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Industrial Crops and Products xxx (2014) xxxxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Industrial Crops and Products

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

The potential of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) as a crop with

multiple uses
Nicola Di Virgilio a, , Eleni G. Papazoglou b,1 , Zoja Jankauskiene c,2 , Sara Di Lonardo d,3 ,
Marcin Praczyk e,4 , Kataryna Wielgusz e,4
a
National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Biometeorology, Via Piero Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
b
Agricultural University of Athens, Department of Crop Science, 75 Iera Odos St., 118 55 Athens, Greece
c
LRCAF Upyte Experimental Station, Linininku 3, Upyte, Paneve
zys District, LT 38-294, Lithuania
d
National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Biometeorology, Via Giovanni Caproni 8, I 50145 Firenze, Italy
e
Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Wojska Polskiego 71 B, 60-630 Pozna n, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) is a well-known plant species that is considered a weed in intensive
Received 20 April 2014 agriculture. This crop has gained the interest both scientically and commercially because it is the source
Received in revised form 23 July 2014 of many added-value natural products by exploiting all the plant parts (stem, leaves, roots and seeds).
Accepted 8 August 2014
The main objective of this article is to describe-along with unpublished data-information that is spread in
Available online xxx
different sources, giving an updated and comprehensive overview of the potential end-products, covering
aspects related to the whole plant production chain, and at the same time, providing unpublished data
Keywords:
collected under different projects.
Urtica dioica L.
Fibre production
The effects of nettle cultivation on the environment are potentially favourable, it being a perennial
Multipurpose crop low-requirement crop (it can reach about 312 Mg ha1 dry stalk yield with low inputs). Stinging nettle
Cultivation has a long history as a textile bre; its bre quality has been demonstrated (e.g. cellulose content around
Uses 86%) and is highly depending on the extraction method. Furthermore, several studies conrmed the pres-
Natural products ence of numerous active compounds, especially in nettle leaves (e.g. caffeic acid derivative compounds,
ceramides, nine forms of carotenoids, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, phytosterols, glycosides
and proteins), with most promising application in the food/feed, medicinal and cosmetic sectors. Although
with high market potentials, the products made from nettle are currently more a result of curiosity rather
than large-scale industrial production, mostly due to lack in crop and post-harvest management. The def-
inition of a production chain able to exploit the plant biomass as much as possible is a prerequisite to
increase income and boost farmers adoption, and to attract investors.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) is a perennial herbaceous plant
belonging to the Urticaceae family. It is a well-known and com-
mon species, spread in temperate and tropical zones of Europe,
Asia and America, adapted to a variety of climatic conditions. Sting-
ing nettle is a perennial, monoecious plant, owering and fruiting
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 051 63909004; fax: +39 051 6399024.
E-mail addresses: n.divirgilio@ibimet.cnr.it (N. Di Virgilio), elpapazo@aua.gr
(E.G. Papazoglou), soja@upyte.lzi.lt (Z. Jankauskiene), s.dilonardo@ibimet.cnr.it
(S. Di Lonardo), marcin.pracyk@iwnirz.pl (M. Praczyk).
1
Tel.: +30 210 5294315; fax: +30 210 5294301.
2
Tel.: +37 045 555 413; fax: +37 045 555573.
3
Tel.: +39 055 3033711; fax: +39 055 308910.
4
Tel.: +48 61 8455854.
in summertime. Its stems and leaves are covered by stinging tri-
chomes containing a uid which causes blistering when entering
the skin (Bisht et al., 2012). This species is considered a weed in
intensive agriculture as its fast vegetative growth and high densi-
ties enable increased spread and soil coverage (Klimesov, 1995),
but it is potentially able to act as a biomass source for several added-
value products by exploiting all the parts of the plant (stem, leaves,
roots and seeds). There are economic and ecological reasons to
cultivate stinging nettle. According to Dreyer and Mssing (2000),
stinging nettle is a perennial crop with satisfying yields for 1015
years, has low input requirements, can improve soils overfertilized
with nitrogen and phosphate, can promote the biodiversity of local
ora and fauna, and can be used to produce new high-quality agri-
cultural raw materials for dyeing, textile and energy sectors. The
rst attempt to consider nettle as an industrial crop was during the
1940s, when 150200 ha were cultivated for bre production in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.012
0926-6690/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Di Virgilio, N., et al., The potential of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) as a crop with multiple uses. Ind.
Crops Prod. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.012
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Table 1
Main projects including stinging nettle, chronologically ordered.
Project
Study of alternative bre plants in Lithuania (part of the
long-term LRCAF programme Biopotential and Quality of
Plants for Multifunctional Use, 20102013).
Plant resources for food and non-food use in Tuscany Region:
characterization and LCA of some products derived from
nettle (supported by Tuscany Region 20102011).
PRIN 2009: Medicinal and dyeing-plants natural extracts:
characterization, and innovative poly-use of nettle, daphne,
lavender and chestnut tannins (supported by the Italian
Ministry of Research 20102012).
ICCOG: Identication and characterization of some clones of
nettle and Spanish broom for textile and phytotherapic use
(supported by Tuscany Region 20082009).
The investigation of vegetative propagation and growing of
bre stinging-nettle (supported by Lithuanian Ministry of
Agriculture, 20082009).
