BASICS OF SURVEYING

OVERVIEW

What do surveyors do?
Take & analyze measurements.
What do surveyors measure?
Distance, angles and positions.
What distances do surveyors measure?
Horizontal distances, slope distances & vertical
distances.
What angles do surveyors measure?
Angles in the horizontal & vertical planes.
 OVERVIEW

What positions do surveyors measure?
The 2D positions of points on/near the surface of the
earth referenced to a defined Cartesian grid/to a
geographic grid (latitude and longitude) & elevation
dimensions referenced to mean sea level (MSL)
The 3D positions of points on/near the earths surface
referenced to a defined ellipsoidal model of the earth
called the Geodetic Reference System (GRS80).
SURVEYING DEFINED

Surveying: the art & science of measuring distances,
angles, and positions, on/near the surface of the
earth.
Art: the ability of determining the most efficient
methods needed to obtain optimal results over a
wide variety of surveying problems.
Science: Rigorous mathematical techniques are used
to analyze & adjust the field survey data (which
determines the accuracy & reliability of the survey)
 TYPES OF SURVEY
Types of Surveying
Plane Surveying Explanation
The earths surface is considered to be a plane for all X
and Y dimensions.
All Z dimensions (height) are referenced to the earths
mean surface (MSL) or to the surface of the earths
reference ellipsoid (GRS80).
Most engineering & property surveys are classed as plane
surveys.
Geodetic The earths surface is considered to be an ellipsoid of
Surveying revolution for X and Y dimensions.
The Z dimensions (height) can be referenced to GRS80 or
converted to refer to MSL.
Very precise surveys of great magnitude (national
boundaries & control networks); data gathering, control &
layout which utilize satellite positioning.
Must be converted mathematically to local coordinate
grids & to MSL elevations for levelling & other local
surveying projects.
CLASSES OF SURVEYS

Control Surveys:
Used to reference both preliminary & layout surveys.
Horizontal control can be arbitrarily placed, but usually tied
directly to property lines, roadway centrelines, or
coordinated control stations.
Vertical control is often a series of benchmarks, permanent
points whose elevations above a datum (e.g. MSL) have
been carefully determined.
It is an acceptable practice to take more care in control
surveys with respect to precision and accuracy.
Great care is also taken to ensure that the control used for a
preliminary survey can be readily re-established at a later
date.
CLASSES OF SURVEYS

Preliminary Surveys (Data Gathering):
Gather geospatial data (distances, positions, and
angles) to locate physical features (e.g. trees & roads)
so that the data can be plotted to scale on a map/plan.
Include the determination of differences in elevation
so that elevations & contours may also be plotted.
CLASSES OF SURVEYS

Layout Surveys:
Marking on the ground (using nails, spikes etc.) the
features shown on a design plan.
Can be for boundary lines (land division surveying),
or for construction survey.
Besides marking the proposed horizontal location (X
and Y coordinates) of the designed feature, the
proposed elevations will also be given, referenced to
MSL.
DEFINITIONS
Topographical
Surveys

Hydrographic
Construction Surveys
Surveys

Aerial
Surveys Route
Surveys
Surveys

Property
Final (as-built) Surveys
Surveys
 SURVEYING
INSTRUMENTATION

Satellite positioning receiver:
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a term used
worldwide to describe the various satellite positioning
systems now in use, or in various stages of implementation
& planning.
Global Positioning System (GPS): used to describe the U.S.
NAVSTAR positioning system (fully operational)
GLONASS: describes the Russian satellite positioning
system (fully operational)
Galileo: describes the European Union satellite positioning
system (soon to be implemented)
Beidou (or Compass): describes the Republic of Chinas
regional satellite system rapidly expanded to a global
positioning system.
 SURVEYING
INSTRUMENTATION

Satellite positioning receiver:
A satellite positioning receiver captures signals
transmitted by four or more positioning satellites to
determine position coordinates (northing, easting, and
elevation) of a survey station.
Some satellite positioning receivers are already
programmed to capture signals from GPS, GLONASS
and soon-to-be-implemented Galileo.

