Turkish television
too. Although HITS is not solely specific to programs. We selected television programs
WWW, aiming to improve web search systems with political, social, economic and cultural
it identifies two kinds of web pages: authorities contents. Concepts of the selected programs
which are the pages that users look for to reach is built upon discussions between experts who
information and hubs which are pointer pages are hosted by the channel or presentations
that lead to authorities. Kleinberg focused of celebrities about mentioned topics. Those
on the mutual relationship between those two programs are open to audience contributions
kinds by giving non-negative invariant weights through Twitter and the hosts read comments
to each node and then making iterative score and direct questions to guests during the pro-
transfers between interlinked hub and author- gram flow if they desire to do so.
ities until scores converge to the equilibrium The crawled query keys are explicit hashtags
values. and/or mention tags used by the program pro-
Another graph based study is TURank which ducers so that they receive comments and ques-
constituted a base to our study. Yamaguchi tions from their audience through Twitter. We
et al. [19] proposed Twitter user ranking al- only gathered the tweets which are deliberately
gorithm (TURank) to determine authoritative written for the selected television programs.
users. They defined authoritative users as the During data collection period we crawled tweet
ones who frequently submit useful information id, tweet text, user id, retweet and favorite
and they aimed to measure authoritativeness of counts of the tweet. Tweet text is parsed and
users in order to rank them. They constructed a 22 different features obtained about the tweet
user-tweet schema graph where nodes are cre- such as length of tweet, number of words in
ated from users and tweets. On the other hand it, fraction of upper case letters, fraction of
edges are created from post, posted by, follow, tagged words as hashtags and mention tags,
followed by, retweet and retweeted by relations whether tweet contains question mark, excla-
between user-tweet, user-user and tweet-tweet mation mark and whether emoticons exist in
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Table 1. Features of tweets used at supervised learning each other. On the other hand, we examined
phase
whether credible tweets are contextually simi-
No Feature lar or not by linking those tweets in the graph.
1 Length of tweet To this aim, we first parsed the text of the
2 Fraction of upper case letters tweets and obtained the word sets and elimi-
3 Total number of words nated the effect of stop words. Those word sets
4 Number of words with mention tags were processed with Zemberek10 Turkish NLP
5 Number of words with hashtags tool and we replaced them with their corre-
6 Number of words without @/# tags sponding longest lemma term so that we could
7 Fraction of tagged words identify relations among the same words in dif-
8 Whether contains question mark ferent morphological forms. This textual data
9 Whether contains exclamation mark is converted to term vector for each tweet.
10 Whether contains smile emoticon Term vector of a tweet contains longest lem-
11 Whether contains frown emoticon mas of all unique words existing in its text and
12 Whether contains URL corresponding term frequency-inverse docu-
13 Positive sentiment score ment frequency multiplication score pairs.
14 Negative sentiment score In order to obtain multiplication results firstly
15 Whether contains first pronoun we calculated the term frequencies of the
16 Whether contains second pronoun longest lemma terms of tweets according to
17 Whether contains demonstrative pronoun Equation 1.
18 Whether contains interrogative pronoun
T F (Ti , wj )
19 Retweet count
N umber of times word wj occurs in Ti
20 Is retweet =
21 Is reply to a user N umber of words in tweet Ti
22 Favorite count (1)
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Experimentally we found the maximum cosine Hub score of a node is updated by adding a pre-
similarity threshold which is used to determine defined ratio of authority scores of the neigh-
whether two tweets should be linked or not. bour nodes to its hub score according to Equa-
Tweet pairs with cosine similarities higher than tion 5.
or equal to 0.063 are linked and we obtained a N ode Nj0 s authority score
connected graph. linked nodes with Nj
X
Finally we assigned initial scores to the train = weight Ni hub score
nodes of the graph according to the results of i
4.2.2 Random Walk Iterations On The For analysing the being free from offensive
Graph words, we tried some slightly different ap-
proaches as well. We checked the existence
10 fold cross validation is applied in graph of offensive words from a slang-word dictio-
based improvement phase as well. A tenth nary. Other than the explained hybrid method,
of tweets are separated as test set while the we made 3 more experiments for the first di-
rest of the tweets and all of the user nodes mension of credibility:
are assigned initial scores. Positively classi-
fied tweets in the first phase are assigned 1000 1. Only considering word existence in slang-
and negatively classified tweets are assigned - word dictionary of tweet text
1000 initial hub and authority scores. On the
other hand, users with credible tweets assigned 2. Considering both word existence in slang-
1000 hub and authority scores and the rest of word dictionary of tweet text and first
the users are assigned -1000 hub and authority phase classification result
scores. 3. Selecting the tweets with negative senti-
After constructing the graph and assigning ini- ment score less than -2 which also contain
tial hub and authority scores to the nodes, we slang word
run a predefined number of iterations on the
graph for hub/authority transfers among nodes. Those methods are used to make the initial
At the end of those iterations, a tweet is clas- classification of the tweets. After the initial
sified as positive if its final authority score is hub/authority score assignment according to
greater than zero, and classified as negative each one of those methods, random walk iter-
otherwise. ations are applied and hub/authority scores are
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5.1 First Dimension - Being Free From Of- E2: Only considering word existence in
fensive Words slang-word dictionary of tweet text
The first dimension is about filtering offensive E3: Considering both word existence in
tweets. To check this, in the user study, volun- slang-word dictionary of tweet text and
teers were asked the following question: "Does first phase classification result
the tweet contain swearing, abusing or offen- E4: Selecting the tweets with negative
sive words?" sentiment score less than -2 which also
contain slang word
Table 2. First Dimension Supervised Learning Phase
Best Results
Table 3. First Dimension Slang-Word Dictionary Based
Yes Class Recall: 0.351 Methods Performances
No Class Recall: 0.978
Yes Class Precision: 0.457 Experiment: E1 E2 E3 E4
No Class Precision: 0.966 YCR: 0.351 0.373 0.787 0.413
F1 Score: 0.397 NCR: 0.978 0.942 0.934 0.966
Accuracy: 0.947 YCP: 0.457 0.252 0.384 0.392
Specificity: 0.978 NCP: 0.966 0.966 0.988 0.969
Sensitivity: 0.353 F1 Score: 0.397 0.301 0.516 0.403
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0.4
0 0.2
F1 Score
Figure 3. First Dimension Slang-Word Dictionary
0
Based Methods F1 Score Comparisons YCR NCR YCP NCP F1
Figure 4. Random walk iteration improvement results
of the second dimension.
