Hronsky - Session 2 - Mineral System Science

Module 3:
Exploration Management and Targeting
Session 2:
Mineral System Science
Jon Hronsky
21-25 March 2011
KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 1
Skoda Octavia
Seat Toledo
VW Golf
Audi TT VW Beetle
A common pattern underlies the different surface expression
1
Mineral Systems Science:
Conceptual Basis
Based on premise that:
ore-deposits
d it (particularly
( ti l l large
l ones)) representt
the foci of large-scale systems of mass and
energy flux
the only way to predict their location or their

metal endowment is to understand the entire
system
These systems comprise a scale-dependant

hierarchy of processes:
the largest observable scale of process is usually

continental-scale at least
McCuaig et al (2009) 4
KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011
2
(Knox-Robinson and Wyborn, 1997)
Goals of Mineral System Science
Define key process components of Mineral Systems

((at all scales))
Map these components to physical rock volumes

(essential for predictive targeting)
Define the key generic, unifying process elements

that govern ore-formation:
Major lithosphere-scale permeability pathways
Geodynamic processes
Secular global evolution
Self-organisation
Develop frameworks for evaluating the relative

endowment potential of systems
3
Mineral System Science
as an Integrator
Mineral Systems Science is the logical integrator for most
other g
geoscience relevant to ore g
geology
gy
It is the critical test of the usefulness of new geoscientific
knowledge does it improve our understanding of mineral
systems?
Current gaps in Mineral Systems knowledge define the
required research agenda
It is the critical framework for developing generic
k
knowledge
l d and d principles
i i l relating
l ti to
t ore-formation
f ti
Dont need to reinvent wheel with every new ore type
Insights from one ore type may help understanding of
another
Aids prediction of previously unknown ore types
Basic Physics of Ore

Formation
Fluid Sink
Concentrated Metal
Deposit
Advective Fluid flux

(= Energy Flow)
Diffuse Metal Source Region
4
Basic Concepts
Ore formation requires concentrating metal, initially in

low
l abundances
b d in
i large
l volumes
l off rock,
k into
i t smallll
volumes of rock at high abundances
Only plausible mechanism: large-scale advective fluid

flux
N
Necessary physical
h i l processes for
f ore formation
f ti
provide fundamental constraints on what can be a
viable Mineral Systems
Key Constraints on Ore Formation

from a Physical Perspective
Requires availability of large volumes of fluid

over geologically-short
l i ll h t periods i d
Fluid flow systems must mass-balance between
source and sink
Fluid flow systems must be highly organised to
produce required extreme concentrations
This cannot be the norm because most crustal
fluid flow systems do not produce ore
5
A PHYSICAL PROCESS
BASED MINERAL SYSTEM MODEL
Can develop proxies for

every component because
they all map to a physical
rock volume!
11
Constraints on Viable Ore

Fluids
A viable ore fluid must have both:
low viscosity
be available in large amounts over a geologically short time
Three Important Low Viscosity Fluids in the Crust (all

can transport metals):
Water
Mafic-Ultramafic Magmas
Hydrocarbons
y
Only Two Important Primary Fluid Source Regions

(Barnicoat, 2008):
Hydrosphere (meteoric + ocean)
Magmas/Magma source regions
6
Barnicoat (2008)
Metamorphism/Basin Dewatering:
Large potential fluid reservoirs but insufficient flux
potential reason why no hydrocarbon generated
metal deposits 13
Fluid Delivery Pathways
Usually very large scale elements
Only two major Fluid Delivery Pathway

systems observed:
Trans-Lithospheric structural zones
Permeable aquifers in basins
Some mineral systems may use both
7
(Hayward, 2004)
G2
Olympic Dam Areas of Textureless

Seismic Response
40 km
M h
Moho
Olympic Dam District:

N-S Oriented Reflection Seismic Traverse and Interpretation
(Goleby et al, 2004)
16
8
OD Density Inversion Anomaly
Areas of Textureless
Seismic Response
40 km
Moho
Magnetotelluric Section through Olympic Dam

Modified after Hayward, 2004; Magnetotelluric section provided R. Gill, Uni. Adel;
hotter colours are more conductive
Harper & Borrok (2007)
9
Fluid Flux Organisation

