Measurement While Drilling

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MWD SYSTEMS
2.1 Power Sources

3. MWD - DIRECTIONAL TOOLS

3.1 Calculations for Inclination, Toolface and
Azi muth
3.2 Normal Surveying Routine
3.3. Accuracy of MWD Surveys

4. MWD - GAMMA RAY TOOLS

5. TRANSMISSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

6. SURFACE SYSTEM

7. Example Systems
Learning OBJECTIVES

Having worked through this chapter the student will be able to:

General:

Describe the benefits of using and the general principles behind the MWD
concept.
describe the applications of MWD tools.

MWD Systems:

Describe the component parts of an MWD system.

Describe the three mud pulse telemetry techniques.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of Power
systems.
Describe the directional surveying equipment used in MWD tools.
Describe the Petrophysical and drilling sensors used in MWD tools.

Calculation of Inclination, toolface and azimuth:

Calculate the inclination, toolface and azimuth using data from accelerometers
and magnetometers.

Surveying Routine:

Describe the operations involved in conducting a survey using an MWD system.

Transmission and Control Systems:

Describe the transmisssion and control systems used in MWD tools.

Surface System:

Describe the surface systems used in MWD systems.


 Measurement While Drilling

1. INTRODUCTION

Measurement While Drilling - MWD systems allow the driller to gather and transmit
information from the bottom of the hole back to the surface without interrupting
normal drilling operations. This information can include directional deviation data,
data related to the petrophysical properties of the formations and drilling data, such
as WOB and torque. The information is gathered and transmitted to surface by the
relevant sensors and transmission equipment which is housed in a non-magnetic drill
collar in the bottom hole assembly (Figure 1). This tool is known as a Measurement
While Drilling Tool - MWD Tool. The data is transmitted through the mud
column in the drillstring, to surface. At surface the signal is decoded and presented
to the driller in an appropriate format. The transmission system is known as mud
pulse telemetry and does not involve any wireline operations.

Commercial MWD systems were first introduced in the North Sea in 1978 as a more
cost effective method of taking directional surveys. To take a directional survey
using conventional wireline methods may take 1-2 hours. Using an MWD system
a survey takes less than 4 minutes. Although MWD operations are more expensive
than wireline surveying an operating company can save valuable rig time, which is
usually more significant in terms of cost.

More recently MWD companies have developed more complicated tools which
will provide not only directional information and drilling parameters (e.g. torque,
WOB) but also geological data (e.g. gamma ray, resistivity logs). The latter tools are
generally referred to as Logging While Drilling - LWD Tools. As more sensors are
added the transmission system must be improved and so MWD tools are becoming
more sophisticated. Great improvements have been made over the past few years
and MWD tools are now becoming a standard tool for drilling operations.

2. MWD SYSTEMS

All MWD systems have certain basic similarities (Figure 1)

- a downhole system which consists of a power source, sensors, transmitter

and control system.

- a telemetry channel (mud column) through which pulses are sent to surface.

- a surface system which detects pulses, decodes the signal and presents
results (numerical display, geological log, etc.).

The main difference between the 3 MWD systems currently available is the method
by which the information is transmitted to surface. All three systems encode the
data to be transmitted into a binary code and transmitting this data as a series of
pressure pulses up the inside of the drillstring. The process of coding and decoding
the data will be described below. The only difference between the systems is the
way in which the pressure pulses are generated (Figure 2).

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(i) Negative Mud Pulse Telemetry
In all systems fluid must be circulating through the drillstring. In the negative mud
pulse system a valve inside the MWD tool opens and allows a small volume of
mud to escape from the drill string into the annulus. The opening and closing of
this valve creates a small drop in standpipe pressure (50 - 100 psi), which can be
detected by a transducer on surface.

(ii) Positive Mud Pulse

In the positive mud pulse system a valve inside the MWD tool partially closes,
creating a temporary increase in standpipe pressure.

(iii) Frequency Modulation (Mud siren)

In the frequency modulation system a standing wave is set up in the mud column by
a rotating slotted disc. The phase of this continuous wave can be reversed. The data
is transmitted as a series of phase shifts.

Many tools also include the ability to record downhole data for later retrieval at
surface. Although this undermines the principle of access to real time data it
allows the operator to gather large volumes of data (typical petrophysical data) and
therefore eliminate expensive electric wireline logging operations.
Standpipe
Surface Computer
Pressure
Transducer

Data
Acquisition
System

Recorder

Auxiliary
Services
Presentation
Pulse Indicator
Processed
Filtered
Raw

Reciever
Terminal

445 256

Rig Floor Display

Pulse presence or absence

Telemetary
Channel
Standpipe
pressure

Time

Transmitter
Sensors
Power Source

Downhole

Figure 1 MWD System


 Measurement While Drilling

Table 1 MWD Tool Specifications

2.1 Power Sources

Since there is no wireline connection to surface all the power required to operate
the MWD tool must be generated downhole. This means that either a battery pack
or a turbine-alternator must be installed as part of the MWD tool. The turbine has
been the standard method of power generation in the positive pulse and frequency
modulation tools. Since less power is required in the negative pulse system batteries
have been used. However, with more sensors being added and higher data rates
required, batteries are being replaced with turbines in negative pulse systems also.

