Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
In 1992, more than 7.2 million carats of fashioned the major role that gem corundums play in the
gem corundum were imported into the United jewelry industry.
States; of this amount, about 2.6 million carats The vast majority of gem coruiiduins on the
were ruby and 4.6 million carats were sapphire world market today, particularly blue and fancy
(Austin, 1993).The total dollar value was almost sapphires, c o m e from secondary deposits in
US$153 million, second only to emerald ($213 mil- Southeast Asia and Australia (figure 1). Although
lion) for fine colored stones. These figures reflect some of these deposits are associated with marbles,
such as those in Burma (Mogok and Mong Hsu)
and northern Vietnam, most are correlated with
the occurrence of alkali basalt, a relatively uncom-
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
mon type of volcanic rock. According to Olliver
Dr. Levinson is professor emeritus, and Dr. Cook is professor, in
the Department of Geology and Geophysics, Tfte University of and Townsend (1993),until 1988 Australia sup-
Calgary, Alberta, Canada. plied up to 70% by volume of the world's sapphires
Acknowledgments: This research was partially supported by the (mainly small dark stones); it now supplies about
Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. 25%-30%, owing to a large increase in production
The authors thank P. J, Darragh, E. D. Ghent, J. F. Guo, E. A.
Jobbins, F. L. Sutherland,J. W. Nicholls, and D. R. M.Paftison
from Thailand. In both of these countries, the sap-
for discussions and comments on the manuscript. phires are recovered primarily from secondary
Gems &Gemology, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 253-262 deposits derived from alkali basalts. Yet while
0 7995 GemologicalInstitute of America much has been published on marble-type deposits
(again, as in Mogoli) and those associated with peg-
and certain minerals of the feldspathoid group such rifting (i.e.,crustal fractures)-primarily along mid-
as nepheline, (Na,K)AlSi04,in which some of the ocean ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, at
characteristic alkali elements (Na, K) are found. convergent plate boundaries such as are common
Undersaturated minerals are those that would, along western South America and lapan, and above
under suitable conditions, react with free silica localized "hot spots" within the middle of plates
(quartz)if placed in contact with it to form more- such as Hawaii. Alkali basalts are found in all the
silica-rich minerals. For example, there would be above geologic environments.
no nepheline in contact with quartz because this To understand figure 2, it is essential to recog-
feldspathoid would react with quartz to form nize that most rock types are composed of more
albite. Consequently, the presence of undersaturat- than one mineral, and each mineral, or combina-
ed minerals such as nepheline and olivine together tion of minerals, has a specific melting tempera-
identifies the basalt as alkali. Note that tholeiite ture that is influenced by pressure, the amount of
and alkali basalts are always found in separate and water present, and other factors. The process of
distinct flows. 'partial melting," in which minerals with the low-
est n~eltingpoints within a rock melt first as the
ORIGIN OF BASALTS temperature rises, allows the generation of various
Basaltic eruptions are closely linked with plate tec- types of magmas (such as rhyolite, andesite, and
tonics, the generally accepted theory that the tholeiite] from some minerals; other minerals with
Earth's surface is divided into about a dozen large, higher melting points (i.e., that are still solid) do
thick (usually about 100 km) plates that are mov- not form magmas until they reach greater depths
ing very slowly (about 2.5 cm-1 inch-per year), with higher temperatures (as is the case with alkali
as illustrated in figure 2. Intense geologic activity, basalts). By virtue of their greater buoyancy in liq-
such as earthquakes and volcanism, occurs along uid form, the early-formed magnlas tend to rise
the plate boundaries, and the process appears to and become concentrated in locations closer to, or
'lave been in operation for most of geologic time. on, the surface where they eventually solidify. In a
rypically, molten basalt (magma) rises from the subduction zone (a long, narrow belt in which one
Earth's mantle to the surface along zones of major plate descends beneath another), it is unlikely that
These hydrated aluminum oxides are typical of transported to the surface in alkali basalts is illus-
extensive laterite and bauxite terranes such as are trated in figure 5.