Concentrated Fluid Flux sufficient to
form an ore deposit requires unusual
self-organisation of the system
(Hronsky, 2009)
This in turn requires a barrier to fluid

flux that produces an overpressured
reservoir which is transiently
ruptured in a highly focused way
This organisation will only occur

transiently in space and time
10
A General Model for
Ore-forming SOC Systems
Fluid Sink
Episodic focused energy
and mass flux Thermal Halo-produced by entropy
dumped into environment
Threshold Barrier
(need not be a physical seal)
Transient Exit Conduit
Fluid Reservoir
Slow persistent fluid flux
Fluid (Energy) Source

Fluids do not respond passively to

structure : They create their own Pipes!
Modeled Changes in Coulomb

Failure Stress post rupture
no correlation with aftershock
swarm
Modeled Changes in Pore

Fluid Pressure p
post rupture-
p
good correlation with
aftershock swarm
1997 Umbria-Marche EQ
Miller et al (2004) 22
11
A Mineralising System Only transiently
organises to form Ore
An Example: Porphyry Cu Deposits
From Sillitoe (2010)
12
Cannell et al, 2005
Polymictic Diatreme Breccia (Braden Breccia) terminates ore-formation at El Teniente:

This event represents failure of the underlying threshold barrier
Similar antithetic relationship between ore and diatremes documented at Kelian and Olympic Dam25
Common Scenarios:
Local Fluid-Flux Barrier and Related
Overpressured Reservoir
Relatively impermeable unit (eg shale)
1. ANTIFORMAL SEAL
Overpressured fluid reservoir Fluid source

Orogenic Au deposits
Relatively impermeable sequence +

+ + + Relatively
nit impermeable
2. BASEMENT HORST / + r U + +
uif e basement
BASEMENT MARGIN SEAL Aq
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + Sed Basin
Density driven downward fluid flow
Base Metals/U
+ + Carapace of solidifying intrusion

3. INTRUSION CARAPACE SEAL + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
Porphyry Cu/Mafic NiS
13
Physics of Ore Formation Means Only
Certain, Rare Geodynamic Environments
have Ore-Forming Potential
ORE FORMATION
ACTIVE POTENTIAL
NON-DILATIONAL
FLUID PRODUCTION
(ie. TIGHT)
GEODYNAMIC SETTING
Fluid-flux driven by fluid pressure

not tectonic strain 27
Chiodini et al (2004)
Central Italy: A Model for Fluid flux Organisation?

14
Chiodini et al (2004)
Compressional Belt:
Extensional Zone: Organised Fluid Flow
Diffuse Fluid Flow
What are these favourable transient

geodynamic events?
Empirically we recognise five main scenarios:

1.
1 Incipient
I i i t Extension
E t i
VMS, Akalic LSE Au
2. Initial Plume Impact

LSE Au, NiS
3. Transient Compression
Porphyry Suite deposits, Mafic Intrusion NiS
4. Switches in Far-Field Stress

All?
5. Terminal stages of an Accretionary Orogen

IRG and Orogenic Au
Note that more than one of these may happen at the same time!
15
But What About Chemical Processes?
Much more diverse, complex and difficult to predict than

fundamental physical processes
Metal-bearing fluids in the upper crust encounter steep
physical and chemical gradients - many potential
depositional mechanisms, even within very similar
mineral systems
Explains why most metallogeny in upper 10km of crust
Some proposed chemical mechanisms violate physical
constraints (eg fluid mixing in the mesothermal
environment)
However, chemical processes still important and define
type of mineral system and precise location of ore
formation
Mapping Chemical Processes to the

Physical Mineral Systems Model
Key is defining a set of generic elements that represent
p
important p
chemical processes but can also be related to
rock volumes
These rock volumes are by definition a subset of those in
the Physical Mineral Systems Model
Four critical elements:
1. Pre-fertilisation of the fluid source region
2. Metal/Other Critical Solute source regions
3.
3 Fl
Fluid
id Fractionation
F i i Site
Si
4. Metal Depositional Site
If proxies for the rock volumes relating to these four
elements can be defined, it will be possible to significantly
refine the generic Physical Mineral Systems Model
16
Chemical Process Elements:
Subset Rock Volumes of the Generic Physical Mineral System
4. Ore Depositional Site either in

conduit or at discharge site
3. Fluid Fractionation Site

(eg magma > hydrothermal fluid; silicate
magma > sulphide magma) likely to
overlap Fluid Reservoir
2 Metal and/or Critical Solute

2.
(eg Cl, S) source region
1. Pre-Fertilised Fluid Source Region

(eg enriched upper mantle)
33
Fundamental Requirements
for Ore Formation
Upper mantle enrichment

