Chapter 5: Geologic Agents

INTRODUCTION
Erosion - one of the important agent of removal
and transportation of surficial materials which is
the product of physical and chemical breakdown
of rocks by process of weathering.

Materials that is susceptible to erosion not

necessarily from weathered soil but any
unconsolidated surgical deposits.

There are three (3) agents of erosion:

(1) Water
(2) Wind
(3) Glacial
Contd

The important characteristics and the

types of sediment that accumulate in each
are:

(1) Continental environments

(2) Shoreline environments
(3) Marine environments
 Continental environments
Alluvial fans: fan-shaped deposits of gravel, sand and
mud that accumulate in dry basins at the bases of mountain
ranges.

Eolian (wind) environments: include sand seas of

deserts, where sand dunes are built and transported by
wind, and areas where windblown dust accumulates.

Fluvial (river) environments: are the river channels.

Lakes: are bodies of non marine water, including

freshwater lakes on continental lowlands and saline lakes
in isolated basins.

Glacial environments: are the areas where sediment is

deposited by glaciers.
 Shoreline environments
Deltas: are deposits of mud, silt and sand that form at the
mouth of the rivers where they empty into the sea or lake.

Beaches: are shoreline accumulation of sand.

Barrier islands: are linear bodies of sand built off-shore by

the action of ocean waves.

Lagoons: are elongated bodies of seawater located

between the mainland and barrier island or reefs. Low -
wave energy permits the deposition of mud.

Tidal flats: are shoreline areas that are covered with water
at high tide and uncovered at low tide. Mud is the major
type of sediment deposited.
 Marine environments
Shallow - marine environments: extend from the
shore to the edges of the continental shelves. Lime
and mud are the principal types of sediment
deposited.

Organic reef: are solid structures built from corals,

algae and shells of other marine organisms. Reefs
grow in warm, shallow water near islands and
continents.

Deep marine environments: characterize the deep

oceans beyond the continental slopes and include
deep sea fans and abyssal plains. Turbidities are
the major types of sediment deposited.
 Erosion by Water

Erosion Types Factor

Erosion Rates
Deposition
 Erosion Types Factor
Erosion by water - one of the most important types of erosion in terms of the amount
of sediment removed from land surface such as erosion in streams and river
channels.

Rivers are formed as a result of run-off and of many different types. There are few
factors that determine the type of erosion which is abrasion, solution and attrition:

(a) Abrasion
Depends on load in river and amount of material carried by water. E.g. Sand grain
pebbles or boulders which act as cutting tools that can deepen or widen the river bed.
Effective where velocity of river is rapid, river loads are heavy and rolled along the
bottom.

(b) Solution or Corrosion

Water as solvent and have corrosive effect on rocks especially when water contains
acid that could attack the rocks and dissolve the minerals in the bedrock. E.g.
Carbonic Acid from acid vegetation may attack rocks such as limestone and dolomite.

(c) Attrition
Boulders and rock fragments are worn by friction and may be broken down as they
are rolled and carried along in water.
 Erosion Rates
There are different types of load carried by
streams:

Dissolved load - as calcium, sodium, sulphate,

chloride and bicarbonate.

Suspended load - small grains ego silt and clay

Bed load - includes all particles which is being

moved by saltation, rolling or sliding.
Movement of bed load in a stream
Contd

There are three factors that affect the rate at which

running water will erode:

(1) Stream Size:

Large volume of water can carry larger loads and
therefore very effective during flood stage.

(2) Gradient and Velocity:

Slope at which river flows will affect the velocity and
usually is higher at the source and lower at mouth of
river. Velocity usually higher at rivers with straight
channels, free of obstacles and at steep gradient.
Straight and narrow channels will erode more effectively.

(3) Nature of Load:

Rivers with many obstacles will reduce velocity and
carrying power.
 Deposition
Loads will be deposited when competency and capacity of
river is decreased because of:

(1) decrease in volume

(2) loss of velocity
(3) obstacles in stream channel
(4) widening of stream bed
(5) overloading
(6) freezing
(7) reduction in stream gradient

Some example of river deposits:

(a) Alluvium
(b) Deltas
 Alluvium
Sloping fan-shaped deposits (Figure 5.1) found at the
foot of mountains due to accumulations of silt, sand,
gravel and boulders.

