Chapter 6 Time-Varying

Time Varying Fields and

Maxwells Equations

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -1

 6-1
6 1 OVERVIEW
Fundamental Governing Equations for Electrostatic Model:
So far we have dealt with E and H fields that do not change with time
time.
In electrostatics, E = electric field intensity, D = electric flux density or electric
displacement vector.
E=0
D = v
For linear and isotropic (not necessarily homogeneous) media, D = E, called the
constitutive
tit ti relation
l ti for
f the
th electric
l t i model.
d l

Fundamental Governing Equations for Magnetostatic Model:

In magnetostatics,
magnetostatics H = magnetic field intensity,
intensity B = magnetic flux density vector.
vector
B=0
H=J
For linear and isotropic (not necessarily homogeneous) media, H = B/, called the
constitutive relation for the magnetic model.
Note that E and D in electrostatic model and B and H in the magnetostatic model
are nott related
l t d tto each
h other.
th

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -2

 6-2
6 2 FARADAYS LAW
FARADAYS LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
A major advance in electromagnetic theory was made by Michael
Faraday in 1831.
A current was induced in a conducting loop when magnetic flux
linking the loop changed
changed.
Faradays Law: quantitative relationship between the induced emf
and the rate of change of flux linkage. Michael Faraday
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwIdZjjd8fo
p y jj
FUNDAMENTAL POSTULATE FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION sj
C
B
E
t
This point-function relation applies to every point in space,
S
i.e., free space or material medium.
The electric field intensity E in a region of time-varying S C
magnetic flux density B is therefore nonconservative and
cannot be expressed as the negative gradient of a scalar
potential. (E V)
B
B
Based on the Stokes theorem, ( E ) d s E d d s open surface S
S C S t
with contour C
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -3
 6-2
6 2.1
1 STATIONARY CIRCUIT IN A TIME-
VARYING MAGNETIC FIELD
For a stationary circuit with a contour C and open surface S Time-varying magnetic
flux density, B(t)
C E d
t S
Bds
+
v
E d = emf induced in circuit with contour C (V)
C

B d s = magnetic flux crossing surface S (Wb) C

S
S

(V)
t
The electromotive force (emf, ) induced in a stationary open surface S
closed
l d circuit
i it iis equall tto th
the negative
ti rate
t off increase
i off the
th with contour C
magnetic flux linking the circuit. This is a statement of Faradays
law of electromagnetic induction.
The negative sign asserts () that the induced emf will cause a current
to flow in the closed loop in such a direction as to oppose the change in the
linking magnetic flux, also known as Lens law.
The emf induced in a stationary loop caused by a time-varying
time varying magnetic field is
a transformer emf (Sec. 6.2.2).

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -4

 Example 6
6.1
1
Example 6.1 A circular loop of N turns of conducting wire lies in the xy-plane with its
center at the origin of a magnetic field specified by B = azBo cos(r/2b) sint,
t where b
is the radius of the loop and is the angular frequency. Find the emf induced in the
loop.

This problem specified a stationary loop in a time time-

varying magnetic field. The flux linking each turn is x x x
x x x x x x

b r x x x
x x x x x x
B ds [a z Bo cos sin t ] (a z 2rdr ) x x x
x x x x x x
s 0
2b
+x x x
x x x x x x
8b 2 xv x
1 Bo sin t. x
x x x x x x
2 x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
there are N turns,
Since th
Si t the
th total
t t l flux
fl linkage
li k iis N , we x
x x x
x x x x x x
have
x x x
x x x x x x
d 8N 2
N b 1 Bo cos t ((V)). x x x
x x x x x x
dt 2
y
Note the phase difference between the induced emf
and flux linkage is 90o.
x
z

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -5

 Exercise 6
6.1
1
Exercise 6.1 Find the emf induced in the N-turn circular loop of radius b in Example
1 if the magnetic flux density is B = azBo (b r) cost.
6-1
6 t What is the phase relationship
between the induced emf and the magnetic field?

The stationary N-turn loop is placed in a time-varying y

magnetic
ti field.
fi ld The
Th flux
fl linking
li ki each h tturn iis
b
x x x
x x x x x x
B ds [a z Bo (b r ) cos t ] (a z 2rdr ) x x x x x

x x x
x
s 0
x
z
x x x
x x x x x x
2 3 b
r 2 b
b
r Bo cos t b 3 Bo cos t. +x x x
x x x x x x
0
3 0
3 xv x x
x x x x x x
x x x
x x x x x x
Since there are N turns, the total flux linkage is N , we
x x x
x x x x x x
have
x x x x x x x x

x
d
N N b 3 Bo sin t (V). x x x
x x x x x x
dt 3 x x x
x x x x x x
The induced emf (t) lags 90o behind flux linkage B(t).

