Smoke Control

Technology

Dr. John H. Klote, PE

john@SmokeControlExpert.com

April 29, 2015

ICB Conference
Austin, TX
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Basics of Smoke Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Analysis of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fire & Smoke Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Stairwell Pressurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Elevator Pressurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Zoned Smoke Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Atrium Smoke Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Commissioning & Periodic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Design Fires & Smoke Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Appendix A Example Testing Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1

Smoke Control
Technology
Dr. John H. Klote, PE
john@SmokeControlExpert.com
April 29, 2015
ICB Conference
Austin, TX
Smoke is Major Killer
Smoke Major Killer about 70% of Fire
Fatalities due to Smoke Inhalation
Berl, W.C., and B.M. Halpin. Human Fatalities from
Unwanted Fires. Johns Hopkins APL, 1980.
Harland, W.A., and W.D. Woolley, W.D. Fire Fatality
Study. BRE, Univ. Glasgow, 1979.
Smoke Migrates Far From Fire Floor -
Threatens Life at Remote Locations
Smoke control provides significant
protection from the threat of smoke.
REFERENCES
4/8/2015
Copyright Materials
This workshop is protected by U.S. and
International copyright laws. Reproduction,
distribution, display, and use of the
educational activity without written
permission of the presenter is prohibited.
2015 John H. Klote
Sprinklers Not Total Answer
Sprinklers Important for Life Safety Not
Total Answer
Sprinkler Failure Rate about 10% - Data of
National Fire Incident Reporting System
Koffels Study, 2005
Halls Studies, 2006 & 2011
Even in fully sprinklered buildings, smoke
control provides protection from the threat
of smoke
References
International Building Code (IBC), ICC 2015
NFPA 5000 Building Construction and
Safety Code, NFPA 2015
NFPA 92 Standard for Smoke Control
Systems, NFPA 2015.
A Guide to Smoke Control in the 2006 IBC,
ICC, 2007.
Handbook of Smoke Control Engineering,
ASHRAE 2012
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New Edition Every 3

Years
New Edition Every
3 Years (2000, Not Used Much in
2009, 2012, 2015). U.S.
Used Throughout Used in Mid-East
U.S. Smoke Control
Smoke Control Section 909.
Section 909.

New Edition Every 3 By Klote & Evans

Years
For 2006 IBC
IBC states that
Many Provisions
atrium smoke control
Unchanged
systems (exhaust
method) shall be Provides Code
designed in Interpretations
accordance with
NFPA 92.

By Klote, Milke,
Turnbull, Kashef &
Ferreira
In this presentation,
when a chapter or
figure is referred to,
it is in this
handbook unless
otherwise noted.

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Purposes of Smoke Control

Maintain Tenable Environment for
BASICS OF SMOKE Evacuation or Relocation of Occupants
CONTROL (IBC 909.1)
Control & Reduce Smoke Movement
Between Fire Area & Adjacent Spaces
Provide Conditions to Help Fire Service
Reduce Property Damage
Aid In Post-Fire Smoke Removal

Smoke Control Systems Two Kinds of Systems

Conventional System: Goal is to keep smoke
Pressurization Systems away from occupants during evacuation.
Stairwell Pressurization There is always some amount of smoke that
Elevator Pressurization comes into contact with occupants.
Zoned Smoke Control The intent is that smoke contact is slight.
Tenability System: Goal is to maintain a tenable
Atrium Systems
environment during evacuation or relocation.
Smoke Exhaust
A tenable environment is one in which smoke and
Smoke Venting (Gravity Venting) heat are limited such that exposure is not life
Smoke Filling threatening.
Note: The word Atrium used here to mean any large Systems are analyzed to provide confidence that
volume space. a tenable environment is maintained.

