The Acidic Environment Que Cards:

1. Indicators were identified with the observation that the

colour of some flowers depends on soil composition

Q1. Classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral

The classification of substances as acidic, basic or neutral depends upon

the hydrogen ions concentrations which are produced when the
substance is dissolved in water.

Acidic Basic Neutral

Vinegar Cloudy ammonia Water

Lemon juice Washing soda Salt
Aspirin Antacid tablets Sugar
Vitamin C Oven cleaners

Q2. Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl

orange and bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic or
basic nature of a material over a range, and that the range is identified by
change in indicator colour
Substances that change their colour based upon the hydronium ions
concentration in a given solution so as to determine if the solution is an
acid or a base are known as indicators
Q3. Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the
testing of soil acidity/basicity

Testing Soil pH:

o Few plants are capable of growing only within a given narrow PH
range. Therefore, the pH value of the soil has to be regularly
tested.
o Barium sulfate is a neutral powder, white in colour and the same
is sprinkled over damp soil. On the top, very few drops of
indicator are placed.
o The change in colour can be clearly seen with the help of the
white powder.
Testing pH of Pools:
o Problems related to health can be avoided if the pool water is
neutral
o The pH value of the pool can be tested by either using a pH
paper which has already been soaked in an indicator or by
placing few indicator drops in a sample of water obtained from
the pool.
Effluent Testing :
o The pollution level of a given type from any industry can be very
easily assessed through acidity.
o Indicators are used by government authorities as well as Industry
technicians to monitor the pH value of natural waterways as well
as water.
o pH can be measured by Indicators and it can be neutralised by
adding substances.

Q4. Perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural

indicator
o Natural plants serve as the main source for most of the
Indicators.
o In the following experiment, beetroot is used to make an
indicator.
o A beetroot was peeled as well chopped and then blended via a
food processor along with 100ml of distilled water.
o The resulting mixture is then strained in a beaker which then
serves as the indicator.
o In four different test tubes, Sodium chloride solution, sodium
hydroxide solution, 3ml of distilled water as well as
hydrochloric acid was placed.
o 3 drops of the beetroot indicator was then added to each of
the test tubes with the help of a dropper.
o RESULTS
o In the Sodium chloride solution, the colour changed to Dark
Red
o In the sodium hydroxide solution the colour changed to yellow
o In the 3ml of distilled water the colour changed to Dark
purple
o In the hydrochloric acid solution the colour changed to pink
o JUSTIFY the method:
o Beetroot was selected as it a highly coloured plant as well as
due to the ease of extraction of its pigmentation.
o Canned beetroot was avoided due to the presence of
preservatives which may affect the result of the experiment.
o Hydrochloric acid and Sodium Hydroxide solution was used as
they are on the extreme side of the pH scale. It was basically
to show the colour range produced by the indicator.
o LIMITATIONS of the method:
o Beetroot is available in different size and was not controlled.
o Determination of the exact pH at which the colour transition
occurred was not done.
 o The above point could have been performed with the help of
data loggers as well as pH meters.

Q5. Identify data and choose resources to gather information about the
colour changes of a range of indicators

Indicator pH Range Colour Range

Indicator pH range Colour change

Methyl orange 3.1 4.4 Red yellow

Methyl red 4.4 6.0 Pink yellow

Bromothymol blue 6.2 7.6 Yellow blue

Litmus 6.2 7.4 Red blue

Phenol red 6.8 8.4 Yellow red

Phenolphthalein 8.3 10.0 Colourless red

Q6. Solve problems by applying information about the colour changes of

indicators to classify some household substances as acidic, neutral or
basic
For instance, deduce whether the given substance is acidic, basic or
neutral.
A drain cleaner, which is composed of sodium hydroxide, was
tested by using a phenolphthalein indicator and litmus. The
litmus changed to BLUE while the phenolphthalein indicator
turned into DARK PINK
It must be basic as the litmus is blue. However as the
phenolphthalein indicator turned into DARK PINK it has to be
 strongly basic.
Ethanoic acid as well as vinegar was tested by using methyl
orange indicator and it turned into RED. Hence, the deduction
that it is an acid.

