Understanding and evaluating the standard design forms, site evaluation

methods and methods of construction used in the modern construction and

analyzing the way in which decay and effects of dilapidation of
construction projects.

By

B. Bihan Chathuranga Fernando

Student ID NG/HNDQS10/26

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Higher National Diploma in Quantity Surveying

Lecturer: Mr. S. Kalananthan

International College of Business and Technology

Nugegoda
December, 2015
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my special gratitude and deepest appreciation to The

International College of Business and Technology and most of all, our lecturer, Mr. S.
Kalananthan, for a successful presentation and report on Construction Technology and giving
all the required encouragements and unerring guidance.
Subsequently, I would also like to express my heartfelt appreciation and distinct
honour to Ms. M. Sushama and Mr. Mahendra de Alwis (Lecturer on Land Surveying) for the
support and knowledge they provided making this report successful.
Furthermore, it is my great pleasure to bestow my sincere thanks to my parents and
my friends specially for encouraging me and the support and knowledge we shared.
Finally, I would like to thank everyone who helped me in various ways to convert this
project into a successful one.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements i
Table of Contents ii

1. Introduction 01
1.1 About RN Consultancy Services 01
1.2 Project Summary 01
2. Site Surveying 03
2.1 Classification of Surveying 03
2.2 Work of a Surveyor 05
2.3 Total Station as Survey instrument 05
3. Site Investigation 07
3.1 Sequence of A Site Investigation 07
3.2 Site Investigation Report 09
3.3 Facilities to Be Provided At Site 09
4. Soil Investigation 10
4.1 Trial Pits 10
4.2 Bore Holes 11
4.3 Laboratory Testing 12
5. Effect of Soil Type on Construction 14
5.1 Physical Properties of Soil and Effect 14
5.2 Effects of Water 15
5.3 Effects of Chemicals and Contaminants 16
5.4 Site Condition 17
6. Substructure 18
6.1 What is Substructure? 18
6.2 Foundation Selection factors 18
6.3 Foundation Types 19

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.4 Temporary Structure Works 22

7. Residential Building Forms of Structure and Finishes 24
7.1 Forms of Construction 24
7.2 Wall Finishes 25
7.3 Floor Finishes 25
7.4 Roof/Ceiling Finishes 26
8. Industrial and Commercial Buildings Forms of
Structure and Finishes 27
8.1 Forms of Construction 27
8.2 Wall Finishes 27
8.3 Floor Finishes 28
8.4 Roof/Ceiling Finishes 28
9. Building Services 29
9.1 Residential Building Services 29
9.2 Industrial/Commercial Building services 29
10. Decay and Deterioration in Buildings 31
10.1 What is Decay and Deterioration? 31
10.2 Causes of Deterioration 31
11. Maintenance 33
12. Relationship Between Design, Construction And
Maintenance and Cause of Dilapidation 35
13. Conclusion 36
References 37

iii
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 ABOUT RN CONSULTANCY SERVICES (PVT) LTD

We are RN Engineering Consultancy Services (Pvt) Ltd. Established in motive of

providing engineering consultancy services in areas of building, roads, bridges and water
supply projects with the aim of becoming leading engineering consultancy service in Sri Lanka
with a team of expert professionals in various trades at disposal.

We have been employed as consultants to new construction project for a clothing

manufacturing plant situated at Embilipitya which includes fully facilitated commercial and
Industrial building, warehouse and residential buildings with road networks.

1.2 PROJECT SUMMARY

Location : Embilipitiya
Client : Mrs. Krishani Fernando
Type : Clothing Manufacturing Factory
(Industrial,Commercial,Office,Warehouse and
Residential)
Project Commencing : July 2015
Completion : April 2016
Estimated Project Cost : 60 million Rupees
Land Area : About 1 Acre

Our client motive is to open a clothing factory and as we have discussed it is found that
her clients would be mostly foreign countries. Therefore she needed to provide a striking looks
to her commercial building so that it may improvise on the feeling of quality and to facilitate
them with accommodations when it is necessary. And as of the starting and we have discussed,
2 storey industrial building would suffice and her idea is to improve the building upto 4 stories
at maximum with time. And if its needed to construct a second building at the premises, there
needs to be space too.
Design and construction is to be carried out with these facts in mind and as well as
within the budget. Here this report is provided to give basic idea about each construction stages
and the methods with how the decisions are made. Below are some of the example renders of
what we are trying to achieve as our final outcome,

Construction Technology A 1
 0: Proposed Commercial and Industrial Building

0: Proposed Warehouse Building

0: Proposed Separate Residents

Figure 1.2.4: Inside of Industrial Building

Construction Technology A 2
 2. SITE SURVEYING

For any Civil Engineering project like building a house, constructing a dam, laying out
a road, setting up an industry etc. the first requirement is to have a Plan / Map of the area. And
in more definitive way a Map/ Plan is graphical representation of features on or near the surface
of the earth in small scale on a horizontal plane and is constructed using a projection system
other than orthographic(Indian Institute of Technology. n.d.). These primary measurements are
then used by architects to understand and make the most of the landscape when designing and
engineers to plan structures accurately and safely.

It has been found that selected site for this project does not have proper survey details
for the development and as we are the consultancy service, it is duty to advice on the advising
on what methods and instruments to choose in order to success of this project.