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -6

 6-2
6 2.2
2 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is an alternating-current (AC) Primary Secondary
device that transforms voltages
voltages, currents
currents, and windingg winding
N1 turns N2 turns
impedances. i2
i1
It usually consists of two or more coils coupled
+
magnetically
g y through
g a common ferromagnetic
g +
core (r ). v1(t)
v2(t) ZL

For the closed path in the magnetic circuit
traced by magnetic flux , we have Zin
i
i N
N1i1 N 2i2 1 2
i2 N1
v N
v1 N1 , v2 N 2 1 1
t t v2 N 2
If the secondary coil is terminated into an impedance ZL, then the input
impedance seen by the source Zin i is
2 2
v N v N
Z in 1 1 2 1 Z L
i1 N 2 i2 N 2

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -7

 Exercise 6
6.2
2
Exercise 6.2 A resistance of 75 is to be converted into 300 by means of an ideal
(lossless r = ) transformer
(lossless, transformer. What turns-ratio
turns ratio should the transformer have?
2 2
v N v N
Z in 1 1 2 1 Z L
i1 N 2 i2 N 2 Primary Secondary
Z L 75 (to be converted) , Z in 300 winding winding
N1 turns N2 turns
2
N1 300 i1 i2
4 N1 : N 2 2 : 1
N
2 75 +
+
v1(t)
v2(t) ZL


Zin

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -8

 6-2
6 2.3
3 A MOVING CONDUCTOR IN A STATIC
MAGNETIC FIELD B
When a conductor moves with a velocity u in a static (non(non-time-varying)
time varying)
magnetic field B, a force Fm = qu B will cause the freely movable e to drift
toward end 2 and leave end 1 positively charged.
This separation
p g creates a Coulombian
of + and charges
force of attraction. The charge-separation continues until
B

the electric and magnetic forces balance each other. 2
u
At equilibrium, which is reached very rapidly, the net force

on the
h ffree charges
h iin the
h moving
i conductor
d iis zero.

d
The magnetic force per unit charge Fm/q = u B can be

interpreted as an induced electric field acting along the u
1
conductor and producing a voltage
2
V21 V2 V1 u B d
1

If the moving conductor is a part of a closed circuit C,

then the emff generated around the circuit is 2 + C
u Bd +
C
v v
This is referred to as a flux
flux-cutting
cutting emf or a motional emf.
ZL ZL
Only the part of circuit that moves in a direction not
parallel to B will contribute to . 1
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 -9
 Example 6
6.2
2
Example 6.2 A metal bar slides over a pair of conducting rails in a uniform
g
magnetic field B = azBo with a constant velocityy u, as shown in Fig.
g 6-4.
a) Determine the open-circuit voltage Vo across terminals 1 and 2.
b) A resistor R is connected between the terminals, find the power dissipated in R.
c) Show that this power equals the mechanical power required to move the sliding
bar with a velocity u.
u Neglect the mechanical friction and all resistances
resistances.
1
a) Vo V1 V2 (u B) d (a x u a z Bo ) (a y d) uBo h (V).
c 2

uB0 h (uB0 h) 2
b) I Pe I R
2
(W). 1
R R
I
c) The mechanical power required to move
the slidingg bar is Pm = F u,, where F is d
u h
the mechanical force required to R

counteract the magnetic force Fm. B

1
F m I d B a x IB0 h (N).
2
2
y
uB02 h 2
F F m a x IB0 h a x (N).
R
x
z

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 10

 Example 6
6.3
3
Example 6.3 The Faraday disk generator () consists of a circular metal disk
rotating
g with a constant angular
g velocityy in a uniform and constant magnetic
g field
of flux density B = azBo that is parallel to the axis of rotation. Brush contacts are
provided at the axis and on the rim of the disk, as depicted in Fig. 6-5. Determine
the open-circuit voltage of the generator if the radius of the disk is b.
4
vo (u B) d [(a r ) a z B0 ] (a r dr ) 1 1
3

0 B0b 2 +
Bo rdr (V). B B
b 2 vo

vo is the emf of the Faraday disk generator.
2 2 4
b
To measure vo, a voltmeter of a very high input 3
resistance must be used so that no appreciable brush contacts
current flows in the circuit to alter the externally
applied magnetic field B.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 11

 6-2
6 4 A MOVING CIRCUIT IN B(t)
2.4
Lorentzs Force Equation
A charge
h q moves with l it u in
ith a velocity i a region
i where
h b
both
th an electric
l t i fifield
ld and
da
magnetic field B exist, the electromagnetic force F on q is
F = q(E + u B)
To an observer moving with q, there is no apparent motion, and the force on q
can be interpreted as caused by an electric field E ,
E = E + u B or E = E u B
Hence, when a conducting circuit with contour C and surface S moves with a
velocity u in a field (E, B), we have the general form of Faradays law:
B

C
E

' d S t

d s u B d ((V))
C x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x
V' V1 V2

V = emf induced in circuit C measured in the moving frame,

V1 = the transformer
f emff due to the time variation of B,,
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Fx
x
x
x
x
x
E
x
x
x
x
q u
x x x x x x x x x
V2 = the motional emf due to the motion of the circuit in B.