Tenability Systems
Tenability Systems Evaluate Threats to
Life
Exposure to Toxic Gases
Exposure to Heat
Exposure to Thermal Radiation
Reduced Visibility (indirect Threat
Prolonged Exposure & Falls)

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Physical Mechanisms of Smoke

Compartmentation
Control
Compartmentation Barriers w/ Fire Endurance Long History
Dilution Barriers Some Smoke Protection
Pressurization Compartmentation Alone Passive
Smoke Protection
Airflow
Compartmentation by itself can be evaluated
Buoyancy by tenability analysis (see Chapter 19).
Compartmentation w/ Pressurization
Discussed Later

Dilution
Dilution of Fire Space Not Recommended
except for Atrium Tenability Systems
Dilution sometimes called
Smoke Purging*
Smoke Removal*
Smoke Extraction*
Dilution Used for Atrium Smoke Filling
Dilution Useful for Post Fire Smoke Removal
*These terms are not recommended. They imply a high level of
performance that can be misleading.

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Airflow
Airflow can be used to control smoke flow
in atria, corridors, tunnels, and doorways.
Equations for Different Applications (see
Chapter 15 & 17)
Caution: Oxygen to Fire Use with Great
Care
Except for transportation tunnels, airflow is
not used very much.

Buoyancy Theory & Experimental Verification

Buoyancy Hot Scientific Method - a method of research

Smoke Rises in which a problem is identified, relevant
data are gathered, a hypothesis is
Used in Atria formulated from these data, and the
Smoke Control hypothesis is empirically tested.
(Discussed Later) Used in Science & Engineering
Theory Based on Accepted Principles of
Engineering
Experimental Verification Full Scale Fire
Tests

Some Fire Tests Pressurization

In Atlanta, GA
Henry Grady Hotel Tests (1973)
Bldg. Scheduled
30 Church Street Tests (1973) for Demolition
Plaza Hotel Tests (1989) Fires Hotel
NRCC Experimental Fire Tower Tests (Mid Rooms (bed,
chair, draperies,
1980s to Present)
lamps & chest of
Pressurized Stairwells, Pressurized Elevators, drawers)
etc.
Verified Stair &
Note: The above tests are a few of the full scale fire tests
Elevator
that have been done that verify pressurization smoke
control. Pressurization

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In New York City In Washington

Bldg. Scheduled DC
for Demolition Building
Fires Office Scheduled for
Materials Demolition
Verified Stair & Fires Wood
Elevator Cribs
Pressurization Verified Zoned
Smoke Control
& Stair
Pressurization

Geometrically Near Ottawa

Arranged Sticks 10 Story Tower
Built for Fire
Reproducible Fire
Research
Crib at Right - Fires Mostly
Peak 470 Btu/s Gas Burners
Crib at Plaza Verified Zoned
Hotel - Peak 940 Stair & Elevator
Btu/s Pressurization,
etc.

Atrium Fire Research

Austrian Society of Engineers - Scale
Model Fire Tests of Theater Smoke ANALYSIS OF SYSTEMS
Venting (1881)
Atrium Smoke Control Full Size Fire
Tests & Scale Model Fire Tests
United Kingdom (BRI)
Canada (NRCC)
Australia (BHP)

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Engineering Analysis Engineering Analysis

An engineering analysis is needed to
Rational Analysis of Smoke Control
determine that a smoke control system can
Systems Required (IBC 909.4)
be balanced to work for the design fire or
Stack Effect
fires. Temperature of Fire
Methods of Analysis Wind Effect
Logical Reasoning HVAC Systems
Rules of Thumb Climate
Algebraic Equations Duration of Operation
Computer Programs Smoke Control System Interaction
Engineering Analysis More than One Method

Stack Effect
Stack Effect Upward Flow in Shafts
Cold Outdoors
Reverse Stack Effect Downward Flow in
Shafts
Hot Outdoors
Stack Effect is More Significant for Tall
Buildings
Note: For outdoor design
temperatures, see Chapter 2

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Stack Effect & Smoke When Stack Effect