WHAT IS LAND SURVEYING?

Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative position of various points
above on or below the surface of the earth (Kalananthan, 2015)

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

Based upon the consideration of the shape of the earth, surveying is broadly divided
into two types.

Geodetic Survey
In this type of surveying, the true shape of the earth is taken into consideration.
Used when high precision is needed and for large areas.

Plane Survey
In this method of surveying, the mean surface of the earth is considered to be a
plane surface. Applicable for small area (less than 200km2).

Based on the purpose and instruments used surveying can also be classified as follows,
and there is many other classifications as well too.

Construction Technology A 3
 Control Survey

Land Survey

Engineering Survey
Purpose
Route Survey

Astronomic Survey

Mine Survey

Surveying Chain

Theodolite

Compass

Instrument
Level
Used

Electronic

GPS

Satellite

Here are some pictures of survey instruments mentioned above,

Steel Tape Theodolite

Automatic Level

Total Station GPS

Figure 2.1.1 0:Survey Instruments

Construction Technology A 4
2.2 WORK OF A SURVEYOR
Work of the surveyor begins at the initial stage of a construction project and carries out
throughout the whole time period. The work of surveyor consist of 5 stages,

Decision Making Selecting appropriate method and instruments.

Field work and Data collection Making measurement and recording data.

Computing and data processing - Preparing calculations based upon the

recorded data to determine locations in a usable form.
Mapping or data representation - Plotting data to produce a map or chart in the
proper form.
Stakeout Locating and establishing points on the ground as required.

2.3 TOTAL STATION AS SURVEY INSTRUMENT

Total station is a modern survey instrument that combine electromagnetic distant

measuring unit with theodolite functions into one unit which makes it universally available to
use on most of the survey to be carried out. It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic
data collector and storage system. Total Station can be used for,

Angle Measurements
Distance Measurements
Horizontal Distance
Elevations
Co-ordinate measurements
Data storage and Processing

Here we have selected the Total Station to be used in the site based on above mentioned
uses and following factors taken into account,

Readings are accurate with minimal error caused by the human operator.
Cost is bit high but considered with the facilities it is fairly reasonable.
Time for carry out the survey is reduced due to the facilities Total Station
incorporates.
Easy to use and take readings and store.
Calculations are done mostly automatically.
Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-
sections. Contour intervals and scales can be changed in no time.
(The Constructor, n.d.)

Construction Technology A 5
Following is a comparison of some of surveying instrument in regards of factors considered on
choosing what is best in a rated manner, best given 5 marks and lowest given 0 marks,

Table 1 : Comparison of Survey Instruments

Here even we see GPS system scored the highest marks in the rating system, but chose
the total station due to the implementations cost is high compared TS. And it is only about 1
acre of land area that is need to be surveyed which is not having any major obstacles to the
surveying process while GPS systems are widely used for large area of land where survey
instruments cannot be used due to obstacles or very time consuming. These factors solidified
the selection of Total Station to be incorporated in this project as the main survey instrument.

Construction Technology A 6
 3. SITE INVESTIGATION

Having the site surveyed next step is to carry out the site investigation and gather the
details about the proposed location within the premises and outside it in order to fulfill the main
objectives of suitability of the location, design changes that may need to be done, and provide
detail site investigation report.

3.1 SEQUENCE OF A SITE INVESTIGATION

Walk Over Soild Laboratory Final

Desk Study
Survey Investigation Testing Report

(Kalananthan, 2015)

Desk Study

Desk study is the work carried out on collecting the details about the
proposed land area before commencing on the site ground using
various sources.

Figure 3.1.10:Ordnance Survey Map

Figure 3.1.2 0:Geological Map

Construction Technology A 7
 Figure 3.1.30:Service Records Figure 3.1.40:Aerial Photography

Source: Google Search

Walk Over Survey

Walk over survey is carried out by visiting the site and inspecting the
land area with naked eye and by following simple observe
procedures.
Important factors to determine by a walk over survey are Hydrology
of the land, Slope stability, evidence of mining works carried out and
access to the site and any other information that would be important about the condition of the
land area.

Soil Investigation and Laboratory Testing

Soil investigation is carried out to get more detailed information

about the properties of the ground by naked eye observations and
with laboratory testing of soil samples. As this is a very important
step, it is described in more detailed manner in next chapter.

Final Report

Next step is to prepare the final site investigation report which includes
processed information gathered on above steps and with the following details.

Construction Technology A 8
3.2 SITE INVESTIGATION REPORT

A complete site investigation report is prepared with all the information gathered and
analyzed from above mentioned steps and which further includes the details such as,
assessment of viability of the site, Bore hole and trial pit locations and their logs in complete
manner, access facilities available, access to the services such as electricity, water, material
and labor availability and security on site neighborhood etc.

As of this project, the following factors are expected from the site investigation
report,

This land had no previous usage hence we expect not to have any
contaminations in the soil and no service lines runs through the land area.
Surface is mostly covered in couple of small trees and small vegetation.
Land is slightly sloping to the deep end at Northern part.
Adjacent buildings are mostly 1 or 2 storey buildings which are used as offices
and small shops.
A small ground water level is to be expected at this deep end at Northern part.
Ground soil is mostly firm fine particles with clay mixed.
Details about soil properties and contamination factors will be provided on next
chapters.
Proposed land is near to the main road, hence the electricity water and other
services are easily accessible and provided.