It can be proved in general that x

x
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

B d d
V ' E' d d s u Bd Bd s (V)
C S t C dt S dt
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 12
 6-2
6 4 A MOVING CIRCUIT IN B(t)
2.4
The general form of Faradays law:
1


B
B I

C
E

' d S t

d s u B d (V)
C

d
V' V1 V2 u
R
d d B
V ' E' d B d s (V)
C dt S dt

2

Faradays
Faraday s law states that the emf induced in a closed circuit equals the
negative time-rate of increase of the magnetic flux linking a circuit applies to a
stationary circuit as well as a moving one.

x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Fx
x
x
x
x
x
E
x
x
x
x
q u
x x x x x x x x x
x
x
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 13

 Example 6
6.4
4
Example 6.4 Determine the open-circuit voltage of the Faraday disk generator in
Example 6-3
6 3 by using Eq
Eq. (6-34)
(6 34), the general form of Faradays
Faraday s law.
law
B
In Example 6-3, 0 is used.
t
Here, B is still time invariant, and the disk is rotating. In a time interval t, =
time-invariant,
t. The flux linking the circuit 1223411, i.e., the flux passing through the
wedge-shaped area 2342 (flux-cutting in p. 6 9) is
b t b2
B ds B o rddr B o t 1 1
S 0 0 2
d B0b 2 +
V0 V ' v B B
dt 2 o

2 2 4
b
3
brush contacts

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 14

 Exercise 6
6.3
3
Exercise 6.3 Determine the open-circuit voltage that appears across terminals 1 and
2 in Example 6-2
6 2 by using Eq
Eq. (6-34)
(6 34).
In a time interval of t, the conductor moves a distance of d = ut. The flux
passing through the swapped area (flux-cutting in p. 6 9) and the induced
emf are
d = ut
B ds Bo ut h
S 1

d I
Vo V ' uBo h
dt
d
u u h
R
B


2
y

x
z

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 15

 Example 6
6.5
5
Example 6.5 An h by w rectangular conducting loop is situated in a changing
magnetic
g field B = ayBosint. The normal of the loop
p initially g with
y makes an angle
ay, as shown in Fig. 6-6. Find the induced emf in the loop: (a) when the loop is at
rest, and (b) when the loop rotates with an angular velocity about the x-axis.
a) When the loop is at rest, z
d d d B
Va B ds (a y Bo sin t ) (a n hw) Bo S cos t cos
dt dt dt
(b) When the loop rotates with about the x-axis,
1 w
Va' (u B) d [ a n (a y Bo sin t )] (a x dx)
C 2
2
x y
3 w
[ a n (a y Bo sin t )] (a x dx) an
4
2
z
w
2 Bo sin t sin h.
2
Th
The sides
id 23 and d 41 d
do not contribute
ib to Va and
d the
h B u
contributions of sides 12 and 34 are of equal magnitude
and in the same direction.
u
an

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 16

 Example 6
6.5
5
Example 6.5 An h by w rectangular conducting loop is situated in a changing
magnetic
g field B = ayBosint. The normal of the loop
p initially g with
y makes an angle
ay, as shown in Fig. 6-6. Find the induced emf in the loop: (a) when the loop is at
rest, and (b) when the loop rotates with an angular velocity about the x-axis.
z
If = 0 at t = 0,
0 then = t t > 0.0 We have B
w
Va' 2 Bo sin t sin h wh Bo sin 2 t.
2
The total emf induced in the rotating loop is
V = V + Va = BoS(cos2t sin2t) = BoScos2t
The total emf induced in the rotating loop can also x y
be determined as follows.
follows an
(t ) B(t ) [a n (t ) S ] Bo S sin t cos z
1
Bo S sin t cos t
Bo S sin 2t.
2
d d 1 B u
Vt' Bo S sin 2t Bo S cos 2t
dt dt 2
u
an

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 17

 Remarks
1. E in a region of time-varying magnetic field is not conservative, and cannot be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential alone
alone.
2. A time-varying magnetic field linking with a circuit induces an emf in the circuit.
3. Transformers are inherentlyy a-c devices.
4. An ideal transformer assumes infinite permeability for its core and infinite
inductances for its windings.
5. The insulated laminations off a transformer
f core to reduce eddy-current power
loss should be parallel to the direction of the magnetic flux.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 18

 Remarks on Maths in EM Theory

1
1. The two fundamental postulates of electrostatics are
++ +
(1) E v
o + Q +
++ +
(2) E 0
Thus, divergence is the useful operation, but few curls.

E field by Q
2
2. The ttwo fundamental
Th f d t l postulates
t l t off magnetostatics
t t ti in i
nonmagnetic media are:
(1) B = 0
(2) B = o J (in nonmagnetic media).
Thus, most derivations require curl operations, instead of I
divergence
divergence.

H field by I

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 19

 6-3
6 3 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
Fundamental postulate for electromagnetic induction:
B
B
E Differential form S
t C
B
C E d
S t
t
d s Integral form

We now have four equations governing EM fields:

B
E , D v open surface S
t with contour C
H J, B 0
The principle of conservation of charge must be satisfied at all positions and at all
time (i(i.e. time varying B,
e both static and time-varying B D,
D E,E and H fields):

J v , but J = ( H) 0 [ ( A) 0 is a null identity].
t
The equation
q H = J is derived for magnetostatics
g and needs correction for
time-varying EM fields. But how?