2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the

atmosphere naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon,
nitrogen and sulfur. The concentrations of these acidic
oxides have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution

Q1. Identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the
conditions under which they act as acids

Acidic oxides react with

Water in order to form an acid
Base to form a salt
Few non-metallic oxides that act as acid are as follows: phosphorus
pentoxide (P2O5), carbon dioxide(CO2), Sulfur di-oxide (SO2) and Nitrogen
dioxide (NO2)

They become acids in when in solution form

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) (carbonic acid)
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq) (sulfurous acid)
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq) (nitric and nitrous
acid)
P2O5 (g) + H2O (l) 2H3PO4 (aq) (phosphoric acid)

Q2. Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and
outline the relationship between position of elements in the Periodic
Table and acidity/basicity of oxides
 Metals form basic oxides and are positioned on the periodic
tables left side
Non-metals form acidic oxides and are positioned on the periodic
tables right side
The amphoteric oxides are placed in between while the nobel
gases have no oxides

Q3. Define Le Chateliers principle

When a change is made to an equilibrium system, the system moves to

counteract the imposed change and restore the system to equilibrium

Q4. Identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction

The following factors affect the equilibrium in any reversible reaction

Concentration
Pressure( of gaseous system which is homogenous)
Temperature

Q5. Describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various

conditions as an equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le Chateliers
principle

Concentration, pressure as well as temperature determines the

carbon dioxides solubility in water

When CO2 is dissolved in water, it produces carbonic acid and is an

exothermic reaction.

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3

 When pressure is increased- Moves toward right
Addition of excess of CO2 without any volume change- Moves
toward right
Addition of excess of CO2 without any Pressure change- No
change in the equilibrium
Addition of NaOH- Neutralise- Moves toward right
Addition of H+- Moves toward Left
Increase in temperature- Favours the reactants and moves
toward Left

Q6. Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen

Oxides Natural Sources Industrial Sources

Sulphur Geothermal Hot springs The Burning of fossil fuels

dioxide Emissions from which contain sulphur,
(SO2) Volcanoes such as coal and oil
Bushfires S(s) + O2 (g) SO2(g)
Natural decay of When metals are
vegetation on land, wet extracted from sulphides
lands and oceans ores.
2H2S (g) + 3O2 (g) 2SO2 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO (s) +
(g) + 2H2O (l) 2SO2(g)

Oxides of Lighting Indoor domestic

Nitrogen O2(g) + N2 (g) 2 NO(g) appliances )( gas stoves,
(NOX) N2O formed by bacteria gas heaters etc)
Motor vehicles

Q7. Describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release

sulfur dioxide and chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen

Sulfur Dioxide
Smelting metals.
4FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2 (g)

Oxides of Nitrogen
Lightening and in combustion of car engines.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g) then
 2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)

Q8. Assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric

concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen

Both oxides of sulfur and nitrogen are soluble in water and are
removed from our atmosphere by rain.
Over the past 100 years, there has been a significant build in the level
of their concentration.
However, one cannot be sure due to the lack of data prior to 1950s
In the past few decades, their concentration has been accurately
measured to be below 0.1 ppm.
Moreover acid rain formation as well as the formation of photochemical
smog indicate rise in the atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur
and nitrogen

Q9. Calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in

reactions, and calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes,
in reactions involving gases at 0C and 100kPa or 25C and 100kPa
n=V=22.71
n=0.044 moles
n=m=M
=0.044x(14.01+16)
m=1.32g
2.Calculate the volume occupied by 2g of CO2 gas at 250oC and 100KPa
n=M=2
(12.01+32)
n=0.045moles

n=V=24.79
V=0.045x24.79
V=1.127litres

Q10. Explain the formation and effects of acid rain

Rain is slightly acidic in nature due to the carbonic acid formed from
CO2
Acid rain is the rain which has a slightly higher concentration of
hydrogen ion
In addition to carbonic acid, sulfuric as well as nitric acids are
present in acid rains and formed from oxides of nitrogen as well as
 sulfur dioxide respectively.
FORMATION of acid rain:
Sulfur dioxide reacts with rain to form sulfurous acid:
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)
Sulfurous acid later reacts with oxygen and this in turn is
catalysed by the particles of air:
2H2SO3 (aq) + O2 (g) 2H2SO4 (aq)
Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with rain, thereby producing nitrous
and nitric acids:
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)
Nitrous acid, also reacts with oxygen, and is again catalysed by
the particles of air:
2HNO2 (aq) + O2 (g) 2HNO3 (aq)
EFFECTS of acid rain:
Forests are destroyed by acid rain.
The acidity levels of water bodies also increases thereby causing
death of many aquatic animals.
Marble buildings as well as statues gets corroded dur to acid rain

Q11. Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to

decarbonate soft drink and gather data to measure the mass changes
involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25C and 100kPa

A 300ml soft drink bottle was decarbonated by shaking it vigorously.