3.3 FACILITIES TO BE PROVIDED AT SITE

Facilities that need to be provided at site needs to be identified and planned before
commencing the work in order to safe guarding the smooth operation during the construction
work is ongoing.
Site Access
Site Storage
Site Accommodation
Temporary Services Electricity, Water, Telephone, Lighting
Site Security Arrangements
Health and Safety Measures

Construction Technology A 9
 4. SOIL INVESTIGATION

Soil investigation help to determine varying physical and chemical characteristics of

soil, which can vary from place to place and from layer to layer even within the limits of the
proposed structure.

Soil Investigation on a construction site helps to determine,

Grain size Shrinkage limit

Moisture Compaction
Specific gravity Direct Shear
Liquid limit Permeability
Plastic limit

Source: Google Search

METHODS OF SOIL INVESTIGATION

Mainly there are 2 principle methods of investigating ground conditions.

TRIAL PITS

BORE HOLES

4.1 TRIAL PITS

Trial pits are shallow excavations which made at site depth not more than 6.0m that
mostly excavated by hand, backhoe or hydraulic excavator depending on the depth to observe
the soil layers and collect the soil samples and then trial pit logs are prepared which will include
as much as details that can be extracted such as location, orientation, water level and soil layer
properties etc.

Figure 4.1.10:Trial Pit

Figure 4.1.20:Trial Pit Log(Source:

Google Search)
Construction Technology A 10
4.2 BORE HOLES

A bore hole is used to determine the nature of the ground (usually below 6m) to recover
undisturbed samples of soils and then bore hole logs are prepared. There are 2 main
methods used,

1. Shell and Auger Which hammers down into the soil to get samples which
is most common on bore holes that does not go deeper as shown in the figure
below,

Figure 4.2.10:Shell and Auger

Method(Source: Google)

2. Drilling Method Boring using combination of an action and hydraulic ram

which drills into the soil. Used when soil layers are too hard to penetrate and
when needs to go extreme depth.

Figure 4.2.20: Bore Hole Drilling(Source:

Google)

Construction Technology A 11
Following are some example bore hole logs,

Figure 4.2.30:General Bore Hole Log Figure 4.2.4 0:Bore Hole Log With Chemical
Properties

Source: Google

4.3 LABORATORY TESTING

Soil samples obtained from the site are taken to laboratory and further testing is carried
out to classifying the soil samples and identify different soil types with their physical and
chemical properties. Below are some of the key tests carried out in the laboratory and further
details on testing procedure and details can be obtained by the online references included.

Sieve Analysis To determine the particle distribution in soil sample

(http://www.uta.edu/ce/geotech/lab/Main/sieve/index.htm)

Proctor Compaction Test Determination relationship between moisture content

and density of samples. In simple words compaction of the soil in relation with the
water content.
(http://www.transportation.nebraska.gov/mat-n-
tests/research/Soils/Final%20Report%20P313.pdf)

Construction Technology A 12
 Atterberg Limits Test Helps to determine shrinkage limit, liquid limit, plasticity
limit of soil.
(https://www.dot.ny.gov/divisions/engineering/technical-services/technical-
services-repository/GTM-7b.pdf)

In this proposed site, it is found that soil is firm and seems to have a good bearing
capacity and the water level on the front side of the land where main building is to be
constructed is considerably below the surface. Hence as the consultancy team, we advise to
carry out the soil investigation by mainly based on Trial Pits and minimal number of bore holes
as required by the inspection of engineer at the north end area where ground water level seems
to be little high.
It is expected to the soil of this site to be mostly cohesive with fine particles with enough
clay mix which is having very good bearing capacity for construction purposes and it is a stable
soil. But at the north deep end where water table is little high, soil seems to be a bit silt clay
which tends to be compact over the time.

Construction Technology A 13
 5. EFFECT OF SOIL TYPE ON CONSTRUCTION

Soil, together with its condition and properties are imperative factors that affect the
construction in a vital way. Selection of sites with the best soil is an important engineering
decision in the building process.

5.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND EFFECT

Building foundations need to be on stable and strong soils. The strength and stability of
soil depend on its physical properties. Following are some of the physical properties of the soil
in decreasing importance,
Texture
Structure
Density
Porosity
Consistency
Color
Resistivity

Soil with good structure is more stable. Clay textures are often more stable than sand
textures because they have a better structure. It is also important that soil is stable through wet
and dry periods, so that expanding of the soil does not crack roads or foundations.

Following is a table showing effect of each soil type in soil behavior regard to soil is
being classified as Sand, Silt and Clay by United States Agricultural Department (Subject wiki
for soil, 2015)

Construction Technology A 14
 Property/behavior Sand Silt Clay

Medium to
Water-holding capacity Low High
high

Aeration Good Medium Poor

Slow to
Drainage rate High Very slow
medium

Medium to
Soil organic matter level Low High to medium
high

Decomposition of organic
Rapid Medium Slow
matter

Warm-up in spring Rapid Moderate Slow

Compactability Low Medium High

Moderate (High if
Susceptibility to wind erosion High Low
fine sand)

Susceptibility to water Low (unless fine Low if aggregated,

High
erosion sand) otherwise high

Shrink/Swell Potential Very Low Low Moderate to very high

Sealing of ponds, dams, and

Poor Poor Good
landfills

Suitability for tillage after rain Good Medium Poor

Pollutant leaching potential High Medium Low (unless cracked)

Medium to
Ability to store plant nutrients Poor High
High

Resistance to pH change Low Medium High

Table 2 : Influence of Soil Types in its properties.