Secular Variation
Large-scale geodynamics
Paleogeography
Fertility Structural
Architecture
Favourable
Ore Genesis
(Transient)
Geodynamics
Conjunction of Three Independent Parameters
17
Structural Architecture
35
for Ore Formation
Architecture
Favourable
Ore Genesis
(Transient)
Geodynamics
18
Trans-lithospheric Structures
(Master Conduits)
Most important and consistent structural pattern in mineral
targeting
Recognized since at least the 1930s
However because they tend to be cryptic in near-surface
geological mapping often only recognised as lineaments
This association has not received much attention from the
academic community
These are the Master Conduits which organise focused crustal
fluid flux
37
Tosdal (2009) 38
19
Padilla et al (2001) 39
Anastomosing Near-Surface Pattern

overlying Fundamental Structure
at depth
40
Sierra Foothills Gold Province, California. From Bierlein et al (2008)
20
Margin of Great Basin
Importance of Major
Structural Intersections
Bingham
Unita-Cottonwood Axis
DISTRICT-SCALE
Kloppenberg et al (2010)
DEPOSIT SCALE
DEPOSIT-SCALE
Bingham Deposit - Kloppenberg et al (2010)

42
21
Relating Hierarchy of
Structural Controls to the
SOC Concept
Fluid Sink
Episodic focused energy
and mass flux Thermal Halo-produced by entropy
DEPOSIT-SCALE
dumped into environment
Threshold Barrier
(need not be a physical seal)
Transient Exit Conduit
Fluid Reservoir
DISTRICT-SCALE
Slow persistent fluid flux
Fluid (Energy) Source

43
Structural Intersections
and Local Uplift/Subsidence
Anomalous uplift or subsidence may result at the
intersection of major
j trans-lithospheric
p structures
Important in mineral exploration
Preferential uplift of prospective basement in areas of

otherwise thick cover:
Olympic Dam
Bingham Canyon
Homestake
Preferential subsidence and preservation

Resolution?
Paleozoic Porphyry Copper deposits?
44
22
The Myth of the Dilational Jog Concept
There has long been an idea that

zones of complexity along an ore-
controlling major fault are more
prospective if they are dilational
jogs
We now know this idea is wrong!

Local complexity is important but it
does not matter whether it is a
dilational jog
Favourable Target Zone?
45
Section view NEAR-MINE IMPLICATIONS OF THE CONDUIT CONCEPT

Fitzroy Fault and Au distribution (gold blobs):
Image from Gocad looking SW?
Strongly fault controlled
Kanowna Belle
Example
(Henson, 2008)
100m
Image from: Carl Young
23
Conduit-focused rather than
Structure-focused Targeting Perspective
47
Elbow Bend Example:

Emperor Epithermal Au deposit, Fiji
Ore-Fluid Flow
Cross-Section (Begg, 1996)
48
24
Need to think of our ore-systems as a
connected network from source to sink
49
25
Lithospheric Architecture
What is Lithosphere Architecture?
Lithosphere architecture refers to the large-scale structure

of the continental lithosphere
The continental lithosphere comprises a mosaic of blocks
that behave largely as coherent entities during tectonic
deformation
These blocks have been in existence for a long time
(probably since the Mesoarchean) but have been variably
overprinted by later processes
Their properties are dominated by their upper mantle
component (the majority of their volume)
In some cases crust remains coupled to the underlying
mantle lithospheric domain for a long period of time
In other cases, crust is much younger than the underlying
mantle lithosphere
26
Why is it Important to Targeting?
Four Main Reasons:

1. The boundaries of lithospheric domains may fundamentally control
the processes responsible for ore-formation (eg Diamonds, NiS)
2. Different lithospheric domains may have very different metallogenic

fertility because of different histories of upper mantle enrichment
(eg Gold)
In some cases the marginal zone of a domain may be most fertile
3. Boundaryy zones between lithospheric

p domains commonly
y localise
Master Conduits
4. Lithospheric architecture provides the first-order control on large-