Transported sediment is dropped by a stream whenever

its velocity is reduced.

For example, deposited when fast-slowing mountain

rivers lose their gradient and flow out on level ground at
foot of mountain (a river emerging from a mountain
valley onto flatter ground).

This will block the flow causing the water to spillover the
banks and form new channel.
 Deltas
Load dropped when velocity of river decrease
and flows into large body of water such as sea
or lake (Figure 5.1).

Approaching the standing water the stream

velocity and transportive power are reduced and
deposition occurs.

Sediments accumulated reduce the channel

gradient and block the flow causing it to be
diverted.
 Erosion by Wind
The effect of erosion of soil by wind is as similar as erosion by water.

However, wind is capable of lifting and transporting loose sand and dust,
but its ability to erode solid rock is limited.

Particles of range size 0.1 to 0.15 mm in diameter (very fine to fine sand)
are most susceptible to wind erosion.

It is responsible for the formation of the great 'seas of sand' in the Sahara,
and other deserts, as well as blankets of wind blow dust covering millions of
square kilometers which is important and constitute some of Earth's richest
farmland.

Few variables that contribute to the effectiveness of this type of erosion are
velocity, duration, and length of open area without obstacles over which the
wind blows.

Erosion may be by:

(1) deflation
(2) deposition
The columns in Bryce Canyon National Park are produced by differential erosion along
receding cliff where zones of weakness occur along fractures and bedding planes
Natural arches develop in massive
sandstone area
 Deflation
(Blowing away process)
This is lifting and removal of loose sand and dust
particles from Earth's surface.

Occurs where vegetative cover is sparse and in areas

where weak, unconsolidated sediment is exposed at the
surface, wind may blow away much of the dust and fine
sand and create large depression called deflation basins
and where bedrocks are exposed, oasis are created.

Vegetation provides physical protection for the soil as

well as holding the moisture.

Deflation basins commonly develop where calcium

carbonate cement in sandstone formations is dissolved
by groundwater leaving loose sand grains, which are
picked up and transported by wind.
Contd
(a) Abrasion

By means of loose sand and dust particles which are transported as

part of its load.

Acts as natural sandblasting process and wearing solid objects.

Sand grains too are subjected to wear and will reduce in size.

(b) Transportation

Field observations indicate that windblown sand grains move by

skipping or bouncing into the air (a process called saltation) and by
rolling or sliding along the surface.

Fine silt and dust are carried in suspension over great distances and
settle back to the ground only after the turbulent wind stops.

Determined by weight, size and shape of rock particles by velocity of

wind.
Differential erosion produces plateaus, mesas, buttes and pinnacles in Monument Valley,
Utah, form resistant sandstone overlying nonresistant shale
 The transportation of sediment by wind is accomplished by surface
creep, saltation and suspension. Coarse grains move by impact from
other grains and slide or roll (surface creep). Medium grains move by
skipping or bouncing (saltation). Fine silt and dust move in suspension
 Deposition
Load is deposited when velocity is
decreased due to obstacle or rain.

Some example types of wind deposits are

(a) Dunes
(b) Loess
 Dunes
Wind commonly deposits sand in the form of dunes,
formed when there is a sudden drop of speed of wind
forming hills of sand ego sandy beaches or sandy
desert.

Usually formed in areas where there is sufficient amount

of loose, unprotected sand and strong winds.

Many dunes originate where an obstacle such as large

rock, a clump of vegetation are present where velocity is
reduced and it settles to the ground.
Sand dune migrates as sand grains move up the slope of the dune
 Loess

Deposit of windblown silt (dust) that

accumulates slowly and ultimately
blankets large areas.

Well known for its ability to form fine-

textured, fertile, yellowish soils in areas of
sufficient rainfall and important for
agricultural purposes.
End of the Chapter 5

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