5.2 EFFECT OF WATER

The position of ground water has a significant effect on the bearing capacity of soil.
Presence of water table at a depth less than the width of the foundation from the foundation
bottom will reduce the bearing capacity of the soil.

And when taken into the effect of water with the soil types, as an example a dry, clayey
soil in contact with increasing amounts of water, it shows distinct changes in behavior and
consistency. Depending on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid,
semi-solid, plastic and liquid.

Construction Technology A 15
 And each of these states, properties of the soil and also the behavior of the soil changes
dramatically. Some soil types specially clay and silty soil can be expand or shrink due to the
moisture content because of the reaction with water to these soil particles may have varying
shear strengths which if not suit to bear the building, it can lead to cracks or maybe be
collapsing of the whole structure.
In order to prevent these failures, it is necessary to test the soil for its water level,
bearing capacity, liquid and plastic limits to determine the suitability of the ground for the
specific project and necessary to take actions to prevent ground water affecting to the
foundations of structures.

5.3 EFFECT OF CHEMICALS AND CONTAMINANTS

Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of chemicals or other
alteration in the natural soil environment. The most common chemicals involved are
petroleum hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy
metals. (Subject wiki for soil contamination, 2015). Some of the causes of contaminations
can be listed as below,

Industrial Accidents
Deforestation
Acid Rain
Nuclear Wastes
Illegal dumping
Oil and fuel dumping

Primarily effects and the risk of chemicals and contaminants in the soil are concerning
the health by direct contact with the contaminated soil or by inhaling the vapors from
contaminants and secondary contaminations like water within the underlying in the soil. For
the construction projects, some risks of the contaminated soil can be listed as follows,

Threats to human health.

Damage to flora and fauna
Contamination of ground water
Damage to foundations and structures
Settlement

Construction Technology A 16
5.4 SITE CONDITION

Proposed building site for this projects land, mostly consist of cohesive soil with fine
particles with adequate amount of clay with good strength and texture to it which will have
adequate amount of bearing capacity needed to hold a 2 storey main building and even the
future developments. As the site had no previous use and no records of contaminants we dont
expect the soil treatments will be necessary and also the after soil investigations it is expected
to water table to be well below foundation levels. Considering all these factors, we have
decided that for the substructure of the main building shallow foundation would be adequate
and more details about it can be found on the next chapter.

As previously mentioned before, far end of the land where ware houses accommodation
and secondary buildings are located seems to be wet with more clay in the soil which can occur
settlement in time, advised to use raft foundations to ensure if the settling happens, structure
wont be damaged. Only minimal amount of ground water is expected to penetrate through the
soil and will be removed by using temporary solution such as sump pumping.

Construction Technology A 17
 6. SUBSTRUCTURE

6.1 WHAT IS SUBSTRUCTURE?

Sub-structure or Foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below
the ground level, which transmits the loads of the super-structure to the supporting soil.

Figure 6.1.10:Load Transmission to Foundation Ex. Figure 6.1.20:Foundation on A Worksite

Source: Google Search

6.2 FOUNDATION SELECION FACTORS

Since the design of the foundation maybe the most important part of building construction
which holds the building in its position and also the most of the costlier phase of construction,
it is necessary to select the most suitable foundation type to have a stable building and also in
cost effective construction. Following are some of basic factors to be considered when selecting
foundations,

The nature of the load requiring support (Dead load, Live Load, Wind and
Loads from other parts that will be attached to the building).
Ground Conditions (bearing capacity of soil and type).
The presence of water.
Sensitivity to noise and vibration.
Proximity to other structures.
Project Time Frames.

Lets take a look at what are the foundation types available to select for this project and
its uses,

Construction Technology A 18
6.3 FOUNDATION TYPES

Foundations can be broadly classified into two types as Shallow and Deep foundations in
consideration with the depth of the construction and below is the basic extent of those 2 types
(Kalananthan, 2015),

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

These are finished near to the ground surface which is mostly not exceeding depth of
3.0m. And mostly used when the soil is sufficiently strong enough to bear the load of the
structure and in sometimes when the soil is compressible such as marshy land or made up
ground. There are 3 types under this,

STRIP FOUNDATIONS
Usually used for long structural elements such as walls and can be reinforced
concrete or random rubble, also divided into 3 categories based on structure,

Figure 6.3.10:Normal Strip Figure 6.3.20:Wide Strip Figure 6.3.30:Deep Strip

Source: Google

Construction Technology A 19
 PAD FOUNDATIONS

Shallow foundation but can be deep enough depending on the

requirement. These are built to support point loads such as
columns. There are 2 sub categories shown below,

Figure 6.3.4 0:Isolated Pad Foundation Figure 6.3.50:Combined Pad Foundations

Source: Google

RAFT FOUNDATIONS
Used when need to spread the load over a large area often when construction
on loose soil where bearing capacity is low to spread the load
evenly. Using this foundation has advantage of reducing the
differential settling of the land.