( H ) 0 J v J ( D ) J D H J D
t t t t
A time-varying D will give rise to an H, even when J = 0. The term D/t is
necessary to make it consistent with the principle of conservation of charge.
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 20
 6-3
6 3 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
D/t is a current density and has a dimension of A/m2.
D = E, D/t (F/m)(V/m)/sec = Coul/sec/m2 = A/m2. The term D/t is called
the displacement current density.
Its introduction to the H = J equation was one of the major contributions of
James Clerk Maxwell (1831 1879).
Maxwell idea: In order to be consistent with the equation of continuity in time-
varying situation, both of the curl equations ( E and H) must be generalized.
Th four
The f Maxwells
M ll equations
ti i diff
in differential
ti l fforms are th
then
B
E
t
D v Foundation of
H J J Continuity equation
C
t + t
F q ( E u B ) Lorenzs force (p.5-8)
Electromagnetic
Theory
D v
B 0

J = density of free current (A/m2), may comprise convection current (v u) and

conduction current (E). The displacement current is D/t.
v = volume density of free charges (Coul/m3), i.e., no bound charges vp = P.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 21

 Exercise 6
6.4
4
Exercise 6.4 Take the divergence of the two curl equations (6-45a) and (6-45b) and
derive the two divergence equations (6-45c)
(6 45c) and (6
(6-45d)
45d) with the aid of the equation
of continuity (6-41).
B B
(1) E E
t t
B D
0 ( E ) ( B) 0 OK H J
t t t
D v
D B 0
(2) H J
t
D
0 ( H )
J
J ( D) ?
t t

J ( D) J v 0
t t

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 22

6-3
6 3.1
1 Integral Form of MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
Integral Form of MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
Applying the Stokess theorem or the divergence theorem
to the Maxwells equations, we obtain S C
B B
E
t C E d
S t
ds Faradays law

D D open surface S
H J
t C H d S t d s Ampres circuital law
J with contour C

D v D d s dv
S
d
V
v G
Gausss
law
l
B 0 Bds 0
S
No isolated magnetic charge

B = 0 states that there is no isolated magnetic charge. It z

is usually called the Gausss law for magnetic charges. an
ds
D = v implies
p y g, then v also
that if D is time-varying, volume
varies with time. v
The two curl equations indicate that time-varying E creates y
B and time-varying B generates E. (
) x Surface S

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 23

 Example 6
6.6
6
Example 6.6 An a-c source of amplitude Vo and angular frequency , vc(t) = Vo sint,
is connected across a p parallel-plate
p capacitor
p C1, as shown in Fig.
g 6-7. ((a)) Verify
y that
the displacement current in the capacitor is the same as the conduction current in
the wires. (b) Determine the magnetic field intensity H at a distance r from the wire.
dv
a)) Circuit: ic C1 c C1Vo cos t C
dt C1
EM field: (1) Let the conducting plates of C1 have an area
of A and a separation of d. (2) If the two plates has a S
g vc, the electric field in between is E = vc/d.
voltage
A V
C1 , D E o sin t
d d + vc
D A
iD d s Vo cos t C1Vo cos t. +Q, area = A
A t
d
Vo y d
b) At a distance r from the wire, E a sin t y
d
S1
H d s H d 2rH
C
H .
V E = ayEy
D a y o sin t
S1
J d s ic C1Vo cos t. d
x
V Q, area = A
C1 Q Dn o sin t Q,
H Vo cos t. d
2r dQ
i
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015.
dt 6 - 24
 3 8 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR
3-8
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS REVIEW
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS:
Electromagnetic problems often requires the knowledge of the relations of the
fields (E, D, V) at an interface between two media (air, dielectric and conductor).
T i l component off E: (
(1) Tangential ( E = 0) Integration
lim E d 0 E 1 w E 2 ( w) ( E1t E2t ) w E1
contour C
h 0 C
En
E 1t E 2t ((V/m)) Medium 1
The tangential component of an E field is continuous
Medium 2
across an interface.
(2) Normal components of D: (D = v)
lim D d s (D1 an2 D2 an1 )S (D1 D2 ) an2S s S interface
h0 S
D1 an2
S
D1n D2n s (C / m2 )
h 0
The normal component of D field is discontinuous Medium 1
across an interface where a surface charge exists,
an1
and the amount of discontinuity equals the surface Medium 2
D2
charge
h d it s.
density

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 25

 5 9 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR
5-9
MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS REVIEW
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS:
At an interface of two different media:
Medium 1, 1 B1t
ds1 h 0
B1 = 1H1
B1n
H1t
H1
B2t H2t
B2n ds
B2 = 2H2 ds2 H2
Medium 2, 2

A divergenceless field has a continuous normal component.

B 0 B1 d s1 B 2 d s 2 0 B1n B2 n , 1 H 1n 2 H 2 n (T)

A curl-free field has a continuous tangential component. If there is a surface

current density Js at the interface.
interface

H d s H d (H
S C
1t H 2t ) J d s J sn (A)
S

H1t H 2t J sn a n 2 ( H 1 H 2 ) J s ((A/m))

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 26

 6-3
6 3.2
2 B.C.
B C S FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions Integration contour C
E1
The four Maxwell
Maxwells
s equations En
Medium 1
B B
(1) E
t C
E d
S t
ds
Medium 2
D D
t C S t d s
(2) H J H d J
Medium 1, 1 H1

(3) D v D d s dv
S V
v Medium 2, 2 ds
H2
(4) B 0 Bds 0
S

On (1), perform a contour integral along C, we have (E1t E2t)w = (Bwh)/t

= 0 under the limit h 0. Thus, we have E1t = E2t for time-varying
y g fields.
On (2), performing the contour integral (C1 + C2) gives (H1t H2t)w = [(D)/t +
J] wh. Then an2 (H1t H2t) = Js is obtained for time-varying electromagnetic
fields, where Js = Jh, surface current density (A/m) at the interface.
(3) and (4) are the same as those for the static (non-time-varying) situation, thus
the boundary conditions at the interface will not be changed. But v and s are
now time-varying quantities.
D v D1n D2n s (C / m2 )
B 0 B1n B2n , 1H1n 2 H2n (T)
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 27
6-3
6 3.2
2 B.C.
B C S FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Two important special cases:
E1t = E2t
(1) Interface between two lossless media
an2 (H1t H2t) = Js
Lossless media have real (Im() = 0), real , and = 0. There
will be no s and Js at the interface. Thus, Et, Dt, Ht , and Bt are all B1n = B2n
continuous
ti att the
th interface.
i t f D1n D2n = s