Scientic reasoning of technological possibilities to grow
stinging-nettle in Lithuania (supported by Lithuanian
Ministry of Agriculture, 2007).
LaMMA-TEST: The textile processing chain in Tuscany
(supported by Tuscany Region, 20052007).
NATURAL.TEX: Natural bres in textile processing chain of
Tuscany (supported by Tuscany Region, 2006).
STING project: Sustainable Technology in Nettle Growing
(Department for Environmental Food and Rural Affairs, UK,
20012004).
From nettle to textile I + II (Agricultural Research Centre of
Finland and College/Crafts and Design Department,
19972003).
Natural textiles made of nettle-innovative technology and
product development for the textile industry (German
project, 19992002).
Nettle-reintroduction of stinging nettle cultivation a s a
sustainable raw material for the production of bres and
cellulose FAIR.ST-8356 and FAIR-CT98-9615 (German and
Austrian project, 19992001).
Germany (Bredemann and Garber, 1959), and when a cross breed-
ing programme of wild plants for bre production was established
at the Institute of Applied Botany in Hamburg, which released
several clones with high bre content, still maintained in Ger-
man and Austrian research institutions (Dreyer and Mssing, 2000;
Vogl and Hartl, 2003). Recently, the scientic community showed
a renewed interest in stinging nettle and several research projects
have been carried out in Austria, Germany, Finland, the United
Kingdom and Lithuania mainly to produce natural bres, as well
as to extract active herbal compounds (Table 1). In 2001, the Aus-
trian Institute for Agrobiotechnology in Tulln tried to continue the
successful introductory steps to establish bre-nettle production
in Austria (19992001 EU programme FAIR-CT98-9615: NETTLE-
reintroduction of stinging nettle cultivation as a sustainable raw
material for the production of bre and cellulose) by collecting
clones improved for bre content and spinning quality. Most of the
projects aimed to use stinging nettle as an alternative herbaceous
bre and for related-cellulose applications. The phytotherapeutic
use of stinging nettle extracts from both roots and aerial biomass, its
dyeing potential, the food-non-food attitude of the plant, propaga-
tion and eld establishment, organic and non-organic farming, bre
extraction and quality assessment, and the environmental impact
of stinging nettle cultivation have also been investigated (Table 1).
Almost all projects mentioned in Table 1 had only academic part-
ners on board. Not all projects produced a real market for nettle
in Europe, only some short-term pioneer examples, mainly on the
use of nettle bre in blends with cotton or silk (see e.g. the STING
project, and From Nettle to Textile I + II project in Table 1).
Please cite this article in press as: Di Virgilio, N., et al., The potential of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) as a crop with multiple uses. Ind.
Crops Prod. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.012
Main topic covered Main products
Crop yielding capacities, crop density, morphological Potential possible uses of stinging
indices, recommendations to growers. nettle.
Life Cycle Assessment of some nettle products to Textile and phytotherapeutic uses.
ensure complete traceability of some nished nettle
products.
Evaluation of different methods of aqueous extraction Textile and phytotherapeutic uses,
of nettle on natural antioxidants content and the bioactive compounds for biological
effects on aphids, antimicrobial and antifungal farm.
properties (biocides).
Identify and characterize local clones with high bre
content and metabolites for the phytotherapeutic
sector and cosmetics, antimicrobial and antifungal
properties.
Vegetative propagation, crop establishment. Fibre, biomass.
Collection of literature about stinging nettle All potential uses.
Study of textile production and its environmental Textile.
sustainability, economic feasibility thought modelling.
Introduction of natural textile and manufacturing and Textile, dyeing.
feasibility study (economic, technological,
environmental and socio-spatial) of a brand for Made
in Tuscany.
Developing a sustainable natural textile bre with Textile.
non-food crop potential grown on low-grade
agricultural land in the United Kingdom.
Nettle cultivation, bre processing (biotechnological Production of yarns and nettle cloth.
retting followed by mechanical bre processing).
Nettle cultivation (organic/non organic farming), Manufacturing of cloth and other
manufacturing textiles. textiles.
Nettle cultivation (organic/non organic farming),
manufacturing textiles.
Stinging nettle has gained both commercial and scientic inter-
est due to its multipurpose character. The main objective of this
article is to introduce an updated and comprehensive overview of
the studies spread in different sources, as well as to present new
data, with particular attention to end-products, with the aim of
providing base support for the implementation of new projects
and activities for the introduction of this plant into the traditional
rotation farming system.
2. The stinging nettle production chain
2.1. Field establishment
Stinging nettle is highly variable in morphological characteris-
tics and there are probably several subspecies (Bassett et al., 1974;
Hegi, 1981; Tutin et al., 2010). Dreyer et al. (1996) evaluated quan-
titatively and qualitatively 30 clones of bre nettles and the most
used in more recent experimental elds is the clone 13, for its high
bre content (Bacci et al., 2011; Dreyer and Mssing, 2000). Sting-
ing nettle can be propagated both by seed or vegetatively (Luna,
2001). Its seeds are very small and sowing with a drill is possible
but it requires accurate preparation of the soil bed and a sowing
depth less than 1 cm. Young plants weakly compete against weeds
(Ruckenbauer et al., 2002) and because of a high level of heterozy-
gosis of the parents, resulting plants are consequently not homoge-
neous (Bacci et al., 2011; Bredemann and Garber, 1959; Dreyer et al.,
1996; Hartl and Vogl, 2002; Szewczuk and Mazur, 2004; Vetter
et al., 1996; Vogl and Hartl, 2003). Vegetative propagation is the
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Table 2
Component concentrations of in vitro medium for propagation and rooting of sting-
ing nettle.