Buoyancy
Forces Smoke into Shaft
Smoke Flows up Shaft
Smoke Flows into Floors
above Neutral Plane
Buoyancy Some Smoke
Flow through Floor Leakage
Dominates Smoke
Buoyancy
No Smoke into Shaft
No Smoke Flow through
Shaft
Buoyancy Smoke Flow
through Floor Leakage

Airflow Down & Hot

When Smoke Buoyancy
Dominates Stack Effect
Smoke into Shaft
Smoke Flow through Shaft
Smoke Flow to Upper Floors
Buoyancy Smoke Flow
through Floor Leakage
Smoke Flows UP
Where Does Smoke
Flow?
Smoke Mix in Shaft?
No Simple Answers
Analyze with CFD

Simple Stack Effect One

Shaft or Similar Shafts
Complex Stack Effect
Shafts at Different
Temperatures
Shafts of Different Heights
Analysis: Network
Computer Model
(CONTAM)

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Temperature of Fire
Buoyancy and Expansion of Design Fire
Not Adversely Effect System Design Consider Adverse
Pressurization Systems Effects of Wind
Buoyancy - Minimum Design Pressure Prevent Smoke Feedback
Difference into Air Intakes
Expansion Need Paths to Outdoors Prevent Excessive Makeup
Atrium Systems - Buoyancy and Air Velocity in Atrium Smoke
Expansion Addressed in Normal Design Control (Discuss Later)
Methods Wind Data Chapter 2
Design Fires Discussed Later

Wind Profile Changes with

Arrows Wind Velocity Terrain
Wind Velocity Increases Airport Wind Data
with Height Adjusted for Project Site

HVAC Systems Climate

Design Consider HVAC Consider Effects of Low Temperatures on:
Transport of Fire & Smoke System
All modes of System Status
Property
Effects of Fire on HVAC
Systems Occupants
During Building Fire Location of Inlets & Exhaust Prevent
HVAC System Shut Down Snow & Ice Blockage
(Dates to 1930s)
HVAC Smoke Control Mode
(Dates to 1970s)

9

Duration of Operation
Smoke Control Systems Capable of
Operating for (IBC 2015, 909.4.7):
20 Minutes, or
1.5 Times Calculated Egress Time,
Whichever is Greater
FIRE & SMOKE DAMPERS
4/8/2015
Smoke Control System Interaction
Design Consider Interaction of Smoke Control
Systems All Design Scenarios
A pressurization system results in airflow
throughout the building and to the outdoors.
Flow to the outside usually goes through
building leakage.
One system may work by itself, but there may
not be enough building leakage for all the
systems to work together at the same time.
Systems need to be designed for interaction.
Dampers
Types of Dampers:
Balancing
Control
Fire (resist the passage of fire UL555)
Smoke (resist the passage of smoke
UL555S)
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Smoke Dampers

STAIRWELL
PRESSURIZATION

Stairwell Pressurization
IBC 2015 (909.20.5):
Minimum Pressure Difference: 0.10 in. w.g.
Maximum Pressure Difference: 0.35 in. w.g.
Acceptable Pressurization Between Min
& Max

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Stairwell Pressurization Systems

Single and Multiple Injection
Compartmentation
Vestibules
System with Fire Floor Exhaust (With a
Type of Zoned Smoke Control
Discussed Later)
Not for Tall Stairwells (For
stairwell heights more than
100 feet, single injection
systems need a design
analysis.)
Propeller Fan Flow
Impacted by Wind Use in
Walls Needs Engineering
Analysis

Not for Tall Stairwells Not for Tall Stairwells

(For stairwell heights (For stairwell heights
more than 100 feet, more than 100 feet,
single injection systems single injection systems
need a design need a design
analysis.) analysis.)

