Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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Brian Lawn
Chapter
1
Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2010
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511623127.003
Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2016
2 The Griffith concept
look at events within the boundaries of a critically loaded solid. How, for
example, are the applied stresses transmitted to the inner regions where
fracture actually takes place? What is the nature of the fracture mechanism
itself? The answers to such questions were to hold the key to an
understanding of all fracture phenomena.
The breakthrough came in 1920 with a classic paper by A. A. Griffith.
Griffith considered an isolated crack in a solid subjected to an applied
stress, and formulated a criterion for its extension from the fundamental
energy theorems of classical mechanics and thermodynamics. The prin-
ciples laid down in that pioneering work, and the implications drawn
from those principles, effectively foreshadowed the entire field of present-
day fracture mechanics. In our introductory chapter we critically analyse
the contributions of Griffith and some of his contemporaries. This serves
to introduce the reader to many of the basic concepts of fracture theory,
and thus to set the scene for the remainder of the book.
I I I II
Fig. 1.1. Plate containing elliptical cavity, semi-axes b, c, subjected to
uniform applied tension aA. C denotes 'notch tip'.
x*/c2+y2/b*=l, (1.1)
one may readily show the radius of curvature to have a minimum value
(1.3)
The variation of the local stresses along the X-axis is also of interest. Fig.
1.2 illustrates the particular case c = 3b. The stress ayy drops from its
maximum value ac = loK at C and approaches aA asymptotically at large
x, while GXX rises to a sharp peak within a small distance from the stress-free
surface and subsequently drops toward zero with the same tendency as ayy.
The example of fig. 1.2 reflects the general result that significant
perturbations to the applied stress field occur only within a distance c
from the boundary of the hole, with the greatest gradients confined to a
highly localised region of dimension p surrounding the position of
maximum concentration.
Inglis went on to consider a number of stress-raising configurations, and
concluded that the only geometrical feature that had a marked influence on
the concentrating power was the highly curved region where the stresses
were actually focussed. Thus (1.4) could be used to estimate the stress-
concentration factors of such systems as the surface notch and surface step
in fig. 1.3, with p interpreted as a characteristic radius of curvature and c
as a characteristic notch length. A tool was now available for appraising
the potential weakening effect of a wide range of structural irregularities,
including, presumably, a real crack.
m m tttiti
nTTTT TTTT
Fig. 1.3. Stress concentration half-systems: surface cavity and surface
step of characteristic length c and notch radius p.
System boundary
Fig. 1.4. Static plane-crack system, showing incremental extension of
crack length c through dc: B, elastic body; S, crack surface; A, applied
loading.
u=uM+us. (1.5)
dU/dc = 0. (1.6)
UB = nc*al/E' (1.8)
1 1
Equilibrium s
100
- U"
A' ^^
0
N
N
N
\
100 - \ \
" \
\
\
>00 1 1 \
0 10 20 30
Crack length, c (mm)
Fig. 1.5. Energetics of Griffith crack in uniform tension, plane stress.
Data for glass from Griffith: y = 1.75Jnr2, E = 62GPa, aA = 2.63MPa
(chosen to give equilibrium at c0 = 10 mm).
= 4cy (1.9)
with y the free surface energy per unit area. The total system energy (1.5)
becomes
U(c)= - (1.10)
Fig. 1.5 shows plots of the mechanical energy UM(c), surface energy Us(c),
and total energy U(c). Observe that, according to the Inglis treatment, an
edge crack of length c (limiting case of surface notch, b -> 0, fig. 1.2) may be
considered to possess very nearly one-half the energy of an internal crack
of length 2c.
The Griffith equilibrium condition (1.6) may now be applied to (1.10).
aF = (2E'y/ncor\ (1.11)
As we see from fig. 1.5, or from the negative value of d2U/dc2, the system
energy is a maximum at equilibrium, so the configuration is unstable. That
is, at aA < G the crack remains stationary at its original size c0; at aA > o
it propagates spontaneously without limit. Equation (1.11) is the famous
Griffith strength relation.
For experimental confirmation, Griffith prepared glass fracture speci-
mens from thin round tubes and spherical bulbs. Cracks of length
4-23 mm were introduced with a glass cutter and the specimens annealed
prior to testing. The hollow tubes and bulbs were then burst by pumping
in a fluid, and the critical stresses determined from the internal fluid
pressure. As predicted, only the stress component normal to the crack
plane was found to be important; the application of end loads to tubes
containing longitudinal cracks had no detectable effect on the critical
conditions. The results could be represented by the relation
with a scatter 5%, thus verifying the essential form of aF(c0) in (1.11).
If we now take this result, along with Griffith's measured value of
Young's modulus, E = 62 GPa, and insert into (1.11) at plane stress, we
obtain y = 1.75 J m"2 as an estimate of the surface energy of glass. Griffith
attempted to substantiate his model by obtaining an independent estimate
of y. He measured the surface tension within the temperature range
1020-1383 K, where the glassflowseasily, and extrapolated linearly back
to room temperature tofindy = 0.54 J m~2. Considering that even present-
day techniques are barely capable of measuring surface energies of solids
to very much better than a factor of two, this 'agreement' between
measured values is an impressive vindication of the Griffith theory.
1
h
UA = 0. (1.12)
At the same time we have, from simple beam theory, the elastic strain
energy in the cantilever arm,
UB = Ed3h2/Sc3. (1.13)
Us = 2cy. (1.14)
The total system energy U(c) in (1.5) now follows, and application of the
Griffith condition (1.6) leads finally to the equilibrium crack length
co = (3tf3/*2/16y)1/4. (1.15)
The energy terms UM(c), Us(c), and U(c) are plotted in fig. 1.7. It is evident
from the minimum at U(c0) that (1.15) corresponds to a stable con-
figuration. In this instance the fracture is 'controlled': the crack advances
into the material at the same rate as that of the wedge.
Equation (1.15) indicates that, as in Griffith's uniform tension example,
a knowledge of equilibrium crack geometry uniquely determines the
surface energy. Obreimoff proceeded thus to evaluate the surface energy of
mica under different test conditions, and found a dramatic increase from
y = 0.38 J m~2 at normal atmosphere (100 kPa pressure) to y = 5.0 J m~2
in a vacuum (100 uPa). The test environment was clearly an important factor
to be considered in evaluating material strength. Moreover, Obreimoff
noticed that on insertion of the glass wedge the crack did not grow
immediately to its equilibrium length: in air equilibrium was reached
within seconds, whereas in a vacuum the crack continued to creep for
several days. Thus the time element was another complicating factor to be
considered. These observations provided the first indication of the role of
chemical kinetics in fracture processes.
Obreimoff also observed phenomena that raised the question of reversi-
bility in crack growth. Propagation of the crack was often erratic, with
an accompanying visible electrostatic discharge (' triboluminescence'),
especially in a vacuum. On partial withdrawal of the glass wedge the
crack was observed to retreat and apparently 'heal', but re-insertion of the
wedge revealed a perceptible reduction in cleavage strength. These results
imply the existence in the energy balance of dissipative elements.