Turbines have several advantages over batteries (Table 2) but turbines are more
prone to mechanical failure. Filter screens are used to prevent debris in the mud
from damaging the turbine

Table 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of MWD Power Systems

3. MWD - DIRECTIONAL TOOLS

All MWD systems use basically the same directional sensors for calculating
inclination, azimuth and tool face. The sensor package consists of 3 orthogonal
accelerometers and 3 orthogonal magnetometers (Figure 3).

An accelerometer will measure the component of the earths gravitational field

along the axis in which it is oriented. It works on the force-balance principle. A
test mass is suspended from a quartz hinge which restricts any movement to along
one axis only (Figure 4). As the mass tends to move due to gravity acting along

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that axis, its central position is maintained by an opposing electromagnetic force.
The larger the gravitational force, the larger the pick-up current required to oppose
it. The voltage drop over a resistor in the pick up circuit is measured, and this is
directly related to the gravitational component. Depending on the orientation of the
BHA the reading on each accelerometer will be different. From these 3 components
the angle of inclination and tool face can be calculated (Equations 1 and 2).

A magnetometer will measure the component of the earths magnetic field along
1 axis. If a wire is wrapped around a soft iron core (Figure 5) and then placed in
a magnetic field, the current induced in the pick-up circuit will vary depending on
the angle at which the toroid is placed. Therefore the size of current is related to
the direction of the coil with respect to the direction of magnetic field. As with
the accelerometer the voltage is measured across a resistor in the pick- up circuit
of the magnetometer. The voltages read at each magnetometer can then be used to
calculate azimuth (Equation 3).

Phase shift or remain

Rotary
valve
Standpipe pressure

Bit Bit Bit

value value value
Motor (1) (1) (1)

Time

Rotating disc

Mud Pulse presence or absence

Standpipe pressure

Whole
tool Valve Bit Bit Bit
value value value
(1) (1) (1)

Actuator

Time

Mud
Standpipe pressure

Actuator

Bit Bit Bit

value value value
Bypass (1) (1) (1)
Valve
Mud

Time

Figure 2 Mud Pulse Telemetry Systems


 Measurement While Drilling

3.1 Calculations for Inclination, Toolface and Azimuth

In the following equations a, b, c, x, y, z refer to the accelerometer and magnetometer
readings with axes as shown in Figure 3.

Inclination (a) - the angle between C accelerometer and vertical. Looking at a

verticalion cross-section

Figure 3 Orientation of Sensors in Tool

1 a2 + b2
= tan
c

Equation 1 Inclination of Tool

Toolface (b) - the angle between high side and B accelerometer. Looking down
the tool along the C axis:

a
= tan 1
b

Equation 2 Toolface of Tool

(Note: This gives the toolface of the MWD tool itself. To measure the toolface of
the bent sub the offset angle must be included).

Azimuth (q) - the angle between the Z axis and magnetic North, when projected on
to the horizontal plane. Looking in the horizontal plane we define 2 vectors V1 and
V2 where V1 lies along tool axis.

V1 = z sina + x cosa sinb + y cosb cosa

V2 = x cosb - y sinb

V
= tan 1 2
V1
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 and substituting for a , b

1 c( xb + yb) + z ( a 2 = b 2 )
= tan
g( xb ya)

Equation 3 Azimuth of Tool

(Note: this gives Magnetic azimuth, not True azimuth)

Notice that accelerometer readings are also used in the calculation of azimuth. If
there is any mistake in the accelerometer readings, therefore, inclination, toolface and
azimuth will all be wrong. Since we are relying on the magnetometers responding
only to the earths magnetic field any local magnetic effects from the drillstring must
be isolated. There must be enough non-magnetic drill collars above and below
the sensors to stop any such interference. As a result of this the sensors will be
operating 40' - 80' behind the bit (the exact distance must be known before the tool
is run).

Figure 4 Accelrometer

3.2 Normal Surveying Routine

The usual practice in taking a survey is to drill to kelly down and make the
connection. Run in the hole and tag bottom. Pick up 5'-10' and keep pipe steady
for 2 minutes (this allows survey data to be stored). Re-start drilling and survey
data is transmitted to surface. In some tools the transmission is initiated by rotation,
in others it senses pump pressure. During a steering run where a mud motor is being
used an update of toolface is usually transmitted every minute. This is of great
value to the directional driller as he monitors the progress of the well.