(2) Interface between a dielectric and a perfect conductor

D1n
E1t = 0
Js an
Dielectric 1 H1t
an2 H1t = Js
Conductor 2,
B1n
1 = 0
E = Et + En = 0, H = Ht + Hn = 0
D1n = s

Perfect conductors: . Good conductors like silver, gold, copper and

aluminum are usually treated as perfect conductors to simplify electromagnetic
problems. In medium 2, E2 = 0, H2 = 0, D2 = 0, and B2 = 0.
Current densities Js and charge densities s (both time-varying) are always on
th surface
the f off the
th perfect
f t conductors.
d t

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 28

6-3
6 3.2
2 B.C.
B C S FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
B.C. between two lossless media B.C. between a dielectric and a conductor
D D
E1t E2t 1t 2t E1t 0 E2t 0
1 2
B B
H1t H2t 1t 2t an2 H1t J s H 2t 0
1 2
D1n D2n 1E1n 2 E2n D1n s D2n 0
B1n B2n 1H1n 2 H2n B1n 0 B2n 0
D1n
D1n H1t B1n an
Dielectric 1 E1t Dielectric 1 Js H1t


Dielectric 2 E2t D2n H2t B2n Conductor 2,
E = Et + En = 0, H = Ht + Hn = 0

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 29

 Exercise 6
6.5
5
Exercise 6.5 Assume that the y = 0 plane separates air in the upper half-space (y > 0)
from a g good conductor and that a surface charge y s = C1 sinx and a surface
g density
current density Js = axC2 cosx exist on the interface. (C1, C2,and are constants.)
Determine E and H in the air at the interface.
y
D1y s C1
(1) E1t 0, E1n sin x
o o o
x
C z
E a y 1 sin x
o Air
(2) H1n 0, an2 H1t J s
Conductor
H1t J s an2 J s a y a xC2 cosx a y a zC2 cosx
H a zC2 cosx

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 30

 Remarks
1. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field, and a changing electric
field produces a displacement current that contributes to the magnetic field
field. In
time-varying situations the electric and magnetic fields are coupled through
Maxwells curl equations.
2. Not all four Maxwells equations
q are independent.
p
3. The tangential component of E and the normal component of B are continuous
at the interface of any two media.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 31

 6-4
6 4 POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS A AND V FOR TIME-VARYING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
B = 0 B A (T),
(T) A is i called
ll d th
the magnetic
ti vector
t potential.
t ti l
B A
E ( A) or E 0
t t t
A A
E V E V
t t
In the static case, A/t = 0, then E = V. Hence, E is determined by V alone
andd B from
f A
A.
For time-varying fields, E depends on both V and A. Inasmuch as B also depends
on A, E and B are coupled.
Making use of the constitutive relation B = H and D = E, for homogeneous
media ( and are independent of position), we have

B A ( H ) J D
t
A
J E J V
t t t
A
A J V
t t
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 32
 6-4
6 4 POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS A AND V FOR TIME-VARYING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
A
A J V A ( A) 2 A
t t

A A Ax Ay Az
( A) A J V
2
x y z
t t

A ( A) a x a y a z ( A)
2 A J V ( A) x y z
t t
2 2 2
A
2
V A 2 2 2 (a x Ax a y Ay a z Az )
2

2 A J A x y z
t 2
t
Recall that the definition of a vector requires both its curl and divergence.
Alth
Although h A = B is
i given,
i th
there iis one d
degree off ffreedom
d tto choose
h A.
A WeW
V
choose the Lorentz condition (or Lorentz Gauge) for potentials: A 0 , and
it leads to the nonhomogeneous wave equation for vector potential A: t
2 A
A 2 J
2

t
The corresponding nonhomogeneous wave equation for scalar potential V is
2V
V 2 v
2

t
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 33
 Exercise 6
6.6
6
Exercise 6.6 Derive the wave equation (6-58) for V by using Eq. (6-53) in Eq. (6-
40c).
40c)
2V
Target: V 2 v
2

t
V
L
Lorentz
t condition:
diti A 0
t
A
Start at E V
t

A
E V 2V E ( A)
t t
v 2
V E ( A) 2 V
2
BA
t t
2
A
2V 2 V v E V
t t

After A and V are determined by the differential equations (wave equations) E and B,
and hence D and H, can be known.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 34

 Remarks
1. Time-varying potential functions V and A satisfy the wave equation.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 35

 6-4
6 4.1
1 SOLUTION OF WAVE EQUATIONS
SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATIONS
Consider the solution of V due to a charge distribution of v. Let
an elemental point charge v dv be situated at the origin at time t.
The solution is expected to have spherical symmetry, i.e. V v dv R
depends only on R,R and not on or .
2V v 1 2 V 2V
V 2
2
2 R 2 v (V/m )
2

t R R R t
IIn source-free
f region,
i v = 0.0 Ah homogeneous diff
differential
i l equation
i iis solved.
l d L Let
U(R, t) = RV(R, t), then (see next page)
2U 2U
2 0 U ( R, t ) f (t R )
R 2 t
where f is any twice-differentiable function.
The function at a new distance R + R at a later time t + t is
U ( R R, t t ) f (t t ( R R) ) f (t R ) if t (R) (R ) / u p