For Tall Stairwells This system is not used much

today.
Duct Distributes Air
in Stairwell Each compartment has one
or more supply injection
Fan Locations: points.
Top Caution: This system is not
Bottom good for total building
In Between evacuation.
Can Use Multiple
Fans

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Simple & Complicated Buildings

Simple Building
Not Excessively Tall
Floor Plan & Leakage Similar Floor to Floor
Complicated Building
Floor Plan & Leakage Different Floor to Floor
Acceptable Pressurization - Challenging
CONTAM Analysis Often Needed

Stairwells & Open Doors Stairwells & Open Doors

Non-Compensating Systems
Door Opens Pressure Drops
Simple System Air Supplied at Constant
Flow Rate
Compensating Systems
Door Opens Pressure Adjusted
Not Required by IBC
Most are Complicated Systems
ASHRAE Research Project RP-1203 (Klote
2003)
Study of Impact Propped Open Stairwell Doors
Analytical Study (Computer Study)
No Experimental Verification
Expected Result of RP-1203:
With stair door propped open on fire floor, smoke
filled the stairwell. (Major Failure Mode)
Incidental Finding of RP-1203:
With stair door closed on fire floor & other doors
open, conditions in the stairwell were tenable.
Further study is needed.

Pressure Compensating Systems

Open Exterior Door System
Outside Overpressure Relief System
Building Barometric Damper System
Bypass System
Variable Air Volume (VAV) System

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Pressurized Elevators
Purpose of Elevator Shaft Pressurization
ELEVATOR PRESSURIZATION Prevent Smoke Migration through Hoistway
Protect Fire Service when Using Elevators
Smoke Control for Elevator Evacuation
Not Discussed Here (see Chapter 12)
Pressurization Range: 0.10 to 0.25 inches
water

Pressurized Elevators Elevator Piston Effect

More Challenging than Pressurized
Piston Effect: Elevator car results in
Stairwells
building flows.
Large Amounts of Pressurization Air
Adverse Impacts - Considered For
Building Leakage may not be Enough
Elevator Pressurization Systems
Computer Network Analysis (CONTAM) -
Recommended

Elevator Piston Effect

Results in Building
Flows Results in Building Flows
Interact with Theory Developed by Klote & Tamura
Smoke Control Experiments done in US & Canada
Systems
Concern Single Car Shaft
Move Smoke in
Equations in Smoke Control Handbook,
Building
Chapter 3
Piston Effect -
Should be
Considered

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Pressurized Elevators
Large Air Supply Challenge for Basic
System
Alternate Pressurized Elevator Systems
Exterior Vent (EV) System
Floor Exhaust (FE) System
Ground Floor Lobby (GFL) System
Systems Illustrated with Example Building

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Elevator Pressurization EV System

Vents in exterior walls increase building
leakiness.
With vents, building leakage is high enough
for successful pressurization.
The vents are usually closed, but they open
when the pressurization system is activated.
The vents should be located to minimize
adverse wind effects.
Vents may need fire dampers depending on
code requirements.

16

Elevator Pressurization FE System
The exhaust shaft has a fan (not shown)
located in the mechanical penthouse, and
the dampers are closed on all floors when
the system is not operating.
On system activation, the dampers open
on the floors to be exhausted, and the
exhaust fan is activated.
Elevator Pressurization GFL
System
The floor leakage can have a significant
impact on the performance of a GFL
system.
4/8/2015
Elevator Pressurization FE System
The FE system deals with the building
envelope issue by reducing the amount of
supply air used.
A relatively small amount of air is supplied
to the elevator shafts and the stairwells.
The fire floor is exhausted such that
acceptable pressurization is maintained on
the fire floor where it is needed.
It is common to also exhaust one or two
floors above and below the fire floor.
Elevator Pressurization GFL
System
Enclosed elevator lobby on the ground floor
reduces the tendency of open exterior doors
to cause high pressure differences across the
elevator shaft at the ground floor.
The GFL system often has a vent between
the enclosed lobby and the building, with the
intent of preventing excessive pressure
differences across the lobby doors.
The lobby doors are the doors between the
enclosed lobby and the building.
Buildings with Corridors
Discussion has been for Open Plan
Offices
What about Interior Partitions?
Interior Partitions add to flow resistance
from elevators to outdoors.
The Floor Exhaust (FE) and the Exterior
Vent (EV) systems can be adapted for
buildings with corridors.
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ZONED SMOKE CONTROL