Figure 6.3.60:Slab Raft Figure 6.3.7 0:Slab-Beam Raft Figure 6.3.80:cellular Raft

Construction Technology A 20
 DEEP FOUNDATIONS(PILE FOUNDATIONS)

A deep foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth
further down to a subsurface layer or a range of depths (Subject wiki deep foundations,
2015). Piles are used when the structure very large design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth,
or site constraints like property lines etc. Commonly pile foundations are categorized into two
types depending on their load distribution method that are,
End Bearing Piles Which transmits the load to the rock strata of earth
Friction Piles Which transmits loads by the friction that the pile makes with
soil layers.

Figure 6.3.90:Pile Types

Source: Google

As the consultancy team, we need to advice on what type of foundation would be best
suit for each of structures that will be constructed within this project. With all the factors taken
into account on the factors on selecting foundation and considering ground conditions with
help of performing tests and keeping in the mind about the time, cost, feasibility, efficiency we
hope to follow up with following foundation types,

For the main building that will act as commercial and residential it is recommended to
construct with Pad Foundation in combination with Reinforced strips to connect and support.
To solidify this choice, it is expected the ground conditions to be
suitable with soil with sufficient bearing capacity, no
contaminants, water table is well below the foundation level,
client does not expect to raise this building more than 4 storeys
in the future. So it is more cost and time effective choice for this
building.

Construction Technology A 21
 For the residences and warehouses storages that is situated far end of the land we advise
on going for Raft foundation type with required thicknesses and design adjustments as per the
structural engineer. To solidify this decision, this is the area where lands slope is at and the
area ground water level is little high than the front sides. Soil is
founded to silt clay which can get water logged and occur
settlements over the time. So the raft foundation type is
specifically designed to face this kind of situations and also this
would be enough because these buildings wont give out huge
loads to the foundation.

6.4 TEMPORARY STRUCTURE WORKS

In construction of substructure there can be 2 temporary structure works that can be
found. These needs to be carry out in order to help to construct the foundation,

Shoring (Earth work support)

Formwork

SHORING (EARTH WORK SUPPORT)

Shoring is the process of supporting the excavated earth trenches for the foundation
laying to prevent collapsing to prevent risks and damage that could occur. There are
many methods earth work support is carried out in trenches like timber, hydraulic,
pneumatic and more advance methods like soil nailing and screw jacks.

For this project, we expect to have a good soil which is having minimal risk of
collapsing to go with open timbering method which is less cost and easy to fix and
maintain compared to all other methods. And for the wet area, it is advised to use open
and closed timbering where necessary.

Figure 6.4.10:Open Timbering Figure 6.4.2 0:Closed Timbering

Source: Google

Construction Technology A 22
 FORMWORK
Formwork is carried out on helping to keep the poured concrete in place and to achieve
the shape it needs.

Materials that can be used in formwork,

Timber
Plywood
Steel
Plastic
We advise on using plywood for formworks as by considering factors like, cost, ease
of forming, ease of handling, ease of removing, number of times that can be reused and
finishing it gives plywood comes out in top in comparison to the other materials in
today standards.

Figure 6.4.3 0:Formwork in foundations

Construction Technology A 23
 7. RESIDENTIAL BUILDING FORMS OF STRUCTURE AND
FINISHES

All types of building that are constructed based on their needs like residential,
commercial and industrial or buildings that has been classified as low rise, mid rise, high rise,
long span etc according to their structural construction consist of main components as,

Foundations
Columns
Walls
Floors
Roofs
These are the main structural elements that competes a building and in construction
field there is vast amount of forms that can be incorporated with construction each of these
element. As consultants, we need to identify what each of these buildings will be used and
hence to choose the most economical feasible and suitable structural forms to finish up the each
types of building.

7.1 FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION

For the residential buildings that are in this project, we advise on using following
structural forms for the construction process,
Foundation Reinforced concrete slab raft foundation due to reasons mentioned
above.
Columns Reinforced concrete columns as required.
Walls Brick masonry with English bond
Floors Floor will have a leveled concrete surface as we are incorporating a
raft foundation. So no special construction is needed.
Roof With timber structure and asbestos covering.

FINISHES
Building finishes gives the appearance to the building and can be mainly divided into
three sections,
Walls
Floors
Roof/Ceiling

Below is some of the finishes that can be incorporated with construction and what we
intended to use on our project is highlighted.

Construction Technology A 24
7.2 WALL FINISHES

Internal Walls
Plastering with cement sand mortar
Painting
Wall Tiles
Wood Paneling

We advise on finish up the internal walls of residential building with plastering and
painting with emulsion paint. And for the bathroom walls, wall tiles up to 6ft height is needed
to be used.

External Walls
Plastering with cement sand mortar
Painting
Wall Tiles
Wire cut bricks

For external walls in residents, plastering with wire cuts bricks will be used for
decoration purposes and painted with weather shield paint.