The gas from the bottle was released by opening the cap. IT was also
made sure that no spillage of soft drink occurred.
The weight of the bottle was weighed during the start and end of the
experiment
An assumption was made that any mass which was lost was due to
the loss of carbon-di-oxide
RESULTS
2.4 g of CO2 was released. Calculation of the volume of gas which was
 released at 25C:
n = m/M (mass/molar mass)
= 2.4/44; molar mass of CO2 = 44
= 0.0545 mol
V = n MV (moles molar volume)
= 0.0545 24.79
= 1.35L
JUSTIFY the method:
The CO2/H2CO3 equilibrium was affected by shaking, and the gas was
forced out by the same.
No Spillage of liquid was entertained to maintain high accuracy.
Electronic scales were utilised in order to maintain accuracy.
LIMITATIONS of the method:
There can be a limitation in the method due to water loss in the
form of gas or due to the presence of dissolved CO2

Q12. Analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the

industrial origins of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and evaluate
reasons for concern about their release into the environment

Industrial sources of sulfur dioxide is as follows: Processing as well as

burning of fossil fuels, Extraction of metals from ores rich in sulphur
like galena
Industrial sources of oxides of nitrogen: Fossil fuel combustion, use of
nitrogenous fertiliser in agriculture.
Reasons for CONCERN with respect to these oxides:
Nitrogen dioxide as well as Sulfur dioxide reacts with rain to form acid
rain.
Acid rains are capable of destroying environmental resources such as
forests, destroy water life and corrode structures made of marble and
limestone.
Sulfur dioxide is a respiratory irritant and is capable of causing
difficulties with respect to breathing even at very low concentrations
 of around 1 ppm. Nitrogen dioxide is capable of destroying tissues at
concentrations above 3ppm and is a greenhouse gas.
Nitrogen dioxide causes smog formation and this smog in turn forms
haze, ozone as well as PAN. PAN and haze affect visibility, while ozone
is capable of causing harmful effects at very low concentrations of
around 0.1 ppm.

3. Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our

stomachs

Q1. Define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in
water
When acids are dissolved in water, it donates a proton, i.e. a
Hydrogen Ion (H+) to a molecule of water
The proton ion present in the solution of water is represented as H+
+
(aq) or H3O (aq) ( hydronium)
For instance

HCl (g) H+ (aq) + Cl(aq) ( donor)

HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl(aq)

Q2. Identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-hydroxypropane-

1,2,3-tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric acid
Acetic Acid:
Systematic name: Ethanoic acid
Molecular formula: CH3COOH
It is found in vinegar as well as wine.
It is also classified as a weak acid.
Citric Acid:
2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid
Molecular formula: C6H8O7
It is found in citrus fruit such as oranges
Hydrochloric Acid:
Molecular formula: HCl
 It is classified as a very strong acid.
It is found in the acids present in stomach.
Sulfuric Acid:
Molecular formula: H2SO4
It is classified as a strong acid.
It is present in acid rains.

Q3. Describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases

The pH scale is used in the comparison of the hydrogen ion

concentration present in acidic as well as basic solution
If pH value of 7 is considered neutral. At this value both the H+ as well as
the OH- ion concentration is equal. If the pH value is less than 7 then the
solution is acidic in nature and If the pH value is greater than 7 then the
solution is basic in nature

Q4. Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the
terms strong, weak, concentrated and dilute

Strong acids: It disassociates either completely or almost

completely in water thereby forming H+ ions
Weak acids: Ionize partially in water
Concentrated acids: Have High number of molecules of acid per
volume of the solution.
Dilute acids: have low number of molecules of acid per volume of
the solution

Q5. Identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means

a ten-fold change in [H+]
pH implies log10
pH= -log10[H+]
A substance of 1 molarity has a pH value of 1
A substance of 0.1 molarity has a pH value of 2
A change in the pH value by 1 implies a tenfold change in the hydrogen
ion concentration.
Q6. Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic
and hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree of ionisation
of their molecules

Acid Strength Degree of Ionization

Citric acid Weak (pH 2) Very low
Acetic acid Weak (pH3) Low
Hydrochloric acid Strong (pH 1) Very high

Comparison:
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid as it ionizes completely in water.
Acetic acid is a weak acid as it ionizes partially in water
Citric acid is weak as it ionizes the least.