Zoned Smoke Control

A building is divided into a number of zones, each
separated from the others by barriers.
The zone with the fire is the smoke zone.
Surrounding zones border on the smoke zone.
Passive smoke protection or pressurization is
used to limit the extent of smoke spread beyond
the smoke zone.
It is beyond the capability of smoke control to
maintain tenable conditions in the smoke zone,
and it is intended that occupants evacuate the
smoke zone as soon as possible.

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Most General Concept of Zoned

Smoke Control
Smoke Zone
Fan Powered Exhaust,
Smoke Vents to Outside,
Smoke Shafts, or
Smoke Shafts & Makeup Air Shafts
Surrounding Zones
Fan Powered Pressurization
Outside Air Vents
Rely on Compartmentation

Fire floor & floors directly

above and below are
exhausted.
Other floors rely on
passive protection.
Fire floor exhaust can be
used for challenging
stairwell pressurization
systems.

Atrium Systems
Mechanical Smoke Exhaust
ATRIUM SMOKE CONTROL Common in US & Elsewhere
Natural Smoke Venting
Common in Britain, Europe, Japan, Hong Kong &
Australia
Sustainable Eliminates Fans
Atrium Smoke Filling
Useful for Very Large Atria
Sustainable Eliminates Fans & All Other Smoke
Control Equipment

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Definitions Definitions Continued

Large-Volume Space: An uncompartmented
space, generally two or more stories in height.
(atrium, sports arena, etc.)
In this talk, atrium is used to mean any
large-volume space.
Communicating Space: A space within a
building that has an open pathway to a large-
volume space such that smoke from a fire in
either the communicating space or the large-
volume space can move from one to another
without restriction. (NFPA 92)
Separated Spaces: Spaces within a
building that are isolated from large-
volume spaces by smoke barriers. (NFPA
92)
Note: NFPA 92 defines a smoke barrier as
one that is designed to work with a smoke
control system.

Plume Entrains Air

Mass Flow Increases with
Height
Temperature Drops with
Height
Temperature Drop Impacts:
Smoke Detection
Design Fires

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Smoke Exhaust for Fire in Atrium

Smoke Exhaust through a Plenum with a

Suspended Ceiling Not Recommended:
Exhaust Flow through Plenum Can Lift Ceiling
Tiles out of Frames
Possible Adverse Impact on System
Performance
Ceiling Repair May Be Needed After Periodic
Testing

Fire Locations Common Methods of Analysis

Fire in Atrium (Large-Volume Space) Algebraic Equations
Axisymmetric Plume Steady & Unsteady Smoke Exhaust
Common Design Fire AtriumCalc Excel Application from ASHRAE
Fire in Communicating Space Sprinklered (Uses NFPA 92 Equations)
Balcony Spill Plume CFD Modeling
Common Design Fire Divide Space into Cells (20,000 to 200,000) &
Fire in Communicating Space Unsprinklered Solve Governing Equations for Each Cell
Not Common Very Powerful Analytical Tool
Fire in Separated Space Hours or Days of Computer Time
Not Part of Atrium Smoke Control Often Used for Tenability Systems

Governing Equations Example: Momentum X Direction

The governing equations are:

Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Species (optional)
These are non-linear partial differential The governing equations are solved by
equations. numerical routines not a spreadsheet (like
Excel).