The second dimension is about filtering spam The third dimension is about the news-
tweets. To check this, in the user study, vol- worthiness. To check this, in the user study,
unteers were asked the following question: "Is volunteers were asked the following question:
the tweet written for distracting, unrelated, ad- "Is the content interesting, important or news-
vertising or out of program scope purposes?" worthy?"
Table 4. Second Dimension Supervised Learning Phase Table 5. Third Dimension Supervised Learning Phase
Best Results Best Results
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[10] F. Benevenuto, G. Magno, T. Rodrigues, and [21] A. Gn and P. Karagz. A hybrid approach for
V. Almeida. Detecting spammers on twitter. In credibility detection in twitter. In Hybrid Artificial
Collaboration, electronic messaging, anti-abuse Intelligence Systems, pages 515526. Springer,
and spam conference (CEAS), volume 6, page 12, 2014.
2010.
[22] S. Brin and L. Page. The anatomy of a large-scale
[11] C. Yang, R. C. Harkreader, and G. Gu. Die free hypertextual web search engine. In COMPUTER
or live hard? empirical evaluation and new design NETWORKS AND ISDN SYSTEMS, pages 3825
for fighting evolving twitter spammers. In Recent 3833. Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., 1998.
Advances in Intrusion Detection, pages 318337.
Springer, 2011.
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express rules of inference that combine knowledge or definition sentences, this system saves it into
to produce different knowledge. For example, database as text data. In contrast, when this system
users may input definition sentences such as "If X classifies the input sentences as question sentences,
is a father of Y and Y is a father of Z, then X is a this system performs the question answering
grandfather of Z" and knowledge such as "Michael processing. It matches knowledge data, inferences
is a father of Daniel" and "Daniel is a father of and multiplex inferences sequentially and outputs
David". Users can also input a question such as all the answers that are produced for a question. If
Who is a grandfather of David?. In this case, this system does not produce answers, it outputs
even if this system does not have direct knowledge, information necessary to allow successful
the system can answer such as "Michael is a inferences.
grandfather of David" by the inference based on
the definition sentence. In addition, this system
can perform a more complicated logical inference
by using definition sentences, and performing the
inference repeatedly. Thereby, new knowledge is
not only acquired by humans, but may be
produced by logical inference.
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contrast, sentences are classified as definition For example, "Does Saburo like coffee?" is
sentences if they match the "if... then..." structure. classified as type2 when this sentence is inputted.
The sentences such as If Taro is a man and Taro Because Does, the head word of this sentence, is
has a son then Taro is a father are classified as classified as a general verb. The classified
definition sentences. Thus, this system classifies sentence is converted into the form of the
input sentences into three types, "knowledge declarative sentence to perform the matching with
sentences", "definition sentences" and "question knowledge sentences. For examples, the
sentences". We regard "knowledge sentence" and previously described example sentence is
''definition sentence'' as declarative sentence. converted into "Saburo likes coffee".
When a declarative sentence is inputted, this
system classifies the sentence as either a 2.2 Matching with Knowledge Data
knowledge or a definition sentences and saves it as
text data. If a similar sentence has already been This system matches a converted sentence from
inputted into the database, it is not saved. In the question sentence and saved knowledge data.
addition, in the case of knowledge sentences, old The matching starts from head words of each
knowledge is deleted when contradictory sentence, and the matching is shifted to next word
knowledge is inputted; that is the old knowledge is one by one. When this matching arrives at the last
overwritten by the new inputted knowledge. of each sentence, the matching becomes the
Based on information given by morphological success. Conversely, if this system fails in
analysis when a question sentence is inputted, this matching in the middle of the process, it cannot
system performs question answering processing. output an answer. If matching is successful, it
Based on the part of speech information of the outputs the answer to the question.
input sentence, question sentences are classified
into 13 patterns according to English rules of 2.3 Omission of the Modifier
grammar as follows.