Figure 7.2.10:Plastering Figure 7.2.20:Wall Tiles

Source: Lecture Notes, Kalananthan. 2015)

7.3 FLOOR FINISHES

Different materials can be used in finishing up the floor which will vary in terms of cost and the
looks,

Cement Rendering
Ceramic Tiles
Granite
Timber
Laminated Floors
Vinyl
Carpets
Terrazo

Construction Technology A 25
 Figure 7.3.1 0:Ceramic Tiles Figure 7.3.2 0:Cement Rendering Figure 7.3.3 0:Granite

Figure7.3.4: Timber Floor Figure 7.3.5: Laminated Floor Figure 7.3.60:Vinyl

Source: Google

Floor finishes are advised to carry out by almost all the areas in ceramic tiles. But the bathrooms
must be finished with rough finished tiles.

7.4 ROOF/CEILING FINISHES

Asbestos Roofing
Aluminum Roofing
Roof Tiles
Suspended Ceilings
Fixed Ceilings (Timber or other suit materials)
Exposed ceiling

Roof finishes are carried out with painted asbestos sheets and ceiling will be suspended type
covered with ceiling sheets to minimize the cost but with keeping the appearance required.

Construction Technology A 26
 8. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS FORMS OF
STRUCTURE AND FINISHES

8.1 FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION

For the main building that incorporates both industrial factory and commercial purposes
and the warehouse, we advise on using following structural forms for the construction process,
Foundation For main building reinforced pad footings in combination with
strip foundation and for the warehouses raft foundation due to reasons
mentioned above in foundations chapter.
Columns Reinforced concrete columns as required in the main and steel
structure for the ware house.
Walls Block masonry.
Floors On the main building only the ground floor needs to be formed with
concrete and 1st floor will have its slab used as the floor. Wrehouse floor would
be formed with lean concrete.
Roof Part of the roof structure will be a concrete slab in order to provide
services such as overhead water tank, Solar panel room and any other where
necessary and rest will be made with steel trussed roof. And the ware house roof
act as a part of its structure so it would be also steel trussed.

0: Reinforced Concrete Structure

0: Steel Frame Structure

Source: Google

8.2 WALL FINISHES

Internal Walls
For the main building we propose plastering and painting with emulsion paint
and application of wall tiles on the bathroom walls up to 10ft.
For the warehouse walls will be finished with steel cladding walls that serve
in both as internal and external.

Construction Technology A 27
 External Walls
Cement rendering, Wire cut bricks, Aluminum curtain walls, Glass curtain
walls, Concrete or steel or plastic cladding are some of exterior finishes we can
incorporate. And we propose to use aluminum cladding with some glass curtain
walls to achieve the exquisite looks of a commercial building.

8.3 FLOOR FINISHES

Floor finishes mostly used in commercial buildings are ceramic tiles, terrazzo, granite
and carpets like which gives out the professional looks. Here in the lobby area we advise
on using ceramic tiles with granite to achieve cost effective but astonishing looks.

For the industrial areas, rough tiles finishing is recommended and warehouse floor will
be concrete rendered in order to be strength enough.

8.4 ROOF/CEILING FINISHES

For the main commercial and industrial building roof will be finished with aluminum
sheets with heat prevention methods in order to achieve cost effective and to incorporate
roof mounted solar panels and lighting voids easily.

As of the ceiling, it will be suspended type for at the ground floor only to provide service
lines through it and 1st floor wouldnt have a ceiling.

Figure 8.4.1: Glass Curtain Walls 0: Cladding

Source: Google

Construction Technology A 28
 9. BUILDING SERVICES

Building services make the living space more favorable, comfortable. Its what makes
the building works and can be considered as the blood of the building. Without building
services the purpose of the building would be hard to be achieved.

Here are some of the common building services,

Ventilation
Air Conditioning
Water Supply
Electricity
Telephone
Lighting
Waste disposal
Elevators and Escalators

9.1 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING SERVICES

Residential buildings on this project will be used by the Management and executive staff
of the clients establishment, it is necessary to provide facilities in enough and satisfactory
manner in this regard. Following are some of the services that needs to provide,

Electricity mainly electricity will be provided by the main grid and in case of power
failure all the buildings electricity network are connected to the backup generator
which kicks in automatically to have a uninterrupted supply.
Water mainly achieved from the water mains and overhead tanks are provided. For
hot water, solar paneled hot water systems are to be used.
Air Conditioning Split A/C systems are to be provided in each residence which
suits economically for small areas and easily managed.
Telephone and Internet.
Waste disposal Since this is a resident, not much of a waste is expected so simple
waste bins will be adequate for this.

9.2 INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL BUILDING SERVICES

Same as with the residential buildings common building services such as electricity,
water, telephone and air conditioning will be provided in sufficient nos to satisfy the demand.
Here is some of distinctive services that would be used in this kind of buildings,

Lighting Providing lighting to a workplace needs more attention to get as much as

possible natural light to minimize the operating cost and for convenient. Fixing of
roof lighting voids is advised with glass cubes on sides of the wall with heat filters.

Construction Technology A 29
 Ventilation Roof mounted air intakes are to be placed.
Waste disposal Workplace has a huge number of people and their day to day use.
So for meeting this requirement, waste chutes are to be provided.
Elevators Since this is a 2 storey building we decided not to use escalators. But for
ease of transporting goods, elevator is to be provided.
Fire prevention its a very important service in case of emergency, fire
extinguishers are placed in necessary position and outdoor fire brigade water lines to
be provided too. And a emergency fire exit stair case at the back of the building.