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CFD Examples Spill Plume from 2nd Floor

Example in 3 Story Atrium
Two Examples:
Simulated by Fire Dynamics Simulator
Shielded Fire in 2nd Floor Conference Room (FDS)
(20% PU foam) Fire in Conference Room
Shielded Fire in 1st Floor Toy Store (80% PU
foam) Shielded Fire (500 kW Peak)
Smoke Exhaust Sized for Fire in Atrium Fuel: 80% Cellulosic Material & 20% PU
Space Foam
(not balcony spill plumes) Video Speeded Up (3 X Real Time)
Purpose of Examples - Show CFD & Balcony
Spill Plumes

Spill Plume from Second Floor

Conference Room

Spill Plume from 1st Floor

Simulated by FDS
Fire in Toy Store
Shielded Fire (1000 kW Peak)
Fuel: 20% Cellulosic Material & 80% PU
Foam
Video Speeded Up (3 X Real Time)

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Spill Plume from First Floor Toy Store
Spill Plume from First Floor
Toy Store
Smoke Exhaust Sized for:
Fire in Atrium
Not Toy Store Fire
Simulation of System Failure
Design should be modified for the toy
store fire.
This demonstrates the importance of
balcony spill plumes.

Atrium Issues
Smoke Layer Depth
Makeup Air Velocity
Wind Impact
Plugholing
Smoke Stratification

Atrium Smoke Control Minimum

Smoke Layer Depth
Minimum Smoke Layer Depth: 20% of
Floor-to-Ceiling Height
Unless Analysis Shows Otherwise The minimum makeup air velocity
Full Scale Data is 200 fpm at locations where it
Scale Modeling could contact the plume.
CFD Modeling

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Makeup Air Makeup Air

Makeup Air: Fan Powered
Natural (Thru Openings) or Usually 85% to 95% of Exhaust Mass Flow
Fan-Powered Natural thru Openings
200 fpm Limitation at the Plume (NFPA 92) Open Doors, Vents, etc.
Prevent Plume Disruption Concern About Wind
Confirmed by NRCC Canada Research Complex Paths
Hadjisophocleous & Zhou 2008 Can be analyzed by a network flow program
(CONTAM)
For information about CONTAM, see Chapter 14

Wind
Design to Minimize Potential Wind Impact
Velocity Limit 200 fpm
Smoke Feedback into Makeup Air
Makeup Air Openings Facing Different
Directions Velocity can Exceed 200 fpm
Evaluate by Wind Analysis (CFD or Wind
Tunnel Tests)
Eliminate Problem with
Openings Facing One Direction
Fan Powered Makeup Air
Plugholing
Plugholing is pulling lower layer air into the
exhaust.
If the exhaust flow is relatively low, there
will be no plugholing.
The approach to prevent plugholing is to
keep the exhaust flow low enough.
Analysis
Equations Design to Eliminate Plugholing
CFD Modeling

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Stratification
Stratification can prevent smoke from
reaching ceiling mounted smoke
detectors.
Solution: Beam Smoke Detectors Below
Hot Air Layer

Smoke Venting
If areas Av & Ai are large enough, smoke
can be vented to maintain the desired
smoke layer for the design fire.
CFD Suggested for Analysis of Smoke
Venting
Wind
Tenability
Not in the IBC May Need Approval

Smoke Filling
Conventional System
Evacuation time must be less than filling time.
Use Smoke Filling Equations (Discussed Later)
Tenability System
Tenable environment must be maintained.
CFD analysis is recommended.
Evacuation time can be more than filling time.
Tenability System Recommended
Alternate to Most Codes May Need
Approval

25

Commissioning & Periodic Testing
To have confidence that life safety systems
including smoke control will work as
intended, they need to have commissioning,
acceptance testing and periodic testing.
Life safety systems are different from most
other systems (HVAC, pluming, electrical
power, etc.).
In Normal Operation: Life Safety Problems
Not Apparent
In an Emergency: Too Late to Fix Problems
Commissioning Process
Commissioning Process: From Start to End
of Project
ASHRAE Guideline 1.5 (2012) The
Commissioning Process for Smoke Control
Systems
Performance Verified with Respect to Design
AHJ Uses Special Inspections to Verify Code
Compliance
For a simple project, AHJ may waive
requirement for special inspection.
4/8/2015
COMMISSIONING &
PERIODIC TESTING
Commissioning
Definition: Commissioning is the process
for verifying and documenting that the
performance of facilities, systems and
assemblies meets defined objectives and
criteria.
Special Inspections
International Building Code (IBC) has
requirements for the special inspection
and the qualifications of the special
inspector.
Special Inspection Not Always Required
Special Inspection Considered Part of
Commissioning
Rest of this Discussion - Focuses on
Special Inspections
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Test Documentation Two Phases of Special Inspection