Q7. Describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of
an equilibrium between the intact molecule and its ions

o In a strong acid like HCl, an equilibrium is formed during the

process of ionisation
HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl(aq)
o The equation lies completely on the right side in case of
strong acid and complete ionisation occurs.
o In a weak acid like acetic acid, an equilibrium is formed during
the process of ionisation
CH3COOH (s) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO( aq)

o The equation lies mostly on the left side in case of weak acid
and partial ionisation occurs.

Q8. Solve problems and perform a first-hand investigation to use pH

meters/probes and indicators to distinguish between acidic, basic and
neutral chemicals

Testing the substances with Methyl Orange

 10 different test tubes were set up with 5ml of acidified solution (0.1M
HCl)
In each of the test tube, 2 drops of Methyl orange was placed
In each of the test tube, a range of substances was placed right from
metal oxides, common household substances, carbonates and sulfates.
Any slight change like bubbles or colour change of the indicator was
recorded.
RESULTS:
Methyl orange is red in colour in strongly acidic solutions, and is yellow
in colour in slightly acidic to highly alkaline solutions.
Any substance which caused the acidified solution to turn into yellow
was regarded as a base
This included:
Carbonates: The solution turned yellow and bubbles were
formed due to Calcium carbonate and sodium hydrogen
carbonate.
Metal Oxides: The solution turned yellow without the
formation of any bubbles due to Calcium oxide and zinc (II)
oxide.
Hydroxides: The solution rapidly turned yellow due to
Magnesium hydroxide.
There were other substances which caused no change to the
solution and were regarded either acidic or neutral such as
sucrose, lemon juice, salt (NaCl), vinegar and magnesium sulfate.
PART B- Testing Common Substances Using a pH Meter:
20ml of water was used to dissolve 5g of substance and
the pH of the solution was tested
They were then classified as either base, acid or neutral
Neutral: Both milk as well as the table salt was neutral.
Bases: Toothpaste, Washing powder and the antacid tablet.
Acids: Soil, aspirin and the vitamin C tablet.
JUSTIFY the method:
 Methyl orange is red only in strongly acidic solutions.
Therefore, even a very weak base would be capable of
eliciting a change in colour.
A large variety of substances was used to portray the huge
variety of possible bases. This in turn showed that bases are not
limited just to metal hydroxides.
Accurate as well as instantaneous results were obtained by pH
meter.
The conducted test was a fair test of the pH of the substance.
LIMITATIONS of the method:
The Methyl Orange test was unable to distinguish neutral and acidic
substances as no change of colour from red was observed.

Q9. Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of

identical concentrations of strong and weak acids

20ml of 0.1M solutions of sulfuric acid, ethanoic acid,

hydrochloric acid and citric acid were placed in four different
beakers
The pH value of the solution was measured by a pH meter.
RESULTS:
Sulfuric acid solution pH = 0.7
Hydrochloric acid solution pH = 1.2
Citric acid solution pH = 2.9
Ethanoic acid solution pH = 3.3

The lowest pH value amongst all solutions was observed in Sulphuric
acid solution due to the fact that it is a diprotic strong acid whereas
HCL solution is a monoprotic strong acid. Both ethanoic acids as well as
Citric acid are weak acids.
Q10. Gather and process information from secondary sources to write
ionic equations to represent the ionisation of acids

Hydrochloric: HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl( aq)

Nitric: HNO3 (l) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + NO3-
Sulfuric: H2SO4 (l) + 2H2O (l) 2H3O+ (aq) + SO42
Ethanoic: CH3COOH (s) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO( aq)

Q11. Gather and process information from secondary sources to explain

the use of acids as food additives

Jams
Citric acid is often added to jams in order to give it a sharp taste.
The acidity aids in the prevention of the growth of microbes in order to
prevent decomposition of food.
The reduction of pH results in slowing down of the enzyme reactions
thereby slowing down food spoilage.