Component Concentration in the Concentration in the
propagation medium rooting medium
Sucrose 30 30
Agar 5.5 5.5
MS salts 4.3 2.15
Thiamine 0.4 0.4
Myo-inositol 0.1 0.1
BAP 3.08 0 M
IBA 0.5 1.5
MS, Murashige and Skoog salts; BAP, 6-benzyl-aminopurine; IBA, indole-3-butyric
acid.
only way to avoid such problems. Multiplication by rhizomes is pos-
sible (Luna, 2001; Wurl et al., 2002), but the most rational method
is propagation by cuttings (Gatti et al., 2008; Hartl and Vogl, 2002;
Ruckenbauer et al., 2002; Vogl and Hartl, 2003). Experiments in
Italy showed that the German bre nettle clone (clone 13) could
be successfully vegetatively propagated in 1012 days by wetting
the cuttings with indole-3-butyric acid (30 s in a solution of 2 g l1 )
and planting them in a thermostatic box with expanded inert silica
(Gatti et al., 2008). After root development, cuttings can be trans-
planted in the eld using conventional cabbage planting machinery
(Bacci et al., 2009). In the moderate climatic zone, such as Central
Europe, the optimal period for establishing a plantation using veg-
etative cuttings is in early autumn. Stinging nettle cuttings rooted
directly under eld conditions are also possible (Ammarellou et al.,
2012; Jankauskiene and Gruzdeviene, 2010). In vivo propagation
with cuttings permits a large number of plants to be obtained in
a short period, but it requires large space. Moreover, the season
inuences both the rate and the percentage of rooting, even if
the mother plant used is growing in a greenhouse. Smaller space,
and independence from seasonality may be ensured using in vitro
micropropagation, which has been tested with good results by Gatti
et al. (2008), dening optimal explants and propagation medium
(Table 2). Both in vivo and in vitro propagation are suitable for pro-
duction of plants even under organic farming (Gatti et al., 2008).
Optimal establishment density is different when using rhizomes
or cuttings, also depending on the primary nal products (e.g. bre,
medicinal uses). Different densities are reported in the literature
for establishment of cuttings: from 60 cm to 1 m between rows and
50 cm or 60 cm within rows, but the most common distances used
are 6075 cm between rows and 60 cm within rows (Bacci et al.,
2009; Hartl and Vogl, 2002; Jankauskiene and Gruzdeviene, 2013).
Bacci et al. (2009) reported that the plant density (50 cm 50 cm or
50 cm 75 cm) did not modify the mean bre content in stalks and
the yield per square metre. When establish a stinging nettle planta-
tion by planting into furrows, rhizomes of about 1520 cm and at a
depth of 6 to 8 cm, can be placed in rows every 4060 cm and in row
spacing of 75 cm to 1 m (Szewczuk et al., 2002). If stinging nettle
is grown strictly for harvesting leaves, rhizomes may have 35 cm
length and planting can be done at a distance of 30 cm 40 cm or
even of 20 cm 20 cm, which leads to higher leaf yield as early as
in the rst year of cultivation (Szewczuk et al., 2002). Establish-
ing stinging nettle plantation by sowing seeds involves sowing in
rows at approximately 1000 seeds m2 , with a row spacing of 20 cm
(Szewczuk et al., 2002).
In general, stinging nettle has moderate climatic requirements
and can be grown in most European countries (Akgl, 2013), sur-
vives winter with its remarkable underground rhizomes, and thus
acts as a perennial crop. Some authors recognized that high spring
rainfall is necessary (Bacci et al., 2009). In general, stinging nettle
prefers growing on loose soil with organic matter rich in nitrogen
and high phosphate levels for rapid growth (Bisht et al., 2012); it
Please cite this article in press as: Di Virgilio, N., et al., The potential of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) as a crop with multiple uses. Ind.
Crops Prod. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.012
3
requires moist soil. But does not tolerate long ooding. When plants
are grown on rich brown loessial soils, they accumulate a lot of min-
eral salts in their biomass (Szewczuk et al., 2002). Szewczuk et al.
Unit (2002) and Szewczuk and Mazur (2004) showed the correlation
between nitrogen doses and biomass yield and protein content,
g l1 demonstrating that the stinging nettle is a typical nitrophilous
g l1 species. As regards soil pH, plant establishment can be carried out
g l1
within the range of 5.67.6, thriving in neutral pH.
mg l1
g l1
2.2. Crop management
M
Stinging nettle is claimed to be a species with low input require-
ment. However, the biology, crop management and best agronomic
practices of this crop have not been well investigated and only a few
related articles have been published (Dreyer et al., 1996; Dreyer and
Mssing, 2000; Schmidtke et al., 1998). Concerning fertilization,
some authors reported quite high rates of chemical N fertiliza-
tion (e.g. from 160240 kg N ha1 yr1 to 250300 kg N ha1 yr1 ),
which probably may be considered not advisable for environmen-
tal reasons (Vetter et al., 1996; Vogl and Hartl, 2003). High N rates
may reduce bre quality as observed in ax (Cheng, 2004), but this
needs to be veried in the case of nettle. Bacci et al. (2009) reported
high dry stalk yield levels (9.81 to 12.85 Mg ha1 ) by applying
200 kg ha1 of N only before transplanting, while Schmidtke et al.