Figure 9.2.1: Fire Extinguishers Figure 9.2.2: Lighting in

industrial buildings

0: Split A/C System

Construction Technology A 30
 10. DECAY AND DETERIORATION IN BUILDINGS

10.1 WHAT IS DECAY AND DETERIORATION?

With the time and due to external causes such as human, nature etc., all the materials
used for constructing of the building going to face the decay in their respective speeds
causing the building to be unhealthy, hazardous work place or living to its occupants
and to maintain and keep the building works as it is expected, it is a must to carry out
maintenance tasks on identified deterioration factors.

10.2 CAUSES OF DETERIORATION

Faulty Construction
Mistakes or negligence made in the construction stage is a main cause of
building deterioration that directly affects. As an example, when the
plastering works was failed to carry out according to the specified
specification, then after some time the plastering would come down.

Faulty Material
Same as with faulty construction, using materials that are not in standard
quality is a major cause. Using of materials that are in standard grades as
specified needs to be carry out in thorough supervision.

Moisture
Moisture is the most common cause that affects the building itself more
than the services. Moisture causes to growing of fungus bacteria etc. which
may harmfully affects the materials used. It is important to keep the
building dry to prevent this.

Chemicals
Mostly the atmospheric carbon dioxide reduces the alkalinity of concrete
and cause the reinforcements to depassivation. Chlorides will promote the
corrosion and sulphates will attack the foundation concrete cause them to
crack or decay.
Atmospheric Conditions
Building design and material evaluated for use in Scotland may not
suitable to use here in Sri Lanka. From deciding on what techniques
methods design materials to be used in a building should be decide taken
into atmospheric conditions too.

Construction Technology A 31
 Heat
Heat will help in almost all kind of deterioration process. The expansion and
shrinkage cause by the heat may weaken the strength of rigid elements like
plastering and cause them to crack. So it should be taken into consideration
when heat sources are nearby.

Human Errors and Cleaning

Major part of services deterioration and building external fabric damage can
be put in to the account of mistakes and negligence made by human usage
and lack of cleaning and knowledge in cleaning. What if a inexperienced
cleaner trying to clean an Air conditioner? It wouldnt be suffice to the A/C
to be working properly for another long period.

Fire
Fire is not only a cause of deterioration but also it can cause to abandon
the whole building itself. The sudden hike in temperature wont be
available to bear by the constructing materials and they may change their
molecular structure and may even be lead to collapse of the whole
building. It is very important to take every possible preventive actions to
reduce the risk of fire hazard.

Construction Technology A 32
 11. MAINTENANCE

Maintenance can be defined as continuous protective care of building fabric and its
contents. With the identification of above mentioned deterioration factors, maintenance
process is what fighting against it to pro long the life time of the building while ensuring its
serving its purpose as designed.

Before taking steps into maintenance, it is necessary to identify categories of

maintenance work that would need in a building. Basic can be listed as below,

Preventive Maintenance: Work to prevent failure which recurs predictably

within the life of a building, such as cleaning, painting etc.

Corrective Maintenance: Work necessary to bring a building to an

acceptable standard such as treatment of rising damp.

Emergency Maintenance: Work that must be initiated immediately for

health, safety, security reasons or that may result in the rapid deterioration
of the structure.

Rather than spending a whole lot of money for a major repair, it is much cost effective
and efficient to allocate small amount of money for maintenance in monthly basis or as
required. Many of the building owners neglect about this which leads to heavy losses in the
end having to do major repairs.
To carry out above identified maintenance tasks, a maintenance plan/program needs to
be established under a specialized professional. Advantage of this is that maintenance tasks
will be carried out in more systematic way that will identify, correct and take preventive
measures to minimize the future defects. Most important objective is to reduce the cost that
need to be spend on emergency maintenance tasks because these are not being planned and can
lead to major losses for the client. Maintenance program will based on following methods of
carrying out works which covers the building fabric and contents throughout the time.

Planned Maintenance
Planned maintenance is organized repairing works that carried out on a planned
schedule. Mostly this helps in securing the funds need in the future for this work.
It will be planned after inspecting of current situation by the professionals and
based on their recommendations such as replacing pipe, electricity lines etc.

Construction Technology A 33
 Reactive Maintenance
The maintenance done when a problem is aroused and to provide a remedy to
recover the problem. This is day to day works required on correcting the failures
for ensure the work flow wont be disturbed and to for health and safety.

Cyclical Maintenance
Maintenance work that requires to be carried out on an agreed cycle of time
period. As a example, day to day cleaning tasks, monthly cleaning of gutters,
yearly painting etc. for most part, cyclical maintenance is what keeps the
building appearance in its designed way. This can be divided into 2 categories
also that work can carried out by the owner and specialist support.

Need of each and every element in this maintenance program is a must to prolong the
building lifespan or its functioning state. What would happen after 5 6 years when plumbing
system gets degraded and when we did not have planned for that? What if we have not allocate
proper staff or people to carry out reactive maintenance work when something breaks down?
What would happen to the building exterior and interior looks if we do not carry out cleaning
or painting works in a cycle? This is how each of these components works together.