1 2 1 1 2
V 2 R 2 sin 2 2 V ( R, , ) [Sec. 3.11]
2
2
R R R R sin R sin
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 36
 Detailed Derivations
1. The differential (wave) equation. 2. Solution function of U(R, t).
1 2 V 2V U U ( R, t ) f (t R )
R 0, V
R 2 R R t 2 R t R f (t R ) f ( )
1 2 U 2 U 2 2
R 2 0 f (t R ) 2 f (t R )
R 2 R R R t R R 2 t
1 2 U'R U 2 U ( ) f " (t R ) f " (t R ) 0
R 2 0
R 2 R R2 t R
1 2 U
(U"R U' U' ) 2 0 Example 1
R2 t R
f (t R ) f ( ) sin sin (t R )
U2
U 2
0 2 2
R 2 t 2 sin 2 sin
R 2 t
Example 2 2 2
2 [sin (t R )] 2 [sin (t R )]
f ( ) N (t R ) N R t
2 ( ) 2 [ sin (t R ) sin (t R )] 0
f ( ) ( ) N ( N 1) N 2
R 2
The only restriction to f() is twice
2 differentiable.
2 f ( ) ( ) N ( N 1) N 2
t

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 37

 6-4
6 4.1
1 SOLUTION OF WAVE EQUATIONS
SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATIONS
V(R t) due to a charge distribution of v.
Consider the solution of V(R,
Let an elemental point charge v dv be placed at the origin at time t.
The solution function is v dv R
R R 1
U ( R, t ) f (t R ),
) t (R ) , up
up t
up is the velocity of wave propagation, a characteristic of medium,
but irrelative to the wave itself.
1
In air or free space, = o and = o, then u p c.
o o
1 R
U(R, t) = RV(R, t) V ( R , t ) f t . But what is the specific function f(t)?
R u p
In electrostatic, for a point charge vdv at the origin, the potential dV is given as
dv'
dV ( R ) v (No time axis)
4R
1 R (t R / u p )dv' 1 v (t R / u p )
Thus, dV ( R, t ) f t v
4 V'
, and V ( R, t ) dv' (V)
R u p 4R R
The p potential V at a distance R from the source at time t depends p on the charge g
density at an earlier time t R/up. Hence, V(R, t) is called the retarded ()
scalar potential.
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 38
 6-4
6 4.1
1 SOLUTION OF WAVE EQUATIONS
SOLUTIONS OF THE POTENTIAL V AND VECTOR POTENTIAL A
The wave equation of V and its solution function due to a charge
distribution of v dv at the origin at time t are
1 2 V 2V v 1 v (t R / u p )
4 VV'
R V ( R , t ) dv'
R 2 R R t 2 R v dv
dv R
For the vector potential A, let Jdv be also placed at the origin.
2 A
A 2 J
2

t
1 2 A 2 A J (t R / u p )
4 V'
R J A( R, t ) dv' (Wb/m)
R2 R R t 2 R
The electromagnetic fields E,E B,
B D and H derived from A and V will also be
functions of t R/up and therefore retarded in time.
It takes time for electromagnetic waves to travel and for the effects of time-
varying
i charges
h andd currents
t tto b
be ffeltlt att distance
di t points.
i t
In circuit theory, this time-retardation effect is ignored and instant response is
assumed.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 39

 Exercise 6
6.7
7
Exercise 6.7 A radar signal sent from earth to the moon is received back on the earth
after a delay of 2.562
2 562 sec.
sec Determine the distance between the surfaces of earth and
the moon at that moment in kilometers and in miles.

2.562
d 3 105 3.843 105 km
2
3.843
105 or 2.3884 105 miles
1.609

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 40

 Exercise 6
6.8
8
Exercise 6.8 What is the distance equivalent to one light year?
Answer 1, d = 3105365246060 = 9.46081012 km
Answer 2, d = 12 = 122.54 cm = 0.3 m

12

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 41

 Remarks
1. The response at a distance of changing charge and current distributions is not
instantaneous but is delayed in time
instantaneous, time.
2. The velocity of wave propagation is a characteristic of the medium and is
independent of frequency.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 42

 6-5
6 5 TIME-H
HARMONIC FIELDS AND PHASORS
For time-harmonics circuit quantities (V, I, v, J, E, B, i(t) = Iocos(t + )
, etc.)) voltages,
g currents, it is convenient to use a T
phasor notation.
Choose a cosine function as the reference, then all Io
derived results will refer to the cosine function. t
The specification of a sinusoidal quantity requires the
knowledge of three parameters: amplitude, frequency
and phase. For example, 1 2
or 2 T
f
i(t) = Iocos(t + )
This is called the instantaneous expression of i(t).
T
To workk directly
di tl workk with ith an iinstantaneous
t t i i(t)
expression ( ) is
i iinconvenient
i t when
h
differentiation or integration is involved. Because it leads to sine and cosine
functions and it is tedious to combine these two functions. For example,
d 1
v(t ) L i (t ) Ri (t ) i ( ) d i(t)
dt C t

1 + L C
Vo cos t I o L sin(t ) R cos(t ) sin(t ) v(t) R
C
Obviously, complicated mathematical manipulations are
required in order to determine the unknown Io and .
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 43
 6-5
6 5 TIME-H
HARMONIC FIELDS AND PHASORS
It is much simpler to use exponential functions (ejt = i(t) = Iocos(t + )
cost + jjsint to solve the above p
problems. T
v (t ) Vo cos t Re[(Vo e jo )e jt ] Re[Vs e jt ]
i (t ) I o (cos t ) Re[( I o e j )e jt ] Re[ I s e jt ] Io

Vs Vo e jjo , I s I o e j t

Vs and Is are called the phasors that contain amplitude

and phase information but are independent of t. The 1 2
phasor Vs with zero phase is the reference phasor.
phasor or 2 T
f
d
i (t ) I o sin(t ) Re[( jI o e j )e jt ] Re[ jI s e jt ]
dt
Io I s jt
t i ( ) d t I o (cos ) d

sin( t ) Re[
j
e ]

d 1 1 I
v (t ) L i (t ) Ri (t ) i ( )d Re[Vs e jt ] L Re[ jI s e jt ] R Re[ I s e jt ] Re[ s e jt ]
dt C t C j
1
Vs I s jL R I s can be easily solved.
j C
N
Note that
h theh time-dependence
i d d ffactor ejt has
h b been suppressed,
d since
i iit iis
present in every term.
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 44
 Example 6
6.7
7
Example 6.7 Write the phase expression Is for the following current functions using
a cosine reference
reference.
a) i(t) = Io cos(t 30), and i(t) = Iocos(t + )
b) i(t) = Io sin(t 0.2) T

For cosine reference, i(t) = Re[Is ejt] Io

a) i (t ) I o cos(t 30) Re[( I o e j 30 )e jt ]. t
I s I o e j 30 I o e j e j / 6 I o e j 5 / 6

b) i (t ) I o sin(t 0.2 ) I o cos(t 0.5 0.2 ) 1 2

or 2 T
Re[ I o e j 0.3 e jt ] f

I s I o e - j 0.3 .

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 45

 Exercise 6
6.9
9
Exercise 6.9 Find the phasor expressions Is for the current functions in Example 6-7
g a sine reference,, i(t)
using ( s ejt)). ((skipped)
( ) = Im(I pp )

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 46

 Example 6
6.8
8
Example 6.8 Write the instantaneous expressions v(t) for the following phasors
using
g a cosine reference:
a) Vs = Voej/4, and i(t) = Iocos(t + )
b) Vs = 3 j4. T

For cosine reference, v(t) = Re[Vs ejt] Io

t
a) v(t ) Re[Vs e jt ] Re[(Vo e j / 4 )e jt ] Vo cos t
4
4
j tan 1
b) Vs 3 j 4 3 4 e 2 2 3
5e j 53.1 1 2
or 2 T
f
v(t ) Re[(5e j 53.1 )e jt ] 5 cos((t 53.1)).

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 47

 Exercises 6
6.10
10 6.12
6 12
Exercise 6.10 Write the phasor expression Vs for the voltage v(t) = 10 cos(t 45).
Exercise 6.11 Write the instantaneous expression v(t) for the phasor Vs = 4 + j3
using a cosine reference.
Exercise 6.12 Write the instantaneous expression
p v(t) phasor Vs = 4 + jj3
( ) for the p
using a sine reference. (skipped)

(6.10) v(t) = 10 cos(t 45) = Re[10 ej(t /4)] = Re[Vs ejt] Vs = 10ej/4
(6.11) Vs = 4 + j3 = 5 exp(j36.9o) v(t) = Re[Vs ejt] = 5 cos(t + 36.9)

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 48

 6-5
6 5.2
2 TIME-H
HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETICS
Field vectors varying with space coordinates and sinusoidal
functions of time can be represented
p y vector pphasors which
by
depend on space coordinates but not on time. For example,
E(x, y, z; t) = Re[E(x, y, z) ejt]
where E(x,
( y, z)) is a vector phasor containing information
f on
direction, magnitude, and phase.
Time-harmonic Maxwells equations in terms of phasors
Time Frequency (1) E represents the vector phasor E(x, y, z).
B (2) The sources v and J are also phasors,
E E j H
t e.g., v(t) = vo cos(tt+), then v = voej.
D
H J H J j E (3) Assumed a simple medium, i.e., linear,
t
isotropic and homogeneous.

D v E v
(4) Al
Also kknown as th
the M
Maxwells
ll equations
ti iin
B 0 H 0 frequency domain.

These equations in phasors will be used herein since we will deal almost
exclusively with time-harmonic electromagnetic sources and fields.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 49

 6-5
6 5.2
2 TIME-H
HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETICS
Time-harmonic wave equations for potentials
2V
V 2 v 2V 2 V v 2V k 2V v
2

t
A
2
2 A 2 J 2 A 2 A J 2 A k 2 A J
t
2f 2 Nonhomogeneous Helmholtzs
k (rad/m)
up up (wave) equations

up is the velocity of wave propagation

propagation. It is a
V(x) = Vo ej(tkx) up 2
characteristic of medium and independent of the wave.
f k
is wavelength of the wave in the medium and is
determined by = up/f.
/f V
k is called the wavenumber (). It is a measure of the x
number of the wavelengths in a span of 2. It is the
phase change of the wave per unit length of propagation.
propagation
For example, = 1 m, k = 2 rad/m; = 10 m, k = 0.2
rad/m.
The above two Helmhotz
Helmhotzss equations are the (partial) differential equations for
solving V and A in response to sources v and J for time-harmonic fields.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 50

 Exercise 6
6.13
13
Exercise 6.13 Write the phasor form for the Lorentz condition for potentials, Eq. (6-
)
56).
V
A 0 A jV 0
t

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 51

 6-5
6 5.2
2 TIME-H
HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETICS
SOLUTIONS TO TIME-HARMONIC POTENTIAL WAVE EQUATIONS
2V 1 v (t R / u p )
4 V'
V 2 v V ( R, t )
2
dv'
t R Solution in time domain.
2 A J (t R / u p )
4 V'
A 2 J A( R, t )
2
dv'
t R
1 e jkR
4 V' R
V k V
2 2v
V ( R) v
dv'

Solution in frequency domain.
Je jkR

4 V' R
2 A k 2 A J A( R ) dv'

From time (instantaneous expression) to frequency (phasor)

v (t ) Re[ v e jt ] v(t ) Re[Ve jt ]

v t
R
u p

Re v e
j ( t R / u p )

Re v e jt e
j R / u p

Re ( v e jkR )e jt

Delay in time corresponds to phase lag in phasor.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 52

 6-5
6 5.2
2 TIME-H
HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETICS
STATIC, TIME-VARYING AND PHASOR SOLUTIONS
1 v 1 v (t R / u p ) 1 v e jkR
V ( R)
4 V' R
dv' V ( R, t )
4 V' R
dv' V ( R )
4 V' R
dv'

J J (t R / u p ) J e jkR
A( R )
4
V' R
dv' A( R, t )
4 V' R
dv' A( R )
4 V' R
dv'

Static solution can be a good approximation to the time-harmonic fields when

frequency is sufficiently low, i.e., kR << 1, meaning that R << .
k 2R2 R
e jkR
1 jkR ... 1 if kR 2 1
2
Formal procedure for determining E and B due to time-harmonic charge and
current distributions:
(1) Find phasors V(R) and A(R) by performing the solution integrals.
(2) Find phasors E(R) = V jA and B(R) = A.
E(R t) = Re[E(R) ejt] and B(R,
(3) Find instantaneous E(R, B(R t) = Re[B(R) ejt].
]

The degree of difficulty of a problem depends on how difficult it is to perform the

integrations in step (1).

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 53

 Example 6
6.9
9
Example 6.9 Given that the electric field intensity of an electromagnetic wave in a
nonconducting
g dielectric medium with p y = 9o and p
permittivity y o is
permeability
y
E(z, t) = ay 5cos (109t z) (V/m),
Find the magnetic field intensity H and the value of . x
E(z t = 0)
E(z,
3 3 109
k o 3 o o 10 (rad/m). H(z, t = 0)
c 3 108
form we have E(z) = ay5ejjz and
In phasor form,
ax ay az
1 1 z
H ( z) E
j o j o x y z
0 5e jz 0 1. Phasors E(z) and H(z) are periodic
complex functions in z.
1
a x E y a x 5e jz 2. Electric and magnetic field intensities of
j o z o are definitely related through the
5 10 Maxwells equations.
H ( z ) a x e j10 z a x 0.0398e j10 z
(10 )(4 10 )
9 7
3. When E is known in a specified medium,
R [a x 0.0398e j10 z e jt ]
H ( z , t ) Re[ H can be determined
determined, and vice versa
versa.

a x 0.0398 cos(109 t 10 z ) (A/m).

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 54
 6-5
6 5.3
3 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
In source-free nonconducting ( = 0) media characterized by and , Maxwells
q
equations reduce to
H B 2V
(1) E E V 2 v 0
2

t t t
E D 2
A
(2) H H J A 2 J 0
2
t t t
(3) E 0 D v
(4) H 0 B 0

These four first-order differential equations are in only two variables. They can
be combined to give a second-order equation in E or H alone.
H E 2 E
( E ) ( E ) E
2
( H ) 2
t t t t t
2 E 1 2 E
E 2 0 E 2
2 2
0, u p
t u p t 2
E H 2 H
( H ) ( H ) H
2
( E ) 2
t t t t t
2 H 1 2 H
H 2 0 H 2
2 2
0 E, H, A, and V share the same wave
t u p t 2
equation. This also applies to their
phasors.
Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 55
 6-5
6 5.3
3 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
HELMHOLTZS WAVE EQUATIONS
E and H wave equations in phasor form
1 2 E 2 2 E 2 E
2
E 2 2 0 E 2
2 2
0 Ek
2
0
u p t u p t 2 t 2
1 2 H 2 2 H 2 H
2
H 2
2
0 H 2
2
0 H k
2
0
u p t 2 u p t 2 t 2
The solutions of above two wave equations represent propagating waves, which
are subject of next chapter.

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 56

 6-5
6 5.3
3 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 57

 6-5
6 5.3
3 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
EM Spectrum in Microwave Bands

Introductory Electromagnetics, Prof. J.-T. Kuo, CGU EE, Spring 2015. 6 - 58