(1998) and Kohler et al. (1999) reached from 2.66 to 5.52 Mg ha1
dry stalk yield without fertilization. The high yields obtained by
Bacci et al. (2009) are related to plot trials and manual harvest,
and thus probably do not reect reliable yield levels of a large
eld cultivation. Dreyer and Mssing (2000) suggested the addition
of 6080 kg N ha1 , 150180 kg K2 O ha1 and 4050 kg P2 O5 ha1 .
With a low input cultivation approach, legumes and herbs, e.g. fast-
growing common vetch Vicia sativa and crimson clover Trifolium
incarnatum, can be undersown in a 150 cm wide row spacing. The
use of slurry and manure in combination with white clover (Tri-
folium repens) crops has been tested, reaching an average value of
3.8 Mg ha1 stalk dry matter yield for nettle (Vogl and Hartl, 2003).
As an example, the quantity and frequency of the diluted cattle
slurry addition used by Hartl and Vogl (2002) were: 16 kg N ha1
(26 June 1997); 23 kg N ha1 (23 April 1998), 34 kg N ha1 (19 June
1998); 40 kg N ha1 (27 August 1998, after cutting); 40 kg N ha1 (4
June 1999).
Stinging nettle is considered a water-demanding crop, even if
data on water requirement and use efciency are not available in
the literature. The most ideal condition is when the plant receives
water uniformly over the growing period, meaning that in some
cases, support through irrigation may be required (Vogl and Hartl,
2003), which is necessary anyway during the year of establishment.
Bacci et al. (2009) found that with a summer precipitation of 56 mm,
plants were able to survive without irrigation.
Intensive weed management is mainly required during the
implant stage if carried out in April or May (e.g. in Mediterranean
Countries such as Italy) as small plants may be suppressed by
weeds (Bacci et al., 2009). For this reason, some authors suggests
to have root crops and hemp preceding nettle, thanks to their
effectiveness in suppressing weeds and frequent harrowing of the
seedbed. With an organic control approach, it is recommended
to use widely spaced rows (100150 cm with or without under-
feeding) and repeated mechanical weed control (Bredemann and
Garber, 1959). A narrow plant spacing under intensive cultivation
(50 cm 50 cm) promotes early cover and suppression of weeds
(Vogl and Hartl, 2003).
In the literature, there is scant information on serious threats
by diseases or pests, and when described, they only refer to a very
restricted part of the eld. Stinging nettle is highly resistant to
agrophages in general, suffering only localized damage. Nettle can
be potentially attacked by a series of fungi, caterpillars, aphids,
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and spider mites generally observed on wild nettle (Shattock,
2005), causing damage to leaves and stems, and in some cases,
also affecting bre quality. Active ingredients such as bitertenol,
thiophanate-methyl, and sulphur can be recommended for protec-
tion against fungal diseases.
2.3. Harvest
Timing and harvest methods are strictly related to the nal prod-
uct, while it is also possible to plan a strategy for multipurpose
destinations. For bre production, stinging nettle should be har-
vested when the seeds are mature or when the stalks reaching 80%
of the aboveground biomass and from the second year plantation
(Vetter et al., 1996; Vogl and Hartl, 2003) during the rst year,
the stalks are too thin, too ramied and with too many leaves.
Delaying harvest does not affect bre consistency and bres do
not lignify, while harvesting prematurely reduces bre quality as
bres are overly thin. At harvest, stinging nettle can reach up to
210 cm in height, with a base stem diameter of 9 mm (Bacci et al.,
2009). A simple cutting bar can be used for harvest. A mechanical
harvest chain specically developed for stinging nettle is not avail-
able in the market. Since stinging nettle is morphologically similar
to hemp, the same harvesting and post-processing strategies can
be applied for bre production, e.g. retting on eld, mechanical,
chemical and controlled microbiological and enzymatic processing
methods (Vogl and Hartl, 2003). If the main product is leaves, har-
vest can be carried out when plants are younger. If harvested early
in the summer, stalks re-grow in late summer and autumn, but not
enough to produce good quality bre. In this case, one can imagine
cutting plants in autumn for using the biomass for other prod-
uct destinations (Table 3) instead of bre. Bredemann and Garber
(1959) also proposed a sequence of cuttings during one year for sev-
eral end products. They suggested a rst cutting in April for fodder,
medical or other industrial processes such as chlorophyll produc-
tion; a second cutting at the end of June for bre production; and a
third cutting in September for using leaves (Table 3) (Vogl and Hartl,
2003). Such an intensive approach may result in reduced bre qual-
ity and loss of crop vigour, or reduction of the economical duration
of a stinging nettle eld. The duration of stinging nettle crops can
be variable depending on the extent of agronomic intensication.
Even if an average of a four-year plantation is considered as eco-
nomically viable, Vetter et al. (1996) stated that a duration of more
than four years may be possible only when plants are supported by
intensive N fertilization.
Removing stinging nettle requires intensive soil tillage. It is
unknown if stinging nettle causes problems to succeeding crops
(Vogl and Hartl, 2003).