Q12. Identify data, gather and process information from secondary

sources to identify examples of naturally occurring acids and bases and
their chemical composition

Citric acid (C6H8O7) is present naturally in fruits such as citrus

fruit.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is found in the acids of the stomachs
and helps in digestion of food.
Ammonia(NH3) is found in the urine of animals
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is found in limestone

4. Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they

have been used and studied for hundreds of years. Over
time, the definitions of acid and base have been refined
Q1. Outline the historical development of ideas about acids including
those of: Lavoisier,
Davy & Arrhenius
Lavoisier:
Proposed that oxygen must be present in an acid
Oxides of Non-metals oxides form acidic solutions when they react
with water.

Davy
Redefined that acid is a substance which contains hydrogen
(rather than oxygen), and could be completely or partially be
replaced by metals when reacted together, in order to produce
salt. He showed that oxygen is not present in HCl
Arrhenius:
Suggested that acids ionize in solution to form hydrogen ions
Bases produce hydroxide ions in solutions
Strong acids ionize completely while weak acids ionise partially.
He proposed that these ideas are applicable only when the acid is in
an aqueous state

Q2. Outline the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

It states that:
An acid is a donor of PROTON
A base is an acceptor of PROTON
When hydrogen chloride gas and ammonia react together as follows :
HCl (g) + NH3 (g) NH4Cl (s)

A proton has transferred from HCl to NH3

Hence, by Brnsted-Lowry definition, HCl(g) is an acid, and NH3(g) is
a base.

Q3. Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and
a base and its conjugate acid

Donation of a proton occurs from acids for the formation of a conjugate

base. Bases form conjugate acids by accepting a proton.
Q4. Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions
and explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature

Neutral Salts
Form when a strong base and a strong acid react together
NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The ions form a strong acid as well as a strong base
Concentration of hydroxide and hydrogen ions is equal, and
therefore neutral

Acidic Salts
Form when a weak base and a strong acid react together
NH4Cl(aq) NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The ions form a strong acid as well as a weak base
Results in an imbalanced supply of hydrogen ions, and therefore
acidic

Basic Salts
Form when a Strong base and a weak acid react together
Sodium acetate dissolves in water to form Na+, OH-, CH3COO-,H+
The ions form a weak acid as well as a strong base
Results in an imbalanced supply of hydroxide ions

Q5. Identify conjugate acid/base pairs

Q6. Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe

their behaviour in acidic and basic solutions

An amphiprotic substance is one that can act as both as a base

and an acid
Their behaviour is dependent upon the environment in which they
are placed.
The hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion) HCO3 is amphiprotic:
HCO3( aq) + H3O+ (aq) H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
 HCO3( aq) + OH ( aq) CO32( aq) + H2O (l)

Q7. Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is

exothermic

It is a proton transfer reaction wherein an acid reacts with a base

The process is exothermic
Ionic equation: H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) + Na+
(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Net ionic equation: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Is the reaction between hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions

Q8. Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and

preparation of standard solutions

Titration is a technique used to determine experimentally the unknown

concentration of a solution with the help of a chemical reaction.
Methods of Calculation
Write the equation
Determine the molar relationship
Calculate the number of moles of the known substance.
By using the relationship determine the moles of the
unknown.
Calculate the molarity(c) of the unknown.
Write down answer along with the units
Standard Solution
Know the accurate concentration
In order to be suitable, it must be soluble in water, should know the
accurate formula, should have high purity and must have stability in
air
Preparation
Weigh accurately the calculated amount of solid.
Dissolve the same in water, and then transfer the complete
 dissolved solid into a volumetric flask. Add water in order to
prepare a fixed volume of solution.
Concentration must be calculated in mol L-1
Other
A standard solution can always be reacted with a solution
whose concentration is unknown using a titration technique.
One reactant in solution is added slowly into another reactant
in solution till an end point is reached.
The end point of the titration is indicated by color change.
For an acid-base titration, an indicator must be selected which
changes the color at the pH of the salt solution which is
formed at the neutralization point.
This point is referred to as the equivalence point.
The Calculations are carried out to three significant figures.

Q9. Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific

example in a natural system

Buffer Control
It controls the basicity as well as the acidity levels in a solution
Hardly any change in the pH value occurs, when a base or an acid is
added to a buffer solution
Buffers contain equal concentration of its conjugate base and weak
acid
An example of buffer solution is blood and it contains carbonic acid
H2CO3(aq) H+(aq) + HCO-(aq)
If the amount of CO2 dissolved is increased then the formation of H+
ions increases thereby decreasing the pH and the equilibrium moves
towards left thereby minimising the change.