found today in large areas of India, Africa, South
1. Basalt magmas typically migrate to the surface
America, Australia, and other tropical regions. The
rapidly (sometimes explosively], in a matter of
pressure and temperature conditions for the brealz-
hours to days. During this short time period,
down of gibbsite, diaspore, and boehmite also indi-
alkali basalt magmas must: (a) incorporate the
cate that corundum might form from these miner-
corundum-bearing xenoliths (figure6),and then
als deep in the crust by mechanisms analogous to
(b)disintegrate and dissolve the xenoliths, thus
those discussed above for muscovite, except at
releasing the corundum and other refractory
depths as shallow as 24 km (see figure 4). Gibbsite,
minerals (e.g., zircon) into the magma as
diaspore, and boehmite were suggested as possible
xenocrysts. In most cases, there is at least some
starting materials for the formation of gem corun-
resorption of the corundum, as evidenced by
dum, particularly ruby, in regional metamorphic
characteristic rounding, etching, and corrosion
environments such as at Mogok (Kaminerling et
of the surface. At the time it travels upward,
al., 1994).Even though these latter deposits are in
the alkali basalt magma is at a temperature of
marbles rather than in alkali basalts, and the meth-
1100'-13OO0C.
ods by which they reached the Earth's surface are
distinctly different, the fundamental metamorphic 2. The depths at which alkali basalts form (> 50
reactions by which corundum is formed from alu- km) require that-to reach the surface-they
minum-rich minerals [see equation 2) are still ap- must pass through the uppermost mantle and
plicable, deep part of the Earth's continental crust,
where corundum crystals may have formed.
Stage 2: Transport of Corundum to the Surface. This contrasts with other extrusives (such as
The second stage of the process requires a method rhyolite and andesite), which typically form at
to bring the corundunl crystals to the surface. Key depths of only 10-25 kin; this is too shallow to
factors in this process are listed below, and the encounter any significant number of corun-
entire process by which corundum forms and is dum crystals, which would have formed in the
,.?
.i-.
.-.-
-7 ,
I----
Figure 5. There are several main stages in the formation of corundums and their transport to the surface in
alkali basalt: (1) subduction of appropriate starting materials (e.g., aluminum-rich sediments, laterites, baux-
ites; see figure 2); (2)formation of corundum in appropriate rocks (e.g.,gneiss; see figure 6 ) deep in the crust by
means of znetamorphisn~of the starting materials (see figure 4);(3) formation of alkali basalt in the upper man-
tle by partial melting; (4)movement of allzali basalt upward; (5) inclusion of corundum-bearingxenoliths in
alkali basalts (some alkali basalt remains in the mantle); (6) disintegration and resorption of xenoliil~s,the
release of corundum crystals (xenocrysts),and continued transport upward; and (7) volcanic eruption brings
corundum crystals to the surface (seefigure 3).
Earth's lower continental crust. (Under some minuin-rich rocks may have been carried to depth
conditions of elevated temperatures in the by subduction and remained part of the lower crust
lower continental crust, it might be possible until an alkali basalt magma, or other heat source
for the geotherm [temperature versus depth in the general region, provided sufficient heat to
line] of figure 4 to intersect the corundum sta- effect conversion of some minerals to corundum.
bility field a t shallower depths such that In the case of the allzali basalt magma, the same
corundum could be formed at depths appropri- heat source could subsequently provide a mecha-
ate for transportation by tholeiite or andesite nism to bring the corundum to the surface.
magmas. However, this would likely be rare.)
These various conditions are met, for example, ALTERNATIVE THEORIES FOR ORIGIN
in Southeast Asia (figure 7). Alkali basalts in Thai- OF CORUNDUM IN ALKALI BASALT
land, Can~bodia,and Vietnam migrated through Only a few theories to explain the occurrence of
thick, fractured continental crust (Polachan et al., gem corundum in allzali basalt have been proposed.
1991) and occasionally carry corundum xenocrysts Hughes (1990) briefly mentioned three: Two sug-
to the surface. Even in this area, however, corun- gested that the corundum crystals were xenocrysts
dum-bearing allzali basalts are not common. of unknown deep origin, whereas the third suggest-
We emphasize that the formation of alkali ed that the corundun~formed, as a primary miner-
basalt magma may occur long after, and may even al, in a basaltic magma generated a t depths of
be unrelated to, the subduction that carried the 65-95 kin by partial melting of mantle material.
a l u m i n u m - r i c h rocks t o depth. In eastern Because so few corundum crystals have been
Australia, for example, the sapphire-bearing allzali observed in situ in (allzali) basalts in Australia,
basalts are primarily younger than 55 million Pecover (1987)suggested that (allzali) basalt may
years, and subduction ceased about 200 million not be the rock from which corundum is released,
years ago (Veevers et al., 1991).In this region, alu- at least in that country. Rather, he suggested that
.