3. Environmental effects of cultivating stinging nettle
Besides the interest related to potential products and uses,
the cultivation of stinging nettle can also result in important
environmental benets. Stinging nettle can easily be propagated
and cultivated with organic farming techniques while maintaining
sustainable yields (Di Virgilio et al., 2008; Gatti et al., 2008; Vogl
and Hartl, 2003). Stinging nettle, as a perennial crop requires
lower inputs in terms of tillage, which maintains soil fertility and
structure. Its cultivation was found to protect the upper layer of
soil against erosion, crusting and drying (Szewczuk et al., 2002).
Furthermore, it promoted biodiversity, functioning as both habitat
and source of food for benecial insects (e.g. water nymphs). It is a
fast growing plant and, thus, it has an advantage over other weeds
in water and nutrient uptake (Bacci et al., 2009; Filipek et al.,
1999), making the use of chemicals against weeds unnecessary.
Leaves are very rich in minerals and when falling down return
an important amount of nutrients to the soil. On the other hand,
Please cite this article in press as: Di Virgilio, N., et al., The potential of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) as a crop with multiple uses. Ind.
Crops Prod. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.012
nettle is a nitrophilous plant and thus able to grow in overfertilized
elds, reducing eutrophication risks, and, as a perennial, it can be
used for phytoremediation (Adler et al., 2008).
The environmental impact related to the establishment of a
stinging nettle production chain is linked to the agronomic inputs
and to the post-harvest processes and uses. Olivieri et al. (2011)
presented the critical steps in stinging nettle cultivation using the
Life Cycle Assessment approach. The input data were from a eld
experiment carried out in the Tuscany Region (Bacci et al., 2009;
Olivieri et al., 2011). On a hectare basis, the results of the impact
assessment [Impact 2002+ impact assessment method (Jolliet et al.,
2003)] showed that fertilization represented 43% of the total envi-
ronmental damage, irrigation 36%, maintenance 10% and transplant
6%. The damage category Human Health was the most affected
(34%), mainly due to the NOx that is emitted in the air, directly
related to N application to crop. The damage on the Depletion of
non-renewable resources or Resource category comprised 29%
because of crop water requirement; on the Climate Change cat-
egory 25%, mainly because of CO2 emitted into the air from fossil
fuels; and on the Ecosystem Quality category 12%, mainly due to
zinc emission into soil. This study considered only the cultivation
process and gave the possibility of identifying which agronomic
practice should be redened in order to reduce overall environmen-
tal impact through process indicators (N fertilization vs. amount of
dry matter or plant height; water irrigation vs. dead plants) use-
ful for the mapping of good agricultural practices in the cultivation
of this plant species. However, if stinging nettle is grown for tex-
tile applications, the main burden comes from the post-harvest
treatment (textile processes). For the closely textile-related pro-
cesses, the large inventory of inputs and outputs database of textile
processes built in the EU COST Action 628 (Nieminen et al., 2007)
could be taken into account, which also includes a list of indicators
to be considered specically for Life Cycle Assessment/Life Cycle
Inventory of textile chains.
4. Products from stinging nettle
The added value of stinging nettle cultivation is related to
several products and applications obtainable from its biomass
(Table 3). Stinging nettle has been used in medicine and the cos-
metic industry (Szewczuk et al., 2002). Hippocrates (460377 BC)
reported 61 remedies using stinging nettle (Upton, 2013). His state-
ment Let food be your medicine has been incorporated into the
traditional concept of food, and stinging nettle is a representative
example. Since it has been used for several purposes by different
folk traditions, some of these uses have been tested scientically
since a new interest on natural products has been discovered
(Baverstock et al., 2010). Verdinelli et al. (2013) conrmed the
antifeedant effects of water extracts of stinging nettle on aphids,
especially of those obtained from leaves that showed the pres-
ence of caffeic acid derivative compounds and ceramides. Early on,
the plant was used in textiles, although to a limited extent, espe-
cially when other brous crops, i.e. ax, cotton and hemp, were
introduced (Bacci et al., 2009; Vogl and Hartl, 2003). Stinging net-
tle bre was previously used mainly for ropes and shing nets.
Currently, stinging nettle is commonly used in farms for feeding
livestock, mainly poultry and pigs (Szewczuk and Mazur, 2004).
In this respect, the stinging nettle is a valuable source of vita-
mins, minerals, phytosterols, and glycosides, as well as of proteins
(Szewczuk and Mazur, 2004).
The research team in the ICCOG project (Identication and char-
acterization of some clones of nettle and Spanish broom for textile
and phytotherapic use, Table 1) found a reliable scheme for using
stinging nettle as a multipurpose crop, with bre as base product.
After harvest, they used fresh and dry leaves for the food sector and,
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Table 3
Potential uses of stinging nettle.

Field of application Use Part of the plant Reference

Textile/bre Ropes and shing nets, tissues and fabrics,
silky fabric, cloth and paper, biocomposites,
paper, natural dye (for yarns, eggs, etc.)