Q10. Gather and process information from secondary sources to trace

developments in understanding and describing acid/base reactions

Initially an acid was thought to be a substance having sour

taste, and one which reacted with few metals (Fe and Zn).
Around 1780, it was proposed by Antoine Lavoisier that the
substances which contained oxygen were acids.
He justified the same by citing non-metal oxides like sulfur
dioxide (SO2) to be acidic.
However, his theory was disproved by the existence of acids
like hydrochloric acid which has no oxygen.
In 1815, Humphry Davy put forth a suggestion that acids
 contained hydrogen which was replaceable. For instance, HCl
reacts with zinc and produces zinc chloride with the liberation
of hydrogen gas.
This theory was widely accepted for the majority of the 19th
century,
In 1884, Svante Arrhenius proposed that acid was a substance
which produced hydrogen ion in water.
He also defined that bases are substances which produce
hydroxide ions when mixed with water. However certain flaws
were evident in Arrhenius definition. The ionisation of an acid
is something which takes place in solution, and not in
isolation.
However, He appropriately addressed the role played by the
solvent in ionisation.
In 1923, two scientists Bronsted and Lowry independently
came up with a new definition. Both of them defined acids as
donors of proton and bases as acceptors of proton. This is also
the current prevailing definition of acid and base.

Q11. Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to identify

the pH of a range of salt solutions

The pH value of a range of salt solutions was determined by

examining the parent bases as well as acids.
The actual pH value was later measured by utilising the pH meter.
Salts:
Sodium acetate - CH3COONa:
Parent acid: CH3COOH (weak), parent base: NaOH (strong).
Predicted pH is slightly basic.
True pH = 8.9
Sodium nitrate - NaNO3:
Parent acid: HNO3 (strong), parent base: NaOH (strong)
Predicted pH is neutral.
True pH = 7
Other salts:
 NaHCO3 - pH = 8
MgCl2 - pH = 3

Q12. Perform a first-hand investigation to determine the concentration of

a domestic acidic substance using computer-based technologies

In a small beaker, around 50 mL of household vinegar is placed.

To the laboratory computer a pH probe is attached. Distilled
water is used to rinse the distilled water and later rinsed with a
left over solution.
The probe is then placed in the solution and the pH value is
measured.
The probe is rinsed once again, and the pH value is measured
again for 2 more times.
The average pH value is calculated, and by using this the H + ions
concentration is found
By using the fact that food-grade ethanoic acid has about only
0.4% of ionisation, the ethanoic acid concentration is then
calculated.
RESULTS:
The average pH measured was 2.5
[H+] = 10-pH = 10-2.5 = 0.00316 mol/L
But [H+] = 0.4% c ; (where c = concentration of ethanoic acid)
Hence c = 0.00316 0.004 = 0.79
Therefore vinegar is 0.79 M ethanoic acid.

Q13. Analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of

neutralisation reactions as a safety measure or to minimise damage in
accidents or chemical spills
Neutralization reactions are used for the purpose of safety in
industries as well as laboratories as most of the alkalis as well as
acids are corrosive in nature
Hence it is essential to neutralize these substances spills as quickly
 as possible.
Sewage authorities have set up a strict limit on the pH value of
factory as well as the laboratory effluent discharge.
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is widely used in order to neutralize acid
spills as it is a stable solid, which can be easily stored, and is
available at a cheaper price, and if it is used in larger quantities it is
less of a danger when compared to other bases.

5. Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be

performed in the laboratory

Q1. Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid
functional groups in carbon compounds
Alkanols comprise of a hydroxyl functional group (OH). The O-H bond is
polar and results in the formation of hydrogen bonds thereby allowing
alkanols to possess high melting point and boiling point. Alkanoic acids
possess carboxy functional groups (COOH). The C=O and C-O and the O-H
bond are polar in nature.

Q2. Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by
reactions of straight-chained alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straight-
chained primary alkanols from C1 to C8

The alkanol loses the ending -anol and in its place thyl is added. The
alkanoic acid becomes -oate.