Direction of
Plate Motion if Direction of
Fault Motion
Subduction Zone
Spreading
Ridge
minum-rich minerals, to be a potential starting
material for corundum formation. Not only are'
large areas of the world covered with laterites
today, but it is also likely that equally large areas
Figure 7 In this generalized tectonic map of composed of laterite and similar materials (or
Southeast Asia, alkali hasalts (yellow aiea) are weathered products derived from this material)
located in Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. have been subducted into the crust and mantle in
They occur in old (and probably thick) continental the geologic past.
crust in a region that is presently u~~deigoing
active faulting associated with the subdiiction of CONCLUSIONS
the Indian Ocean plate beneath the Eurasian Although corundunl is well known to gemologists,
plate. A cross-section of the Earth through the
crust and upper mantle (line A-B) m ~ g h approxi-
t it is relatively rare compared to other minerals pri-
mate the cross-section shown 111 figure 2. The marily because its formation requires an environ-
coiwnd~zin-beamalkali basalts are located north ment that has a low silica (SiOJ content. Yet silica
of line A-B, where the cmst may be thicker and is one of the most abundant constituents of the
where fractuies pioduce zones of weakness Earth. The model presented in this article relates
through which the alkali basalt magmas rise to the formation of gem corundum deposits to subduc-
the surface. tion zones that carry a1uminun1-rich materials (i.e.,
quartz-free aluminous sediments, laterites or baux-
ites), which are naturally silica-depleted, below con-
Adding support to our proposed metamorphic tinental areas. At depths of about 25-50 kin, these
model is the report by Koivula and Flyer (1987)on materials are transformed by metamorphic process-
the discovery of an inclusion of sapphirine (not sap- es into corundum-bearing mineral assemblages.
phire), (Mg,Al)4(Al,Si)30,0,in a ruby from Bo Rai, These assemblages are later brought to the surface
Thailand (from alluvial deposits associated with by alkali basalt magmas, which form below 50 kin.
alkali basalts). Sapphirine has also been reported This metamorphic model is simpler than some pre-
associated with ruby and sapphire in one locality vious magmatic models which, although they are
in eastern Australia (Sutherland, 1994). Sapphirine theoretically possible and might well occur on a
REFERENCES
Austin G.T. (19931 Gemsiones. Annual Report, 1992, Bureau of Magmatic Processes: Pl~ysicocherniccilPrinciple's, Special
Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. Publication No. 1, T h e Geoche~nicalSociety, Univcrsity
Coenraads R.R., Sutherland F.L., Kinny P.D. (1990)The origin of Park, PA, pp. 165-181.
sapphires: U-Pb dating of zircon inclusions sheds new light. Mason B. (1966)Pril~ciplesof Gwchemis~ry,3rd ed. John Wilcy
Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 54, Part 1, pp. 113-122. & Sons, Ncw York.
Coenraads R.R. (1992)Sapphires and rubies associated with vol- Myscn B.O. (1987)Maginatic silicate melts: Relations between
canic provinces: Inclusions and surface features shed light bulk composition, structure and properties. I11 B. 0. Mysen,
011 their origin. A~isiralianGemmologist, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. Ed., Magmatic Processes: Physicocl~emicalPrii~ciples,
70-78, 90. Special Publication No. 1, T h e Geochemical Society,
Coldhain T . ( 1 9 8 5 ) Sapphires from Australia. G e m s d University Park, PA, pp. 375-399.
Gemology, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 130-146. Olliver J.G., Townscnd 1.J. (19931 Gemstones in Australia.