scale geodynamic patterns which often relate strongly to
metallogeny
Eg. Localisation of rift zones, oroclinal bends
Lithospheric
Architecture
Begg et al. (in press)
27
SAMTEX MT Survey:
Red dots = diamondiferous Kimberlites
(Jones et al, 2009) 55
Fertility
28
for Ore Formation
Architecture
Favourable
Ore Genesis
(Transient)
Geodynamics
Fertility
Tendency for a particular geological region or time
period to be systematically better endowed than
otherwise equivalent geological environments
Usually highest-order (largest scale) control on
endowment potential
Four Components:
Lithosphere Enrichment
Secular Earth Evolution
Large-scale Geodynamic Context
Paleolatitude (in some cases)
29
Paleoproterozoic
Modified from Tosdal et al., 2000 Orogen
Extended Laurentian
Cratonic Lithosphere
Post-Paleozoic
Archean Craton
Accreted Terranes
Mesoproterozoic
Orogen
Sr704 line
Sr706 line
Relationship of the Eocene Northern Nevada Gold Province to Lithospheric Architecture

Au deposits in Yellow: Giant star; Very Large- box; Large- circle; Medium- Diamond; Small-Triangle 59
Pb Isotopes for ore-related

Fluid Inclusions (all phases) at
Bingham have signature of
Mantle Lithosphere
Metasomatised at 1.8 Ga!
SCLM data are metasomatised mantle

from the Great Falls Tectonic Zone 60
30
Hitzman et al (2010)
Sediment Hosted Cu Deposits

The Andes:
A Continental-Scale Fertile Environment
since the Cretaceous
Spreading Rate on the MAR
increased rapidly in Cretaceous
Which made the

western margin
compressional This pushed South
America hard to
the west
31
Transient Favourable
Geodynamics
for Ore Formation
Architecture
Favourable
Ore Genesis
(Transient)
Geodynamics
32
Favourable Geodynamics
Increasing evidence that major ore-forming events occur

in narrow time windows,
windows often over broad areas
These critical time horizons must reflect unusual

regional-scale geodynamic settings that are favourable
for mineralisation
These favourable settings must be transient, lasting for

only short periods of geological time
65
Large Orogenic Au deposit
Large Porphyry Cu-Au deposit
Squire & Miller (2003)
All these major deposits formed at 440 Ma

66
(as did North Kazakhstan Gold Province)
33
Giant Gold Deposits of the Western US
Carlin 35-40 Ma
Bingham 39-37 Ma
Cripple Creek ~37 Ma
Bingham, Carlin and Cripple Creek all

Bingham
form associated with this event!
Tosdal (2009)
34
Ore-Deposit Types as a Spectrum
Recognising the Links between

Deposit Types
One advantage of the Mineral Systems Method is

that it enables us to recognise common
underlying controls that link apparently different
deposit types
This enables us to focus our targeting on those
common underlying controls
It also helps us be more predictive about the
deposit types we might find in a particular
environment
A good example is the Alexander Triassic
Metallogenic Belt of Alaska-British Columbia
35
Classic Stratiform VHMS deposits
Northern Part of Belt:

Deep-water Seds and Basalt, No
Felsic Volcs VHMS Epithermal
Hybrid Deposits
Alexander
Al d Triassic
Ti i
Epithermal Style
Metallogenic Belt
Base Metal Veins
Southern Part of Belt:

Felsic Volcs overlie Shallow
Water Carbonates
Modified from Taylor et al (2008)
71
Epithermal
p
Epithermal-VHMS
Hybrid Classic VHMS
Taylor et al (2008)
Schematic Regional Longitudinal Section of the Alexander Metallogenic Belt
36
Importance of Available Energy
Supply
Remember Ore Systems are Fossils!
We can measure their shape and size, but.
37
the real question is - How fast did they run?
Sudbury: The Second Largest Known

Terrestrial Impact Structure
38
The Siberian Traps:
Largest Known CFB Event
Largest Known Mass Extinction Event
Supergiant NiS Deposit
77
KIGAMDiakov
International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011
et al (2002)
Perseverance:
Largest Known Komatiite NiS Deposit
Largest known Magmatic Channel
Hottest Known Magmas
Barnes (2006)
39
Olympic Dam Breccia Complex
Source: WMC-ODO Geology Dept
El Teniente Breccia Complex
Cannell et al, 2005
40
Relationship between Intrusion Area and
Aggregate Ore Tonnage of associated VMS
AGGREGATE
160 Deposits. (Galley, 2003)
VHMS TONNAGE
Murchinson - Darwin
140
120
100
80
60 Geco
Flavrian-Powell
Boulamaque
q
40
Palekori Beidelman Bay
Viterliden Jorn
20 Sneath Lake
Mule Mountain
Lasail Clericy
Richard Lake Strelley
Aarja 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Mooshla
AREA OF INTRUSION (KM2 )
Intrusion area can be considered as a proxy for the available thermal flux but this will also be a function of intrusion magma composition.
(Eg.komatiite intrusion below Kidd Creek). Note that the area of the Strelley intrusion has probably been strongly exaggerated by structural duplication.
Availability of Energy Supply:

Summary
There is a strong suggestion from observation
that the availability off large amounts off energy
is important in being able to form large deposits
Required to drive large systems for sustained
amounts of time
This energy flow must still be organised when
systems blow
blow their top
top it is bad for ore
formation
41
Distal Footprints
Distal Footprints
Potentially very useful in practical exploration
Need to have a broader perspective than simply

lateral leakage around a deposit consider the
entire Mineral System!
Thermal Haloes should always be present if we

can recognise them - a potentially major under-
utilised tool?
42
Distal Footprints:
The Traditional Perspective
Large et al (2001)
Distal Footprints:
The Broader Perspective
43
A much Larger-scale Distal Footprint:
Zechstein Basin
Hitzman et al (2005)
Geological Facies Associations may

also be important and large-scale
Distal Footprints
Areas of Differentiated Sills
Norilsk Region showing distribution of mafic sills:

Differentiated Sills in Turquoise
Undifferentiated Sills in Dark Blue
(Yakubchuk & Nikishin, 2004)
44
Some Distal Footprints may even be
Continental Scale
0 for Geoscience
KIGAM International School Harper & Borrok (2007)
Resources March 2011 89
The Main Ore Event may be too focused

to have a big lateral halo other events
may give bigger footprints
Focused system with little lateral dispersion
Broad halo but

not syn-ore
45
If we consider Ore Formation as a Self-
Organized System, Deposits must have thermal
halos (Second Law of Thermodynamics)
Energy
gy S
Sink
Energy Flux Reduced Exergy

Released in transient Avalanches
Threshold Barrier
Entropy
Potential Energy (exported to environment
Gradient Self-Organized as diffuse heat)
System
Energy Flux fed into system at a slow rate
Energy Source
Porgera Gold Deposit Example

(Gunson et al 2000)
46
Evidence for Thermal Haloes around
MVT Deposits:
based on Conodont Colour Alteration Indices
Expected Wallrock T
From Sangster et al (1994) Measured Wallrock T
END
47

Hronsky - Session 2 - Mineral System Science

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Hronsky - Session 2 - Mineral System Science

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Module 3:

Exploration Management and Targeting

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 1

A common pattern underlies the different surface expression

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 2

the only way to predict their location or their

These systems comprise a scale-dependant

the largest observable scale of process is usually

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 3

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 5

Goals of Mineral System Science

Define key process components of Mineral Systems

Map these components to physical rock volumes

Define the key generic, unifying process elements

Develop frameworks for evaluating the relative

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 7

Basic Physics of Ore

Advective Fluid flux

Diffuse Metal Source Region

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 8

Ore formation requires concentrating metal, initially in

Only plausible mechanism: large-scale advective fluid

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 9

Key Constraints on Ore Formation

Requires availability of large volumes of fluid

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 10

Can develop proxies for

Constraints on Viable Ore

Three Important Low Viscosity Fluids in the Crust (all

Only Two Important Primary Fluid Source Regions

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 12

Fluid Delivery Pathways

Usually very large scale elements

Only two major Fluid Delivery Pathway

Permeable aquifers in basins

Some mineral systems may use both

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 14

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 15

Olympic Dam Areas of Textureless

Olympic Dam District:

Magnetotelluric Section through Olympic Dam

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 17

Harper & Borrok (2007)

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 18

Fluid Flux Organisation

This in turn requires a barrier to fluid

This organisation will only occur

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 20

Transient Exit Conduit

Slow persistent fluid flux

Fluid (Energy) Source

Fluids do not respond passively to

Modeled Changes in Coulomb

Modeled Changes in Pore

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 23

An Example: Porphyry Cu Deposits

From Sillitoe (2010)

KIGAM International School for Geoscience Resources March 2011 24

Polymictic Diatreme Breccia (Braden Breccia) terminates ore-formation at El Teniente:

Overpressured fluid reservoir Fluid source

Relatively impermeable sequence +

+ + Carapace of solidifying intrusion

Fluid-flux driven by fluid pressure