Medicine Anaemia, rheumatism, gout, eczema, diuretic,
hypoglycaemia, hypotension, benign prostatic
hyperplasia, cardiovascular problems, arthritis,
allergic rhinitis, antioxidant, antimicrobial,
antifungal, antiviral, antiulcer
Cosmetics Soaps, shampoo, skin lotions
Food Salads, pies, soups and decocted tea
Forage crop Poultry, cattle, horses and pigs for enhancing
yolk yellowness
Animal housing Bedding
Bioenergy Biochar
Fibre tissues of stems. Root and
leaf extracts for dyes
Leaves, seeds, roots, aqueous
and alcoholic extracts
No details given
Leaves, young plants
Whole plant
Stem, shives as bre
by-product
Bacci et al. (2009, 2011), Bisht et al. (2012),
Bodros and Baley (2008), Di Virgilio et al.
(2008), Gatti et al. (2008), Vogl and Hartl
(2003)
Bisht et al. (2012), Chrubasik et al. (1997),
Guarrera and Savo (2013), Glcin et al. (2004),
Jaric et al. (2007), Leporatti and Corradi (2001),
Orcic et al. (2014), Pinelli et al. (2008), Roschek
et al. (2009), Upton (2013)
Bisht et al. (2012), Szewczuk et al. (2002),
Upton (2013), Vogl and Hartl (2003)
Bisht et al. (2012), Guil-Guerrero et al. (2003),
Orcic et al. (2014)
Loetscher et al. (2013), Szewczuk and Mazur
(2004), Vogl and Hartl (2003)
Harwood and Edom (2012)

together with the resulting water from bre retting, for extraction cut, allowing the action of moisture, bacteria and fungi to break
of added-value bio-active compounds. down the pectins. Due to its dependence on weather conditions,
this technique is somewhat unreliable. Water retting is usually
4.1. Use for bre production preferred: stalks are put in tanks lled with well-water, where a
pectinolytic community develops. In this context, the use of pure
Stinging nettle has a long history as a textile bre substitute bacterial cultures retted bres to a higher yield and quality than
for linen, dating back to mediaeval times, and has also been used natural microora (controlled microbiological retting; Table 4). In
commercially more recently during both World Wars when other general, microbiological retting produces bres of better quality
crops, such as cotton, were scarce. In Scotland, stinging nettle because it reduces both the lignin content and bre diameter, with-
was cultivated for making durable linen cloth from the bre stalk. out any negative effect on important mechanical properties, such
Fibre can also be used for small-scale papermaking (Bisht et al., as tensile strength and elongation (Bacci et al., 2010; Table 4).
2012). Research is underway to develop the use of stinging net- However, the disadvantages of water retting (e.g. the malodour
tle for textiles, indicated by several projects already mentioned from fermentation by anaerobic bacteria, environmental problems
in Table 1. Stinging nettle bre has a cellulose content of around caused by efuent discharge, and the resulting high labour costs)
86% (Bisht et al., 2012), with bre diameter of 1823 m (Hartl still remain. Other methods such as steam explosion, application of
and Vogl, 2002) and elongation of 2.22.5% (Hartl and Vogl, 2002), enzyme formulations along with the chelator EDTA on decorticated
comparable to those of ax and hemp, and it is far stronger bres without previous water retting have been studied (Bacci et al.,
than both ax and cotton, (3035 cN tex1 vs. 1520 cN tex1 and 2011, 2010; Dreyer and Mssing, 2000; Dreyer et al., 2002). Hemp
15.50 cN tex1 , respectively; Hartl and Vogl, 2002), while being and ax processing methods could be adapted to stinging nettle
comparable with ramie bre (34 cN tex1 ; Angelini et al., 2000;
Goda et al., 2006).
As in other bast plants, stinging nettle bres are located between
the outer bark (epidermis) and the central woody core, arranged
in bundles held together with gummy substances called pectins
(Fig. 1). Stinging nettle bre has good absorbent characteristics,
good anti-static, thermoregulatory and transpiration character-
istics, non-lignied cell wall, soft and resistant bres with low
specic weight (Guo et al., 2005). For some applications, such as
replacement for glass or carbon bres, as composite in the auto-
motive industry, or in the replacement of asbestos bres, stinging
nettle bres are superior to ax bre (Guo et al., 2005).
In eld trials conducted in Austria, bre yields ranged from 335
to 411 kg ha1 in the second year and from 743 to 1016 kg ha1 in
the third year. The upper stalk of stinging nettle has a higher per-
centage of bre with respect to the woody core, with a maximum
of 16% (Hartl and Vogl, 2002; Vogl and Hartl, 2003). A trial carried
out in Tuscany showed a bre content of 13% in the second year
at 205 day of the year (Bacci et al., 2009). Values in the bibliog-
raphy are very variable and are related to the clone, plant density
(increasing plant density increases bre yield), and harvesting time,
while the effect of N fertilization on bre content and quality is still
controversial.
Fibre extraction from plant stems in the case of stinging nettle
is challenging. Traditionally, two methods of retting are used, dew
and water retting (Harwood and Edom, 2012). Dew retting consists Fig. 1. Cross section of stinging nettle stem (original magnication, 5). Fixation,
of laying stinging nettle stems on the ground after they have been parafn and methacrylate resin embedding.

Please cite this article in press as: Di Virgilio, N., et al., The potential of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) as a crop with multiple uses. Ind.
Crops Prod. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.012
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Table 4
Chemical composition (cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin), morphological (diameter and length) and mechanical (tensile strength and elongation) properties of nettle bres
extracted with different methods: decortication (D), chemical retting (CR), water retting (WR), microbiological retting (MR), enzymatic treatment (ET), chelating agents (CA)
(modied from Bacci et al., 2011).