Evans B.W. (1965)Application of a reaction-rate method to the Australian Gemstone Industry Council, Sydncy, Australia.
breakdown equilibria of muscovite and ~niiscoviteplus Pccover S.R. (1987) Ncw concepts on the origin of sapphire in
quartz. American Journal of Science, Vol. 263, No. 8, pp. northeastern New South Wales. Australian G e n ~ n ~ o l o g i s ~ ,
647467. Vol. 16, No. 6, 11. 221.
Cuo J.F., Griffin W.L., O'Reilly S.Y. (19941 A cobalt-rich spinel Perchuk L.L. (19871Studies of volcanic series related to the ori-
inclusion in a sapphire from Bo Ploi, T h a i l a n d . gin of some marginal sea floors. In B. 0 . Mysen, Ed.,
Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 247-258. Mcigmatic Processes: l~l~ysicochcmical Principles, Special
Guo J.F., O'Reilly, S.Y., Griffin, W.L. (1992a)Origin of sapphire Publication No. 1, The Geochemical Society, Univcrsity
in eastern Australian basalts: Inferred from inclusion stud- Park, PA, pp. 209-230.
ies. Geological Society of Australia Abstracts Number 32, Philpotts A.R. (1990) Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic
Geological Society of Australia, Sydney, pp. 219-220. Petrology. Prcntice Hall, Englcwood Cliffs, NJ.
G u o J., Wang F., Yakounielos G. (1992b) Sapphires from Polachan S., Praclidtan S., Tongtaow C., Janmaha S., bitarawijitr
Changlc in Shanclong Province, China. Gems el Gemology, K., Sangsuwan C. (19911 Development of Cciiozoic basins in
Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 255-260. Thailand. Marine and Petroleum Geology, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp.
Harley S.L. (19891The origins of granulites: A metamorphic per- 84-97.
spective. Geological Magazine, Vol. 126, No. 3, pp. 215-247. Righter I<., Carmichael I.S.E. (19931 Mega-xcnocrysts in alkali
Hughes R.W. (19901 Corundum. Buttcrworth-Heineinann, olivine basalts: Fragments of disrupted mantle assemblagcs.
London. American Mineralogist, Vol. 78, Nos. 11 and 12, pp.
Kanin~erlingR.C., Scarratt K., Bosshart G., Jobbins LA., Kane 1230-1245.
R.E., Gubelin E.J., Levinson A.A. (1994) Myanmar and its Schulze D.J. (1987) Megacrysts from alkalic volcanic rocks. In
gems-an update. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. P. H.Nixon, Ed., Mantle Xenoliths, John Wiley & Sons,
340. New York, pp. 4 3 3 4 5 1.
Keller P.C. (1982)The Chanthaburi-Trat gem field, Thailand. Sutherland F.L. (19941 Ruby-sapphire-sapphirine sources, east
Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 186-1 96. Australian basalt fields (abstract].In Diamonds, Sapphires,
Keller AS., Keller P.C. (1986)The sapphires of Mingxi, Fujian and Tertiary Volcanics Symposium, Earth Sciences
Province, China. Gems el) Gemology, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. Foundation, University of Sydncy, Sydney, Australia,
4145. December 2.
Keller P.C., Koivula J.I., Jara G. (1985) Sapphire from the U.S. Bureau of Mines (1980) Mineral Facts a n d Problems,
Mercaderes-Rio Mayo area, Cauca, Colonibia. Gems Bulletin 671. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington,
Gemology, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 20-25. DC.
Kirkley M.B., Gurney J.J.,Levinson A.A. (1991)Age, origin, and Veevers J. J., Powell C. M., Roots S. R. (1991)Review of seafloor
emplacement of diamonds: Scientific advances in the last spreading around Australia. I. Synthesis of the patterns of
decade. Gems el) Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 2-25. spreading. Australian lournal of Eaith Sciences, Vol. 38, No.
Koivula, J.I., Fryer, C.W. (19871 Sapphirine (not sapphire] in a 4, pp. 373-389
ruby from Bo Rai, Thailand. lownal of Gemolo'qy, Vol., 20, Wane F. (1988)The sapphires of Penglai, Hainan Island, China.
No. 6, pp. 369470. Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 155-1 60.
K~~sliiro I. (1987)A petrological model of the mantle wedge and Williams H., Turner F.J., Gilbert C.M. (1982) PetroKMphy, 2nd
lower crust in the Japanese island arcs. In B. 0. Myscn, Ed., eel. W. H.Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA.