Review of Related Literature

Physico-Chemical Analysis of Mangrove Soil in the Machilipatnam Coastal

Region, Krishna
District, Andhra Pradesh
Mangrove soil condition was essential factor in mangrove reforestation and coastal
rehabilitation projects. The present survey was made to study of the some
physicochemical parameters of soil at five places of Machilipatnam coastal regions
during the year 20012-2013 at four-seasonal intervals. This study was carried out using
field determination of colour and texture, and a low-cost electrochemical approach was
used for pH, salinity measurements The soil properties, colour, texture, pH ,
salinity,electrical condititivity, organic carbon, macronutrients (N,P)and
micronutrients(Zn,Mn,Fe,Cu,P2O5) are determined in mangrove ecosystem. The results
showed that soils in the mangrove forest are dark black in colour, and are made up of
both clay and silt, soil pH range from(8.35 to 8.79) which are alkaline. Soil salinity range
from (20 to 32 ppt) decreased with increasing distance from the tidal coast electric
conductivity range from (10.26 to 16.22 m.mohs/cm).Available nitrogen(29.4 to
81.2ppm),phosphorous range from(3.32 to 5.89 ppm) were maximum in monsoon and
minimum in summer . The micronutrients such as zinc(0.31 to 0.64ppm), copper(0.9
to8.8 ppm) , iron (9.50 to 19.7)and manganese(17.9 to60.2 ppm) have variation in
comparison to different areas.
Hence these field stations gain significancein the study of mangroves.
Soil properties:
The soil of the Krishna mangroves is clayey. The major riverbeds - Gollalamatapaya,
adimeru and Krishna are found to be clayey rather than silt. The overall soil texture
may be classified as silty clay.Soil samples were collected bfrom both degraded and
growth areas of the Krishna mangroves before taking up restoration work. The samples
were analysed for soil salinity, pH, electric conductivity and other parameters including
soil texture. The soil is mostly clayey inside mangrove areas, but sandy clayey in a few
places. Soil salinity is greater in summer than in winter or the rainy season, because of
the high rate of evaporation.

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS AND NUTRIENTS VARIATIONS OF STREAMS

AND RIVERS IN ABAKALIKI, EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA
Physicochemical parameters and nutrient loads of major rivers and streams in
Abakaliki, Ebonyi State were studied for a period of seven (7) months from May to
November, 2011. Regular and constant monitoring of water bodies is vital to ensure that
water quality characteristics are maintained. The results obtained showed; temperature
(28.6030.00 C), pH (6.807.93), DO (1.40 3.53 mg l-1), turbidity (41.3397.67 NTU),
conductivity (19.00613.30 S cm-1), total acidity (9.17 17.23 mg l-1), total alkalinity
(6.4310.97 mg l-1), BOD (1.207.03 mg l-1), COD (16.20053.533 mg l-1), Phosphate
(0.111.17 mg l-1) and Nitrate (0.121.45 mg l-1) ranges respectively. The turbidity and
BOD were well above the prescribed standards. The results suggest that refuse disposal,
fertilizer use, and natural phenomena e.g. soil erosion; flooding, etc. may have
contributed in various ways to the impairment of the water quality of the studied sites.
Although the results do not indicate adverse pollution status of any of the sites, they
provided the need for further investigations and monitoring.

Temperature is one of the limiting factors in the aquatic environment (Lawson, 2011;
Murhekar,
2011). Aquatic animals (e.g. stream insects, trout, and salmon) are sensitive to changes
in water temperature and require a certain temperature range to survive and thrive. If
water temperature is outside the range for a long time, organisms can be stressed and
die. Temperature also affects the amount of oxygen water can hold. Cold water holds
more oxygen than warm water, and all aquatic animals need oxygen to survive.
Temperature also affects the rate of photosynthesis by aquatic plants, reproduction and
metabolic activities (Lawson, 2011) and the sensitivity of organisms to toxic wastes,
parasites and diseases. Warm water discharged from factories (Murhekar, 2011), the
removal of trees and vegetation that shade streams, and water that runs off city streets
can cause temperature changes that may threaten the balance of aquatic systems.
Water temperatures usually show a characteristic annual cycle, with higher values during
the (dry season) summer and lower values in the (rainy season) winter (Arain et al.,
2008).
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is important to health of aquatic ecosystems. All aquatic animals
need oxygen to survive. Natural waters with consistently high dissolved oxygen levels
are most likely healthy and stable and are capable of supporting a diversity of aquatic
organisms. Cold water can hold more dissolved oxygen than warm water. Most aquatic
animals prefer a pH range of 6.5 - 8.0. Lawson, (2011) reported that aquatic shrimps and
crabs require optimum pH range of 6.8 - 8.7 for maximum growth and reproduction. This
can produce conditions that hurt aquatic life. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) species
are notable characteristic pollutants for eutrophication of natural waters (Prior and
Johnes, 2002; Withers and Lord, 2002; Halliwell et al., 1996; Omaka et al., 2007; Zanin et
al., 1998). High concentration of nitrate in drinking water sources can be fatal to humans
and animals (Monteiro et al., 2003; Zatar et al., 1999), while elevated concentration of
phosphorus may result in fouling of natural water and production of toxic cyanobacteria
(Omaka, 2007). The objective of this study was to investigate the physicochemical
parameters and nitrogen-N and phosphorus-P loads and hence the water quality status
of Rivers and Streams within Abakaliki, Ebonyi State in both the dry and rainy seasons
and pinpoint areas where further studies were necessary.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study areas
Ebonyi State is an agrarian State located in the South Eastern Benue Trough of Nigeria
(Omaka et al., 2011; Collins-Longman, 1981). The main study area falls within the
climatic region of South Eastern Nigeria where the rainy season spans from April to
October and the dry season from October to April (Ezeh and Ugwu, 2007; Omaka et al.,
2011). The average annual rainfall of the study area is about 1500 mm with actual
surface temperature (seasonal temperature) of between 24-36 C during dry season and
about 18 C during the rainy season (Ezeh and Ugwu, 2007; Collins-Longman, 1981).
The study area is of high leached red soils of tropical forest areas with the vegetation
dominated by grasses, shrubs and trees e.g. palm trees, coconut, mango, and orange
trees). The State is majorly drained by the Ebonyi R. and Akpoha R., with minor
tributaries, streams and ponds scattered around the area (Omaka et al., 2011). A map
showing the sampling sites around Abakaliki Metropolis, Ebonyi State Sampling and
Sampling Procedures In order to avoid contamination, all glasswares, high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) storage bottles for reagent solutions and plastic items were acid
cleaned following a standard procedure (Worsfold et al., 2005; Omaka, 2007). All items
for collecting and storing samples and reagents were first washed with distilled water,
soaked in a 10% HCl solution for at least 24 h (Prior and Johnes, 2002) and rinsed three
times with distilled water. The washed items were dried and stored in zip locked
polyethylene bags. Water samples were collected in these sterile, wide mouthed
containers (ca. 1 litre) with cap. The containers were completely filled with water and
capped to prevent spillage.
Tests on each sample were carried out upon return to the laboratory, within one hour of
collection. However, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity and turbidity were
carried out in-situ at the sampling sites using probes (A pocket-sized pH meter pHep
C175 Hanna Instruments, Italy; LCD portable digital multi-stem thermometer with
external probe (Model ST -9269); Lutron DO- 5509 DO meter, Taiwan; A pocket-size
conductivity meter Hanna Instruments, Italy).
Analytical Procedures
The physicochemical parameters determinations were carried out according to standard
methods: Total Acidity was determined by titration (Duruibe et al., 2007), total alkalinity
by acid titration using methyl-orange as an indicator (Arain et al., 2008), BOD by
Winklers method, and COD by dichromate method (Duruibe et al., 2007). Nitrate and
phosphate were determined spectrophotometrically at 410 and 820 nm respectively
(Jenkins and Medsken, 1964; Omaka et al., 2007; Valderrama, 1981). The analytical
method for the determination of phosphate was based on the formation of 12-
molybdophosphoric acid from phosphate and molybdate in acid solution and subsequent
reduction to a blue heteropoly compound. The Filterable Reactive Phosphorus (FRP) was
analyzed after filtration of samples with 0.45 micron filter paper. The nitrate was based
on the reaction of the nitrate ion with brucine sulphate in a 13 N H2SO4 solution at a
temperature of 100 C.
Results and Discussion
Ten (10) sites were sampled and analyzed. The sites are all in Abakaliki Capital of Ebonyi
State. The samples were collected from May, 2011 to November, 2011. The results of the
analysis are presented in tables 1 and 2. The temperature of all the studied sites was
ambient within the acceptable standards (Itumoh et al., 2011). Apart from the
temperature of 29.172.02, 29.332.31 and 30.002.65 observed in Ebonyi River at
Onuebonyi, Iyiudele River at Grace Court Hotels and Azuiyiokwu River at Abakaliki-Ogoja
Expressway, the rest had temperatures ca. 28 C healthy for the survival of aquatic
plants and animals. The pH of the samples was within the acceptable limits, according to
WHO and National Agency for Food, Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), at 25 C
(Arain et al., 2008; Duruibe et al., 2007). The slightly alkaline pH values for some sites
could be due to the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates in the water (Murhekar,
2011). Also, the values of the pH are well preferred for aquatic and biological activities in
water and this implies that there will be abundance of aquatic plants and animals at the
sites. For the Seasonal Stream at Presco campus of Ebonyi State University and Iyiudele
River at Waterworks Road with pH values of 6.900.14 and 6.80.35 respectively, may
have resulted from activities prevalent in this areas e.g., the washing of used fertilizer
bags at the Iyiudele River and waste discharges. Within the temperature range of (28.60
30.00), the % Saturation of the water in all the sites was very low. The low %
Saturation, by implication, low DO could have resulted from high levels of bacteria
activities or large amounts of rotting plants. This was also true because the temperature
and pH conditions favour the activities of aquatic organisms. The DO values also
reflected the levels ofpollution at these sites (Murhekar, 2011). The Ama River at
Timbershade (1.430.15) andAzuiyiokwu River at Abakaliki Ogoja Expressway
(1.600.40) were more polluted than others.
Although the results represented mean values (n = 7), the turbidity was less during the
rainy seasons (May - August). Refuse disposal, urban runoff flowing into these water
bodies, flood, and soil erosion affected the turbidity. On the average of 28C, the
electrical conductivity values of the water samples were far below the prescribed
standard (1400 S cm-1 at 28C) (Murhekar, 2011). This simply means that samples
contained fewer amounts of dissolved salts. The studied sites fall within tropical
rainforest zone of West Africa with abundant precipitation (about 1500 mm on average).
The total acidity and alkalinity of the sites were within the prescribed limits. Alkalinity of
30 and 50 mg l-1 are generally acceptable to fish and shrimp production (Lawson, 2011).
The BOD and COD results suggest possible pollution of the studied sites. The result of the
COD (48.883156.06) from the Azuiyiokwu R. at Abakaliki-Ogoja Express Road is not
surprising because there is a waste disposal site close to the banks of the River which
may contributes to its pollution. This was similar to the River course at Hope-High
International School. The Iyiudele R. at Waterworks Road stood most polluted. This was
reflected by the high phosphate concentration (1.170.06 mg l-1).
The results of the nutrient loads (nitrate and phosphate) were within prescribed limits.
However, accumulation of the nutrients over time will eventually result in eutrophication.
The washing of used fertilizer bags around the Iyiudele R. at Waterworks Road resulted to
the elevated concentrations of phosphate at the site. Agricultural activities (e.g. the use
of phosphate and urea fertilizers) are the major contributory factors to the
concentrations of the nutrients in the area. The results from Ebonyi River were compared
with the results obtained from other locations because other rivers and streams studied
in this work discharge into it.

Variation in Mangrove Forest Structure and Sediment Characteristics in Bocas

del Toro, Panama
Mangrove forest structure and sediment characteristics were examined in the
extensive mangroves of Bocas del Toro, Republic of Panama. Forest structure was
characterized to determine if spatial vegetation patterns were repeated over the Bocas
del Toro landscape. Using a series of permanent plots and transects we found that the
forests of Bocas del Toro were dominated by Rhizophora mangle with very few
individuals of Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia racemosa. Despite this low species
diversity, there was large variation in forest structure and in edaphic conditions (salinity,
concentration of available phosphorus, Eh and sulphide concentration). Aboveground
biomass varied 20-fold, from 6.8 Mg ha1 in dwarf forests to 194.3 Mg ha1 in the
forests fringing the land. But variation in forest structure was predictable across the
intertidal zone. There was a strong tree height gradient from seaward fringe (mean tree
height 3.9 m), decreasing in stature in the interior dwarf forests (mean tree height 0.7
m), and increasing in stature in forests adjacent to the terrestrial forest (mean tree
height 4.1 m). The predictable variation in forest structure emerges due to the complex
interactions among edaphic and plant factors. Identifying predictable patterns in forest
structure will aid in scaling up the ecosystem services provided by mangrove forests in
coastal landscapes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Site description The Bocas del Toro archipelago ( 9 21N, 82
15W) in Eastern Panama encompasses two large bays:
Characterizing forest structure Four sites were chosen within Almirante Bay: 1) Mangrove
point on the Peninsula close to the laboratory of the Smithsonian Tropical Research
Institutes Marine Field Station on Isla Coln (close to site 40 in Guzmn and Guevera
1998a), 2) Isla San Cristbal (close to site 24 in Guzmn and Guevara 1999), 3) Cayo
Solarte (close to site 35 in Guzmn and Guevera 1998b), and 4) Isla Popa (close to site
47 in Guzmn and Guevera 1999). At each site, 10 10 m permanent plots were
established at 4 locations across the intertidal zone. At each site, one plot was located in
each of four zones: 1) fringing the lagoon, 2) to landward of the fringe (seaward
transition), 3) in the dwarf stand, 4) fringing the land (landward transition), for a total of
16 plots over the lagoon. In each plot all trees were tagged and both tree height and
diameter at breast height (dbh) were measured (Cintrn and Schaffer-Novelli 1984).
Rhizophora mangle, the most abundant species, has prop-roots and multiple stems,
requiring dbh to be measured above the highest prop-root where the root no longer
influences the diameter of the stem. Biomass was estimated using a number of different
allometric equations.
Data were analysed by one way ANOVA testing for the significance of main effectZone
over replicate sites using Data Desk 6.1 (Data Descriptions, NY, USA). Pairwise tests of
individual means were done using least significant differences (P < 0.05). Inspecting
residual plots assessed suitability of ANOVA models.
RESULTS The mangrove forests of Almirante Bay and the Chiriqu Lagoon are dominated
by Rhizophora mangle, with other mangrove species being uncommon (in 2470 trees
sampled within the 16 permanent plots established, only 10 individuals of Laguncularia
racemosa and 9 of Avicennia germinans were found). Although the forests were
essentially monocultures of R. mangle, at each site forest structure varied enormously
over the intertidal zone (Fig. 1, Table 1). Tree height declined from 3-5 m at the seaward
fringe to less than 1 m in the interior of the stand, increasing again when nearing the
landward edge of the mangrove. Tree height was correlated with dbh, LAI, basal area and
biomass over all three sizes.However, at all four sites, the structure of the forest varied
predictably across the intertidal gradient despite differences in the extent of the interior
dwarf stands (Fig. 1). Soil physico-chemical properties, measured on Isla San Cristbal
also varied across the tree height gradient (Fig. 2). Extractable phosphorus declined from
the seaward fringe to the dwarf stands, increasing slightly close to the landward edge of
the mangrove. Soils were more reducing (lower Eh) with higher pore water sulfide
concentrations in the dwarf stands compared to the seaward and landward fringes.
Salinity of the pore water remained near sea-strength for most of the height gradient,
but decreased close to the landward margin. Greater height and dbh of trees on the
landward margin were associated, at least partially, with lower levels of soil salinity (Fig.
3, Table 1). There was evidence of significant fresh water inputs (i.e., lower pore water
salinity) in the dwarf zone at Cayo Solarte and in the seaward transition zone on Isla San
Cristbal (Fig. 3).
DISCUSSION Rhizophora mangle was overwhelmingly dominant within Almirante Bay.
This could be associated with subsidence of the region due to tectonic activity (Phillips et
al. 1994; Phillips and Bustin 1996), which may favor the success of R. mangle recruits
because of its enhanced ability to survive inundation compared to A. germinans (McKee
1996), and/or its ability to colonize inundated substrates (McKee 1995). Despite the
dominance of one species, forest structure was highly variable at any one site, but the
pattern of variation across the intertidal zone was similar and predictable over all sites.
Globally, biomass estimates in mangrove forests range from 7-440 Mg ha1 (Saenger
and Snedaker 1993). Our estimates for forests in Bocas del Toro fell within the lower end
of this range, but varied over 20-fold (8-194 Mg ha1 ). Estimation of biomass ishighly
dependent on the allometric equations used (Clark and Clark 2000), and thus our
estimates of biomass could be improved with the development of sitespecific allometries
(cf. Ross et al. 2001). The mangrove forests of Bocas del Toro are dominated by R.
mangle. Despite the low diversity there was wide variation in both forest structure and
sediment characteristics. However, the variation in forest structure is predictable,
following a pattern of a taller fringing forest giving way to extensive dwarf stands to
landward, and then returning to a taller forest on the terrestrial edge. Linking
predictability in forest structure with that of function will permit scaling of ecosystem
processes to the whole landscape scale. Facilitating scaling up to the landscape level is
vital to fully understand the role of mangroves in carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling
and the influence of mangrove forests on the biogeochemistry of lagoon waters, the
provision of habitat for a diverse assemblage of organisms, and in predicting the
vulnerability of mangroves to global climate change and other natural and anthropogenic
disturbances.

ZOOPLANKTON COMPOSITION IN THE MANGROVES AND REEFS OF THE LAS

PERLAS ARCHIPELAGO, PANAMA
Inshore areas of the tropical marine environment contain many unique and diverse
ecosystems. Of particular interest to ecologists are highly productive mangrove forests
and coral reefs. Mangroves are known to provide many ecosystem services, one of which
a nursery role for juvenile fish and crustaceans has been the focus of much detailed
and often contradictory research. In this baseline study, the zooplankton composition of
a fringe mangrove and coral reef in the Las Perlas Archipelago, Panama was examined
using a combination of plankton tows and nightlight lift net. It was found that
zooplankton composition between mangroves and reefs differed significantly for some
groups in the nightlight surveys. Additionally, a greater number of late-stage larval and
juvenile fishes were obtained in the mangrove site than the reef. The utilisation of certain
inshore habitats by fish and crustacean species at particular lifestages, and their
dependence on other zooplankton, could be assessed in the Las Perlas Archipelago with
the use of multiple sampling methodologies. This could provide vital information for
management decisions and the conservation of inshore habitats.
This study aimed to determine the zooplankton composition of mangroves and, for
comparison, coral reefs of the Las Perlas Archipelago, a group of islands on the Pacific
side of Panama, 40 miles south of Panama City. Using these data, invertebrate
lifehistories and their uses of different habitats may be clarified. This was achieved using
plankton tows during the day and nightlight lift net in a fringe and a reef area at night.
By using both methodologies it was hoped that the limitations of one would be offset by
the use of the other. In particular, the use of nightlighting has been shown to attract
juvenile and larval fishes, which allows a comparison of fish diversity between a reef and
a mangrove to be made. Ultimately, this baseline survey can provide information upon
which further research may be directed. This is due in part to the relatively small amount
of anthropogenic disturbance within the Las Perlas Archipelago; if baseline data are
gathered now they can be used as reference on the areas undisturbed state. This is
particularly pertinent with the declaration of the area for Special Management status
(Law 18, 2007), which has afforded the Archipelago some protection but, if based on
sound scientific research, may be farther reaching
The variability of zooplankton composition between a mangrove and a reef were not
unexpected given the differences in habitats: an exposed reef site in 5 metres of water
and a sheltered fringe mangrove on an ebb tide. The composition of zooplankton caught
in the reef areas was consistent with other studies on reef habitats (Emery, 1968;
Heidelberg et al, 2004). The high abundance of copepods, decapod larvae and hyperiids
and the occurrence of all the other groups in low numbers are typical of the reef
zooplankton composition. Nocturnal near-reef plankton sampled in Jamaica were found to
be twice as dense as during the day and contained an average of 89% copepods, few of
which were of demersal origin, with a highly variable mixture of other plankton groups
(Heidelberg et al, 2004).
Conversion of the mangroves at a level seen in other countries such as the Philippines
would lead to large economic losses in addition to a loss of coastal protection,
environmental damage and a decrease in tourism. While Las Perlas is not as developed
as the study area described in Malaysia, it is the focus of possible development which
would alter the natural state of some of the islands. What impact this would have on
zooplankton community and diversity is uncertain but initiating research now may
provide reliable information on the ecology of plankton communities which in turn can be
used for management decisions in the future.
Conclusion Caution must be used when attempting to draw any further conclusions from
these data. As a standalone, baseline survey it provided interesting results on the use of
nightlight lift net from which further studies within the Las Perlas Archipelago could be
directed. They are both sources of juveniles for recruitment to adult populations and a
food source for upper trophic levels. Further research would not only provide essential
information on the zooplankton composition of estuarine and fringe mangroves but also
on the distribution and abundances of larval fishes. If done over a prolonged period
encompassing seasonal variations in temperature, rainfall, salinity and other physical
parameters, this may also yield information on not only resident species but also those
which utilise mangroves for certain parts of their lifecycle. While it may be difficult to
comprehensively determine the role of mangroves and other habitats as nurseries, it is
perhaps wisest to err on the side of caution (Beck et al, 2001). Current evidence may not
be absolute but it is better to act upon it with the limited resources available, rather than
wait for irrefutable proof. The designation of Las Perlas as a site of special management
is certainly a promising beginning for its protection. But with further dedicated research
perhaps conclusive evidence may be established from which dedicated protective
measures could be implemented.

Biocomplexity in Mangrove Ecosystems

Mangroves are an ecological assemblage of trees and shrubs adapted to grow in
intertidal environments along tropical coasts. Despite repeated demonstration of their
economic and societal value, more than 50% of the worlds mangroves have been
destroyed, 35% in the past two decades to aquaculture and coastal development, altered
hydrology, sea-level rise, and nutrient overenrichment. Variations in the structure and
function of mangrove ecosystems have generally been described solely on the basis of a
hierarchical classification of the physical characteristics of the intertidal environment,
including climate, geomorphology, topography, and hydrology. Here, we use the concept
of emergent properties at multiple levels within a hierarchical framework to review how
the interplay between specialized adaptations and extreme trait plasticity that
characterizes mangroves and intertidal environments gives rise to the biocomplexity that
distinguishes mangrove ecosystems. The traits that allow mangroves to tolerate variable
salinity, flooding, and nutrient availability influence ecosystem processes and ultimately
the services they provide. We conclude that an integrated research strategy using
emergent properties in empirical and theoretical studies provides a holistic approach for
understanding and managing mangrove ecosystems.
Zonation Landscape-level patterns that emerge in mangrove forests have long
captivated scientists, giving rise to a rich observational and experimental tradition
(Krauss et al. 2008). Mangrove forests are described as having zones of vegetation,
typically arranged along tidal gradients that are dominated by one or two species.
Although species zones have been represented graphically (Smith 1992), they have
defied statistical detection in species-rich regions, leading Smith (1992), Bunt & Stiegliz
(1999), and Ellison et al. (2000) to conclude either that environmental gradients and
their effects on species performances are very complex or that dispersal and recruitment
are random. Ecophysiological studies have revealed that many species may co-occur
because of similar physiological requirements (Ball 1996) and that strong patterning in
vegetation emerges on the extreme ends of environmental gradients (e.g., salinity,
flooding, nutrient availability) (Ball 1998).
Habitat Stability Even though coastal systems are subject to changing sea levels,
hurricanes, and tsunamis (Alongi 2008), many mangrove habitats sustain themselves for
millennia (Gilman et al. 2008). For example, mangrove islands in the Mesoamerican
Barrier Reef system of Belize have existed for 8000 years and have accumulated more
than 10 m of peat as sea level has risen (Macintyre et al. 2004). Vertical building of these
islands has allowed them to maintain surface elevations within the intertidal (Figure 2),
where mangroves have dominated for their entire history (McKee & Faulkner 2000,
McKee et al. 2007a). Thus, an emergent property of these biogenic mangrove systems is
habitat stability, which is defined here as persistence of the mangrove habitat, relatively
unchanged, through time.