Treatment D CR WR WR + D
Cellulose (%) 65 81 78 85
Hemicellulose (%) 5 6 9 6
Lignin (%) 3 2 3 4
Diameter (m) 2347 2337 3741 2943
Length (mm) 2558 3862 4149 3555
Tensile strength (cN tex1 ) 70182 3881 894 2371
Elongation (%) 23 47 24 12
for bre production, paying attention to the fact that stinging net-
tle stalks are prone to over-retting (Bacci et al., 2010; Dreyer and
Mssing, 2000). The above mentioned methods could be mixed and,
depending on their sequence and the degree of retting, the bre
quality could be dened (Bacci et al., 2011; Table 4).
An adequate degree of separation between bres and shives was
obtained by mechanical scutching applied on stalks stored for one
year, probably resulting from natural retting processes occurring
during the storage (Bacci et al., 2011). The resulting tensile modu-
lus depended directly on environmental relative humidity and on
the natural bacteria and fungi formed (Davies and Bruce, 1998).
For all these characteristics, stinging nettle is currently used in the
production of a silky fabric known as ramic. Rope, paper and com-
posites are also produced from the bre of this plant (Bisht et al.,
2012). The waste material produced during bre extraction should
not be disregarded. A signicant amount of shive is produced as a
by-product of decortication which has the potential to be utilized
as horse bedding or biochar. This coarse material could also open a
market for cattle and poultry bedding (Harwood and Edom, 2012).
4.2. Use of stinging nettle in the food and feed sector
Stinging nettle has been used for centuries as a leafy veg-
etable for salads, pies, soups and decocted tea (Bisht et al., 2012;
Guil-Guerrero et al., 2003; Orcic et al., 2014). U. dioica L. has
a high nutritive value, containing several benecial compounds
such as: vitamins A, D and C, proteins, minerals calcium, iron,
potassium, manganese, choline, amines, anti-oxidant chlorophyll,
and 5-hydroxytryptophan (Bisht et al., 2012; Upton, 2013). The
carotenoids are another important nutrient group present in sting-
ing nettle. Nine carotenoids were identied in the leaves, with
the major one being -carotene; the total amount of carotenoids
from fresh leaves has been reported as 29.6 mg 1001 g dry weight
(Guil-Guerrero et al., 2003; Upton, 2013). Furthermore, stinging
nettle contains essential fatty acids which are important sources
of energy for humans and animals because, when metabolized,
they yield large quantities of ATP. As found by Rafajlovska et al.
(2001), Stinging nettle plant extracts contained 6.8% palmitic, 1.1%
stearic, 3.6% oleic, 20.2% linoleic, and 12.4% linolenic acid, respec-
tively. According to Guil-Guerrero et al. (2003), young leaves have
higher nutritional value than seeds containing higher quantities
of n-3 fatty acids and carotenoids. Since stinging nettle grows in
the wild and is palatable to animals, it could be a part of their
food, providing them all aforementioned nutrients. In periods of
forage shortage, e.g. during the two World Wars, stinging nettle
was used fresh, dried, milled or as silage for feeding poultry, cattle,
horses and pigs (Vogl and Hartl, 2003). The use of stinging nettle
as a forage crop has been investigated with promising results. As
reported by (Bisht et al., 2012), it is possible to increase vitamin
intake by 6070% and protein intake by 1520% by adding sting-
ing nettle into poultry feed, while the green feed requirements can
Please cite this article in press as: Di Virgilio, N., et al., The potential of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) as a crop with multiple uses. Ind.
Crops Prod. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.012
D + WR MR D + MR ET ET + CA
83 7884 7585 8082 8183
13 910 57 1112 1112
2 25 34 23 23
4046 2431 1640 3040 2535
3858 4155 3360 4252 4251
4183 3365 798 2172 3276
13 24 02 36 36
be reduced by 30%. Moreover, stinging nettle supplementation of
layer diets resulted in enhancing yolk yellowness and, therefore,
this plant species could be regarded as a suitable natural and eco-
nomic option for yellow saturation of the egg yolk, without risking
unfavourable side-effects (Loetscher et al., 2013). When stinging
nettles replaced ryegrass silage in the diet of dairy cows, rumen
health was promoted by stabilizing the rumen environment with
respect to pH, even though rumination was reduced; however, milk
production was not affected (Humphries and Reynolds, 2010).
4.3. Use of stinging nettle in the cosmetic/pharmaceutical sector
Since ancient times, stinging nettle (both leaf and root) has been
used for treating a wide range of ailments, mainly related to its
urtication property (Alford, 2008). The stinging action of the hairs
in leaves is due to the compounds histamine, serotonin, acetyl-
choline and leukotriene (Czarnetzki et al., 1990; Upton, 2013).
Recent studies have justied the numerous medicinal uses of sting-
ing nettle and have attributed its biological activity to distinctive
constituents. In fact, the presence of avonoids (Farag et al., 2013;
Upton, 2013), phenylpropanoids (Bucar et al., 2006; Farag et al.,
2013; Pinelli et al., 2008), fatty acids (Guil-Guerrero et al., 2003;
Rafajlovska et al., 2001) and carotenoids (Guil-Guerrero et al.,
2003; Upton, 2013) has been demonstrated in leaves and roots,
as well in water extracts of aerial plant parts. Some studies applied
mutagenesis with gamma irradiation to in vitro stinging nettle cul-
tures, increasing their antioxidant content. Mutants exhibited great
differences in phenolic content: these increased mainly in two
principal classes, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and avonoids,
ranging from 0.7 to 8.4 mg g1 of fresh weight (data not published).