For instance, methanol + ethanoic acid becomes methyl ethanoate

Alkanol Alkanoic acid

C1 Methyl Methanoate

C2 Ethyl Ethanoate

C3 Propyl Propanoate

C4 Butyl Butanoate

C5 Pentyl Pentanoate

C6 Hexyl Hexanoate

C7 Hepyl Heptanoate

C8 Octyl Octanoate
Q3. Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by
straight-chained alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary alkanol
structures

1. 3 polar bonds are present in acids compared to the 2 polar bonds

present in alcohols
2. Therefore the molecules are held much more strongly in an acid and
therefore an acid has a greater boiling point
3. However, alcohols have greater boiling as well as melting points
when compared to their parent alkanes due to hydrogen bongs and
dipole-dipole attractions.

Q4. Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol

and describe, using equations, examples of esterification

An ester is formed due to reaction between an alkanol and an

alkanoic acid. From the condensation of an alkanol and an alkanoic
acid an ester is prepared.
Alkanol + Alkanoic Acid Ester + water
The H from the alkanol group and the OH from the acid combine
together.
Example:
o Ethanol + Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanoate + water

Q5. Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis

The process of esterification is catalysed by the addition of

concentrated sulphuric acid in small amounts
The resulting condensation reaction shifts the equilibrium to the right
thereby increasing the production of ester by the removing the
molecules of water
It also acts as a catalyst.
 Q6. Explain the need for refluxing during esterification

An endothermic reaction requires heat in order to shift the

equilibrium to the left and in order to produce more yield
Whenever heat is supplied to the reaction, the more volatile
chemicals can escape and thereby cause problems such as
explosion
The entire procedure can be made safer with refluxing
On the top of the reaction vessel, a condenser is places which is
cooled with water
Any component which is volatile passes into the condenser and
condensing the gas to liquid.

Q7. Outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of

esters

Esters naturally occur in the form of scents as well as flavouring

substances
Esters are responsible for the flavour as well as odours of the fruits
Few of the esters are utilised in industries as solvents as they are
able to dissolve many non-polar as well as polar substances
Esters which are manufactured are used in perfumes, flavouring
foods as well as colouring cosmetics
Ethyl Acetate is a nail polish remover.

Q8. Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform a first-hand

investigation to prepare an ester using reflux

Ethyl ethanoate was used to prepare the ester

Ethanoic acid and Ethanol were used as the reactants.
ethanol + ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate + water
40 mL of ethanol, 10 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid and 30 mL of
ethanoic acid and were placed in a round-bottom flask.
Boiling chips were also added into the flask.
To the flask, a condenser attachment of the reflux apparatus was
attached. It was then secured on a retort stand. The water was then
 passed onto a condenser.
The entire flask was placed in a water bath inside a large beaker.
The water was made to come to a gentle boil by using a Bunsen burner
and this in turn raised the temperature of the reflux apparatus to 100C.
It was then left to reflux for duration of 30 minutes.
The heating process was stopped and the entire apparatus was allowed to
cool down, by utilising the water which was still flowing.
The entire apparatus was disassembled carefully by holding the flask.
All the refluxed contents were drained into a separating funnel. The
mixture was then washed with 50 mL of distilled water and then the
mixture was shaken. The lower aqueous layer was drained and the entire
washing process was carried out twice again.
Later 35 mL of distilled water and 15 mL of saturated NaHCO3 solution
was added and the entire mixture was shaken and the resulting aqueous
layer was drained.
The final product obtained was pure ethyl ethanoate.
JUSTIFY the method:
Boiling chips were added in order to facilitate gentle as well as slow
heating.
A water bath was used for the same purpose
The utilisation of the separating funnel for the extraction of ester was
justified as all the products as well as reactants except the ester are
soluble in water soluble; ethanoic acid, water and ethanol are all soluble in
water. Hence all of them are immiscible with ester.
The ester is less dense and hence floats on the top thereby allowing the
aqueous reactants to drain.
Washing was carried out with to remove as much of ethanol, sulphuric
acid and ethanoic acid from ester as possible. The purity of ester was
increased with multiple washings.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate was used to neutralise any of the remaining
sulfuric acid in the mixture.
Q9. Process information from secondary sources to identify and describe
the uses of esters as flavours and perfumes in processed foods and
cosmetics

Esters are included in several products like cosmetics as well as perfumes.

Esters are utilised to induce an artificial fruity smell to foods such as
pentyl-butanoate(apricot), pentyl- ethanoate(banana) as well as octyl-
ethanoate(orange).
Esters ate also utilised as solvents for non-polar as well as polar
compounds and soaps. Acetylsalicylic acid(Aspirin) is an example wherein
ester is used in the field of medicine.