Project Plan (Done Before Testing):
Outline
Description of Testing
State of Construction Needed for Tests
Sample Data Sheets
Test Report (Done After Testing):
Summary of Test Results
Compilation of All Inspection Reports & Any Non-
Compliance Issues
Collection of Testing and Inspection Logs
Data Sheets for All of Inspected Components
Signatures of Special Inspection Team Members
Inspection Phase: To determine that the
specified system components have been
installed, and that the installation of these
components is according to the
manufacturers instructions.
Testing Phase: To establish that the
system achieves the accepted
performance criteria.
Inspection and testing usually are done in
many stages.

Firefighters Smoke Control Station

(FSCS)
An FSCS is a system for use by the fire
service that provides graphical monitoring
and manual overriding capability over
smoke control systems and equipment.
Typically an FSCS is designed and built
specifically for each building.
The FSCS is also called the Firefighter's
Smoke Control Panel and the Firefighter's
Control Panel.

Inspection & Equipment Functional

End-to-End Verification Testing
End-to-end verification: a self-testing
method that provides positive confirmation Smoke Barriers
that the desired result has been achieved Fans
when a controlled device has been Dampers
activated, such as during smoke control, Operable Doors and Windows
testing, or manual override operations
Verification of Self-Test Feature
(NFPA 92).
Firefighters Smoke Control Station
Lights on FSCP Based on End-to-End
(FSCS)
Verification (Airflow, Damper Position, etc.)

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Sequence of Operations Testing

The sequence of operations is the
documented sequence of component actions
that are programmed to happen in the
response to a given change of state event.
Purpose: To verify that the automatic
functions of the smoke control system
operate as designed.
A testing matrix (also called an activation
schedule in some standards) is often created
to facilitate the process, and a testing matrix
needs to include all of the components to be
tested.
See Appendix A for a larger copy of this slide.

System Performance Testing

Testing and Balancing before Formal
Acceptance Testing
Systems Tested:
Zoned Smoke Control
Pressurized Stairwells
Pressurized Elevators
Atrium Smoke Control

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Chemical Smoke
Methods: Chemical smoke from smoke bombs is very
Push Gauge different from real smoke.
against Door Visibility is very different.
(take care to only Buoyancy is very different.
disengage latch, Zoned Smoke Control: Because they are
see Figure) subjective and tend to give occupants a false
Push Gauge sense of security, smoke bomb tests are not
against Push-Bar
recommended.
(not shown) Atrium Demonstration Testing: Because of
lack of buoyancy, smoke bomb tests are not
Method should be recommended.
approved by AHJ. Other Use for Smoke Bombs: Leakage Test

DESIGN FIRES & SMOKE

PRODUCTION

Design Fires Stages of Fire Development

Design Fire for Smoke Control System Ignition
Based on Rational Analysis by Design Growth
Engineer & Approved by Fire Code Official Flashover
(IBC 909.9)
Fully Developed (sometimes called post
More Information See Chapter 5 flashover)
Decay (fuel burns out or fire is
suppressed)
Note: Not all fires go through all of these stages.