When this system matches the knowledge
Type1 sentence: be verbs sentences including modifier and the question
sentences not including modifier, it can perform
Type2 sentence: general verbs
the matching that against these omitted a modifier.
Type3 sentence: auxiliary verbs Figure 3 shows the rule of the modifier omission
using an example sentence.
Type4 sentence: interrogative as the subject
For example, we assume that this system is
Type5 sentence: which + be verbs inputted a question "Is Mary a student?" when the
system saves a knowledge "Mary is a serious
Type6 sentence: which + general verbs
student" such as (a) of figure 3. In this case, this
Type7 sentence: which + auxiliary verbs system cannot output correct answer because it
failed in matching "student" and "serious". To deal
Type8 sentence: why + be verbs
with this problem, when a word of the knowledge
Type9 sentence: why + general verbs sentence side is the modifiers this system matches
with a next word once again. This system can
Type10 sentence: why + auxiliary verbs
output the answer to the question if this system
Type11 sentence: interrogative + be verbs succeeds in the matching.
In contrast, in the case of a knowledge expressed
Type12 sentence: interrogative + general verbs
as a negative sentence such as (b) of figure 3, this
Type13 sentence: interrogative + auxiliary system does not omit the modifier in the above
mentioned. Because the sentences that omitted a
verbs
modifier are not necessarily to be true in the case
of negative sentence. For example, in the case of
(b) of figure 2, this system cannot determine
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whether Mary is not a student or not. Thus, this For example, we assume that this system has one
system does not omit the modifier about the definition sentence such as (1) and one knowledge
knowledge expressed as a negation sentence. sentence such as (2). In this time, if this system is
asked a question such as (3), this system performs
inference by using above definition sentence. Next,
this system performs the matching with
conditional parts and knowledge sentences. In this
case, this system matches the conditional part of
(1) such as Noah has feathers'' with a knowledge
sentence such as (2). As a result, this system
outputs the answer that Yes.''.
When wild cards (the part expressed in capital
letters of the alphabet such as "X" and "Y" shown
in (4) are included in the definition sentence, this
system substitutes applicable nouns for wild cards.
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At first, this system performs the matching with 2.6 Output Answer
knowledge sentences. In this case, the matching is
not successful, therefore this system matches a When this system succeeds in obtaining answers,
question sentence with the conclusion part of the this system outputs the answer and the process of
definition sentence. Next, this system succeeds in logical inference. The reason why this system
the matching with conclusion part of a definition output a process of logical inference is to know
sentence that If B is a father of D and C is a the inference process that arriving at an answer or
mother of D, then D is a son of B. After that, this new knowledge. In addition, if new knowledge is
system matches knowledge and the precondition produced, users can know the process of logical
parts. If this system failed in the matching, it inference of this system. When this system does
matches the precondition part of a definition not acquire answers, this system outputs
sentence and the conclusion part of other information necessary to let the inference succeed.
definition sentences again. In this figure, this If there are multiple answers to questions, this
system has some knowledge sentences that ``Taro system outputs all answers and process of
is a man.'', Jiro is a man., Mary is a woman. inferences.
and Jiro is twelve years old.. However, these
knowledge sentences cannot match each 3 EVALUATION EXPERIMENTS
conditional part. Accordingly, this system
performs the matching with conditional parts of To evaluate the effectiveness of this system, we
first definition sentence and conclusion parts of experimented to evaluate whether this system can
other definition sentences. The second sentence answer to questions including following items.
and the third sentence from the top succeed in
matching with each condition part of first Item1: The system can answer to the question
definition sentence that "B is a father of D" and "C
about knowledge sentences
is a mother of D". After that, this system succeeds
in the matching each conditional part of the Item2 The system can answer to the question
second and third sentences to four saved
needs to omit a modifier
knowledge sentences. Thus, this system can
performs the inference repeatedly until it succeeds Item3 The system can answer to the question
in the producing the answer or cannot perform the
about definition sentences
inference.
Item4 The system can answer to the question
about definition sentences including wild cards
Item5 The system can answer to the question
about multiplex inference
Item6 The system can answer to the question
about multiplex inference including wild cards
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necessary for question answering processing were system could not distinguish a certain semantic
inputted by subjects. difference in the range of nouns the policeman
Manabu". Consequently, question sentence is
3.1 Results converted into the sentence of wrong form such as
the right side of figure 5. This system fails in
Table 1 shows a correct answer rate in each matching of knowledge sentences and question
question. On average, we could see that this sentences.
system was able to answer correctly more than Accordingly, we consider that this system can
80% of all questions in each experimental item. answer the question given right parts of speech
information. However, the content of the question
is limited to the question that semantic analysis is
Table1. Experimental results unnecessary.
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298
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DIGITAL INFORMATION AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
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