 SURVEYING
INSTRUMENTATION

Total Station:
Measure horizontal and vertical angles, as well as
horizontal and vertical distances.
All data can be captured into attached (cable/wireless)
electronic field book or into onboard storage as the data
are received.
Theodolite (transits):
Are instruments designed for use in measuring
horizontal a& vertical angles and for establishing
linear and curved alignments in the field.
Evolved from an open-faced, vernier-equipped
optical electronic theodolites.
 SURVEYING
INSTRUMENTATION

Level & Rod:
Used to determine elevations in a wide variety of
surveying, mapping, and engineering applications.
Steel Tapes:
Are relatively precise measuring instruments, and are
used mostly for short measurements in both
preliminary and layout surveys.
Other Instruments:
Remote-sensing techniques; panchromatic,
multispectral scanning, radar and LiDAR imaging
based on both airborne and satellite platforms.

SURVEY GEOGRAPHIC
REFERENCE

The earths reference system is composed of the
surface divisions denoted by geographic lines of
latitude and longitude.
Latitude:
Lines run east/west & are parallel to the equator;
formed by projecting the latitude angle out from the
centre of the earth to its surface.
Angle is measured (90 maximum) at the earths centre,
north or south from the equatorial plane.
SURVEY GEOGRAPHIC
REFERENCE

Longitude:
Lines (meridians) run north/south & converging at
the poles; formed by projecting the longitude angle
out to the earths surface.
Angle is measured (180 maximum) at the earths
centre, east or west from the plane of 0 longitude
(arbitrarily placed through Greenwich, England).
This system of geographic coordinates is used in
navigation and geodesy, but in plane surveying,
coordinate grid systems/original township fabric is
used for referencing.

 DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT

Distance between two points can be horizontal, slope
or vertical.
Recorded in feet (foot units) or meters (SI units).
Horizontal & slope distances can be measured with a
fibreglass /steel tape /with an electronic distance
measuring device.
Vertical distances can be measured with a tape, as in
construction work, with a surveyors level and
levelling rod/total stations.


LOCATION METHODS
effort is spent in
A great deal of surveying
measuring points of interest relative to some
reference line so that these points may be shown
later in a scaled plan.
Among common location techniques are:
Right-angle offset tie (Rectangular tie)
Angle-distance tie (Polar tie)
Intersection tie
 ACCURACY AND
PRECISION

Accuracy: the relationship between the value of a
measurement and the true value of the dimension
being measured.
Precision: the refinement of the measuring process &
the ability to repeat the same measurement with
consistently small variations in measurements.

 ACCURACY RATIO

Accuracy Ratio: the ratio of error of closure to the
distance measured.
The error of closure: the difference between the
measured location and the theoretically correct
location.
To illustrate, a distance was measured and found to
be 250.56 m. The distance was previously known to
be 250.50 m. The error is 0.06 m in a distance of
250.50 m.
Accuracy ratio = 0.06/250.50
= 1/4,175 1/4,200.
 ERRORS & MISTAKES

For the purpose of calculating errors, the true value for a
distance is taken as the mean value for a series of
repeated measurements.
Systematic errors: those errors whose magnitude and
algebraic sign can be determined.
Random errors: are associated with the skills and
vigilance of the surveyor.
Mistakes: blunders made by survey personnel.
Mistakes must be discovered and eliminated, preferably
by the people who make them.
All survey measurements are suspect until they have been
verified.
 STATIONING

Stations (or chainages) are dimensions measured
along a baseline
The beginning point is described as 0+00.
A point 100 m from the beginning is 1+00.
A point 565.98 m from the beginning is 5+65.98.
Points measured before the beginning stations are 0-
50, -1+00, etc.
In metric system, 20-m intervals are often used as
partial stations.
Most municipalities have the 100-unit station
(1+00=100m); highway agencies the 1,000-unit
station. (1+000 = 1,000m)

 FIELD NOTES

When surveys are performed not using electronic
data transfer, one of the most important aspects of
surveying is the taking of neat, legible, and complete
hand-written field notes.
Hand-written field notes can be placed in bound
field books or in loose-leaf binders.
Loose-leaf bites are preferred for small projects,
while bound books are used to advantage on large
projects.