The aqueous and alcoholic extracts have been used for hundreds
of years for the treatment of anaemia (Leporatti and Corradi, 2001;
Pinelli et al., 2008), rheumatism (Chrubasik et al., 1997; Jaric et al.,
2007), gout and eczema (Orcic et al., 2014; Pinelli et al., 2008), and
treatment of urinary, bladder and kidney problems (Guarrera and
Savo, 2013; Orcic et al., 2014). Benecial effects have also been
reported on inammation, hypoglycaemia, hypotension, benign
prostatic hyperplasia, cardiovascular problems, arthritis, and aller-
gic rhinitis (Bisht et al., 2012; Guarrera and Savo, 2013; Pinelli
et al., 2008; Roschek et al., 2009; Upton, 2013). Furthermore, sting-
ing nettle exhibits antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral,
and antiulcer activity (Glcin et al., 2004; Orcic et al., 2014; Upton,
2013).
The use of stinging nettle in the cosmetic sector is well known.
Several commercial products are currently present in the market,
e.g. soaps, shampoo to improve the condition of hair and to control
dandruff, and lotions to clean skin. The main constituents giving
stinging nettle its cosmetic attributes are the anti-oxidant chloro-
phyll; proteins; vitamins A, D and C; the minerals calcium and
potassium; iron; choline; amines; and 5-hydroxytryptophan (Bisht
et al., 2012; Upton, 2013; Vogl and Hartl, 2003).
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5. Critical aspects and barriers to scaling-up stinging nettle
production
As shown in the previous section, stinging nettle is a species
able to provide several products, but is still of marginal impor-
tance today, in particular on the industrial side. Even currently,
when interest in manmade and other natural bres are increas-
ing, the products made from stinging nettle bres are marketable
mainly due to curiosity rather than being a large-scale industrial
brand. There is a great demand by the Italian textile industry, but
no raw material for the spinning industry is available at present.
Imports from China fall far from the quality requirements of the
European textile manufacturers because of the huge amounts of
pesticides used for cultivation and due to issues of labour exploita-
tion (Ruckenbauer, 2004). Several reasons may explain the lack
of large-scale industrial processes for stinging nettle. In the eld
phase, establishment costs are currently high when compared with
the corresponding cost of other bast bre crops. Although vegeta-
tive propagation with cuttings is simple, the process is very labour
intensive, particularly in the case of large-scale production. Seed
propagation should form the primary basis for further research
in order to reduce establishment costs. For large-scale production,
mechanization is a basic requirement, in particular for harvest. The
possibility of using hemp or ax mechanization chains for stinging
nettle has not yet been well investigated, especially important if
multipurpose exploitation of biomass is demanded. Although sting-
ing nettle plants produce good bre, the commercial extraction of
bres ne enough for high quality manufacture has not yet been
achieved. Enzymatic retting has been attempted but further devel-
opment is needed. When enzyme is used in too high concentrations
or for too long, the cellulose begins to dissolve and the bre strength
is lowered. Important factors to be considered in this process are
therefore the enzyme concentration, temperature, pH value and
duration of treatment. Retting in water has proven successful but
is not always practical (Bacci et al., 2011; Dreyer and Mssing, 2000;
Vogl and Hartl, 2003).
6. Conclusion
Stinging nettle could represent a valuable biomass source for
several natural products, with most promising application in the
food/feed, medicinal, cosmetic and bre sectors. The presence of
several active compounds in stinging nettle has been demon-
strated, giving scientic justication to traditional folk uses of the
plant. If technical problems related to harvest mechanization, opti-
mal crop nutrient and water requirements, and post-processing
(e.g. extraction, spinning and weaving for bre) are solved, the
stinging nettle has great potential as a widely distributed biomass
source for increasing the income of rural communities. Slope and
marginal areas could be exploited with stinging nettle cultiva-
tion, focusing on alternative natural products for food, medicine
and cosmetics. On the other hand, more specialized and mecha-
nized agricultural areas may use more intensive cultivation for bre
production for both long bre and pulping, which can represent
a useful alternative or complementary products to other natural
bres such as hemp, linen and cotton. The denition of a produc-
tion chain able to exploit as much as possible all the biomass is a
prerequisite for increasing income and boosting farmer adoption.
There is a lack of comparative studies on stinging nettle cultivation
among different areas and climatic zones since most research and
results reported so far was of a local character.
This review shows that valuable uses are possible and that
stinging nettle represents feasible new environmentally and eco-
nomically sustainable opportunities for rural areas, which should
be the stimulus to boost further studies on the domestication of
this plant.
Please cite this article in press as: Di Virgilio, N., et al., The potential of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) as a crop with multiple uses. Ind.
Crops Prod. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.012
7
Acknowledgements
Several data were the result of work carried out in the frame-
works of the LRCAF programme Biopotential and Quality of Plants
for Multifunctional Use.
The authors dedicate this article to their colleague Dr. Laura
Bacci (CNR-IBIMET), who gave much of her professional efforts
and passion to stinging nettle research, and for which all of us are
grateful to her.
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