Construction Technology A 34
 12. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND
MAINTENANCE AND CAUSE OF DILAPIDATION

Until now we have pointed out the design decisions taken into account before
construction project starts, and construction methods needs to be followed and then planning
for maintenance. Even these are talked separately, these 3 factors are bound to be together
with close relationship to make this one unit called the functioning building. These are rely
on each other for guarantee the construction meets its expectation and it will serve as
expected for long time. Lets take a look at how each of these in relationship to each other
and causing the dilapidation.
First of all, if we talked about dilapidation, it is the building becoming to a disrepair
state or started to decay and becoming unusable state for any kind of work to the owners or
occupants leaving in hazardous unsafe environment. All the design, construction and
maintenance works are carried out to minimize the causes of dilapidation and prolong the life
span as much as possible.
Design, when we start a project we need to have a design. Which defines what we
need to build how it should be built. Mostly design and the construction stages have a more
closed relationship compared to maintenance. Imagine if we start on a project without design
drawings and specifications? Where it would be end. And when construction process going
on there are complications arising. Even though it is designed but may not have the
buildability. Which may again going to a redesigning process. And the design works needs to
be carry out the maintenance in mind too. Imagine a skyscraper top made in glass without
access or method to clean it. Thats a design issue. And we all know that without the
maintenance its going to decay and ultimately cause on dilapidation.
Construction, is the process of identifying the activities and requirements to bring the
design to a reality. As said before, design and construction have closed relationship. Its when
construction process is going well identify the errors in design. And as mentioned in
previous chapters, using of faulty materials, faulty construction methods will ultimately cause
in building dilapidation and also if these happened there will be huge maintenance cost to
incorporate.
Maintenance, this part of means to hold keep or and preserve the building to the
standard required. Which means to sustain the value of property. In above chapters we had
idea how maintenance is important in prolonging the lifespan and keeping the building
works. Neglecting of this area can be identified as the main cause of building dilapidations.
So the maintenance is having a close relationship to the dilapidation.

This is how the design, construction process and maintenance of building relating to
each other and when this relation not get properly implemented the dilapidation occurs. All of
these elements are acting together in a construction project and designers, contractors and all
the professionals should keep this in mind and pass on the knowledge.

Construction Technology A 35
 13. CONCLUTION

Identifying and the understanding construction technology with the materials is very
essential in developing a feasible eco-friendly long lasting construction project. In order to
achieve whats on clients mind or making the imagination reality, as the consultancy service,
it is our duty to advice the client on whats best to achieve the objectives in conscience with
time, money and quality.

Through this report, it is explained basic steps of construction project from starting with
surveying the land to the maintenance of the constructed building and each step is described in
a manner of what is needed to be done? What were the options available, what method,
technique or material selected and logical justification of that decisions.

And this report aimed to provide the client or the reader a basic idea of how construction
process is carried out and more importantly the need of maintenance after completing the
constructional works to keep the building alive to serve his/her expectation.

Again as the construction professionals, we need to improve our knowledge

continuously as the construction is everyday process and it renew itself every day. As
consultants, we would not only provide the expertise on building construction but we would
advise the client on how to keep what it is built.

Construction Technology A 36
REFERENCES

Anon., 2015. Subject Wiki for Deep Foundations. [Online]

Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_foundation
[Accessed 2 12 2015].
Anon., 2015. Subject wiki for soil. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil#Physical_properties_of_soils
[Accessed 1 12 2015].
Anon., 2015. Subject wiki for soil contamination. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_contamination
[Accessed 1 12 2015].
Anon., n.d. Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. [Online]
Available at: http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105107122/g14.htm
[Accessed 1 12 2015].

Kalananthan, S., 2015. The Methods of Site Survey. [Lecture Notes]Construction Tech A, ICBT.

Kalananthan, S., 2015. Site Investigation. [Lecture Notes]Construction Tech A, ICBT.

Kalananthan, S., 2015. Introduction to Foundations. [Lecture Notes]Construction Tech A, ICBT.

TheConstructor, n.d. Total Station-Operation Uses and Advantages. [Online]

Available at: http://theconstructor.org/surveying/total-station-operation-uses-advantage/6605/
[Accessed 1 12 2015].

Construction Technology A 37
 Unit/Module Technology-A

Assignment:Understandingandevaluatingthestandarddesign
forms,siteevaluationmethods andmethods ofconstructionusedin
Assessment
themodernconstruction andanalyzingthewayinwhichdecayand effects
ofdilapidationofconstructionprojects.

Lecturer Mr.S.Kalananthan.

StudentName D.M.D.DarshanaBandara ID NG/HNDQS/10/28

DateHandedOver 08/08/2015 DateDue 04/12/2015

Re-
InitialSubmissionDate Submission
Date

CriteriaMet?
StudenttoTick

Grading
ifAttempted

AssessorFeedback
Opportunity
OnResubmission
Initially

P1.1

P1.2

P1.3

P.2.1

P.2.2

P.2.3

P.3.1

Construction Technology A 38
 P.3.2

P.3.3

P.3.4

P.4.1

P.4.2

P.4.3

M.1

M.2

M.3

D.1

D.2

D.3

Assessed By(Name): S.Kalananthan

Signature: Date: / /2015

StudentSignature&Comments :

Construction Technology A 39