3.3. Accuracy of MWD Surveys

MWD companies quote slightly different figures for accuracy but generally within
the following limits:


 Measurement While Drilling

Inclination Azimuth Toolface

+/- 0.25o +/- 1.50o +/- 3.00o

These figures compare favourably with single shot accuracies and MWD offers the
advantage of being able to repeat surveys at the same depth with little loss in rig
time

Figure 5 Magnetometer

4. MWD - GAMMA RAY TOOLS

The GR log is a long established part of formation evaluation. Gamma rays in the
formation are emitted mainly by radioactive isotopes of Potassium, Thorium and
Uranium. These elements occur primarily in shales, and so the GR log is a good
shale indicator.

Apart from the obvious geological applications the GR log from an MWD system
has important engineering applications (Table 3). There has been a big increase in
the use of GR logs run in combination with the MWD directional tooltool

Table 3 MWD Application

Since any change in lithology must be known as quickly as possible the GR sensor
should be placed as near the bit as possible, below the directional sensors. Running
an MWD GR log has the added problems of rigging up a depthtracking system.

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The type of sensors used to detect gamma rays must be both robust and efficient.
The most robust sensor is the Geiger-Muller tube, but unfortunately it will only
detect a small percentage of the rays being emitted by the formation. A more
sensitive but less rugged sensor, is the Scintillation counter. Both types are used in
MWD GR tools but the scintillation counter is the more popular.

It is interesting to compare GR and Resistivity logs from an MWD tool with those
obtained from wireline logging after the well has been drilled (Figure 6). Several
points must be borne in mind when making these comparisons:

(i) The logging speeds are very different (wireline @ 1800 ft/h MWD @ 10 -100
ft/h). The resolution of the two logs will therefore be affected.

Figure 6 Comparison of MWD and Wireline Log

(ii) Wellbore conditions may be different since the MWD log was made, e.g.
cavings.

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 Measurement While Drilling

(iii) MWD log is made through a drill collar, so the attenuation of gamma rays
will be greater.

(iv) Central position of the sensors may be different, especially in high angled
holes.

Directional sensors and GR sensors are well established for MWD use. More
sensors are being developed and the term LWD - Logging Whilst Drilling is now
used to describe these tools.

5. TRANSMISSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

There is a wide variation in the design of these electronic packages, and they are
being continually upgraded. The voltages at each sensor must be read and stored in
the memory until the tool is ready to transmit. The control system must co-ordinate
the acquisition, storage and transmission of this data. Since there is no electrical
on/off switch controlling the system from the surface the tool must react to some
physical change (e.g. detecting an increase in pump pressure). Once transmission
is initiated the data is sent to surface via the mud column as a series of pulses.

In some systems it is the presence or absence of a pulse which carries the information,
in others it is the time interval between pulses. Although these pulses travel at
around 4000 ft/sec several pulses may be necessary to transmit one number. With
more sensors and more data to transmit the control system becomes a critical factor
(e.g. valuable GR signals may be lost while the tool is sending directional data).
There is also the problem of collecting vast amounts of data, but not being able
to transmit quickly enough. Transmission speeds of up to 0.8 bits per second are
available. Survey data words typically consist of 10 bits, and formation data words
consist of 11 bits.

Table 4 MWD Data Update Rates

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6. SURFACE SYSTEM

All MWD systems have a pressure transducer connected to the standpipe manifold.
This transducer must be sensitive enough to detect small pressure changes (50-100
psi) occurring for only / sec. The series of pulses must then be decoded and
processed to give the required information.

The simplest surface system is that used by Teleco (positive pulse). This has a
microprocessor included in the downhole tool so that only numerical values of
azimuth inclination and toolface need be transmitted to surface. A simple binary
code is used whereby a pulse detected within a certain time period = 1, no pulse
detected = 0. The binary number is then converted to a decimal number for the final
result. The equipment necessary to do this can easily be installed in the drillers
dog house. In other systems only the raw data is sent to surface, in which case
more sophisticated equipment is needed (electronic filters, computers, etc.). This
equipment is usually housed in a special cabin or in the mudlogging unit. Since
this cabin may be located some distance away, the survey results are relayed to a rig
floor display unit where the directional driller can see them (Figure 7). Formation
evaluation logs require plotting facilities which are also housed in the cabin.

Standpipe
Computer
Pressure
Transducer

Data
Acquisition
System

Recorder

Auxiliary
Services
Presentation
Reciever
Pulse Indicator
Processed
Filtered
Raw

Terminal

445 256

Rig Floor Display

Figure 7 Surface Processing and Reporting System

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 Measurement While Drilling

7. Example Systems

A typical Resistivity-Gamma-Directional MWD Tool is shown in Figure 8. The

specifications of this tool configuration are also presented.

Figure 8 Typical MWD Tool Configuration

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