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Growth Time, tg
Growth Times: NFPA 92
Slow: tg = 600 s
Medium: tg = 300 s
Fast: tg = 150 s
Ultra Fast: tg = 75 s

Note: NFPA 72 has different values

Flashover Flashover Video

Flashover Fast Change:
Christmas Tree
From: Apparent Steady Fire at Limited
Fire
Location
To: Room Totally on Fire Living Room Fire
Flashover takes from about 20 seconds to
2 minutes. Available from
Cause - Objects Ignited by Radiation from NIST
Hot Fire Gases

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Christmas Tree Fire

Living Room Fire Measurement of HRR

Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter
(Developed in 1980s)
Heat Released in Fire is Constant (~ 6%)
(13.1 MJ per kg of Oxygen)
Concept:
Burn Object & Collect All Gases
Measure Temperature, Flow, Oxygen
Calculate HRR

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HRR of Objects
Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter:
Measured HRR of Many Objects (see Chapter
5)
A few HRRs are discussed below.

HRR of Automobiles
American Iron and Steel Institute (Cohn 1973)
Burning Car did not Spread to Adjacent Cars
CTICM in France (Joyeux 1997)
Burning Car Spread to Adjacent Car
BRE in the UK (Shipp et al. 2006, BRE 2010)
Fires Generally Larger than Other Tests

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Sprinklered Fires
Unshielded Fires
No Obstructions Blocking Sprinkler Spray
Sprinkler Activation Time Calculated by
Some Zone Fire Models (But Not in Atrium)
Shielded Fires
Obstruction Blocking Sprinkler Spray
Evaluated by Fire Tests
Sprinkler Action Causes Smoke Mixing
1 story Spaces Smoke Fills Space
Atrium Usually Smoke Free Lower Layer

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Unshielded Fire with Sprinkler

Operation
Growth Stage up to Sprinkler Activation
Fire Test Data
Idealized Growth Curve
Activation Calculated by Zone Fire Model
(CFAST)
After Sprinkler Activation Decay Stage

Shielded Fires
Shielded fires are important for balcony
spill plume applications.
Sprinkler activation models and zone fire
models (CFAST, etc.) are not appropriate
for predicting the sprinkler activation time
with shielded fires.
Research at NIST and NRC Canada
provide useful information.

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Smoke Production The Misconception of Smoke

Smoke - Often Visually Black & Deadly
Successfully Sprinklered Fires (Expected)
Most People Dont Know This.
Normally Small Smoke Production
Today, People Dont See Much Smoke
Sometimes High Smoke Production
EPA Air Pollution Regulations:
Unsuccessfully Sprinklered Fires Practically No Smoke from Factories, Fire Research
Laboratories, Fire Fighting Schools, Movie Studios, etc.
(Unusual)
TV & Movies:
High HRR
Flames - Exciting Footage
High Smoke Production Almost No Smoke
Fire Laboratories - Almost No Smoke
EPA Regulations & Burning Under Hoods

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Smoke Production Videos

Unusual Videos Show Smoke
Clothing Store Fire (BHP Lab)
Toy Store Fire (BHP Lab)
Mobile Shelving Fire (NRC Canada)

Clothing Store Fire Toy Store Fire

Test at BHP Laboratory, Melbourne,
Australia (Bennetts, et al. 1997)
16 ft Ceiling
Stuffed Animals on Steel Shelves
4 Normal (Standard) Response Sprinklers
Activation at 3 minutes
Successful Sprinkler Operation
High Smoke Production

Toy Store Fire

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Mobile Shelving Fire

Test at NRC Canada (Lougheed,
Mawhinney and ONeill 1994)
Storage Design Major Building in Canada
Paper in Cardboard Boxes
12 Quick (Fast) Response Sprinklers
Sprinklers Not in Conformance w/ Code
Sprinkler Failure
High Smoke Production

Mobile Shelving Fire Mobile Shelving Fire

If Fire in Mobile Storage of Actual Building:
Fire Spread Throughout Basement
Smoke Spread Throughout Building
Likely Multiple Deaths (Smoke Inhalation)
Loss of Valuable Historical Material
NRC Canada Hired Sprinkler Expert &
Developed Alternate Design
Successful Tests of Alternate Design

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Questions?

Dr. John H. Klote PE

john@SmokeControlExpert.com

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Appendix A Example Testing Matrix

A1
A2