Introduction to System Design

The overall system design is divided into two stages:

Conceptual design begins at the inception of a project and includes.

Gathering process and load data.

Choosing the most suitable system configuration and bus arrangements as per
requirement.
Selecting a power source.
Determining system voltages.

Detailed design includes:

Developing the one-line diagram.

Performing system studies.
Sizing equipment and feeder systems.
Designing grounding and lighting systems.
Designing system protection.

Power Distribution System Design

Basic Principles: The best distribution system is one that will, cost effectively and safely,
adequate electric service to both present and future probable loads this section is
included to aid in selecting, designing and installing such a system. The function of the
electric power distribution system in a building or installation site is to receive power at one
or more supply points and deliver it to the individual lamps, motors, and all other electrically
operated devices.

The importance of the distribution system to the function of a building makes it

almost imperative that the best system be designed and installed. In order to design
the best distribution system, the system design engineer must have information
concerning the loads and knowledge of the various types of distribution systems that
are applicable. The various categories of buildings have many specific design
challenges, but certain basic principles are common to all. Such principles, if followed,
will provide a soundly executed design.
The basic principles or factors requiring consideration during design of the power
distribution system include:

Functions of structure, present and future.

Life and flexibility of structure.
Locations of service entrance and distribution equipment
Characteristics of loads, locations of unit substations.
Demand and diversity factors of loads
Sources of power; including normal, standby and
emergency
Continuity and quality of power available and
required
Energy efficiency and management.
Distribution and utilization voltages.
Bus and/or cable feeders.
Distribution equipment and motor control
Power and lighting panel boards and motor control
center.
Types of lighting systems
Installation methods
Power monitoring systems
Electric utility requirements.

Modern Electric Power Technologies

Several new factors to consider in modern power distribution systems result from two
relatively recent changes. The first recent change is utility deregulation. The
traditional dependence on the utility for problem analysis; energy conservation
measurements and techniques; and a simplified cost structure for electricity has
changed. The second change is less obvious to the designer yet will have an impact
on the types of Equipment and systems being designed. It is the diminishing quantity
of qualified building electrical operators; maintenance departments; and facility
engineers. Modern electric power technologies may be of use to the designer and
building owner in addressing new challenges. The advent of microprocessor devices
(smart devices) into power distribution equipment has expanded facility owners
options and capabilities, allowing for automated communication of vital power
system information (both energy data and system operation information) and
electrical equipment control.

These technologies may be grouped as:

Power monitoring and control.

Building management systems
interface
 Lighting control.
Automated energy management.
Predictive diagnostics.
Various sections of this guide cover the application and selection of such systems
and components that may be incorporated into the power equipment being
designed.

Goals of System Design

When considering the design of an electrical distribution system for a given
customer and facility, the electrical engineer must consider alternate design
approaches which best fit the following overall goals:

1. Safety: The No. 1 goal is to design a power system which will not be present in any
electrical hazard to the people who utilize the facility, and/or the utilization equipment fed
from the electrical system. It is also important to design a system which is inherently safe
for the people who are responsible for electrical equipment maintenance and upkeep.

The National Electrical Code (NEC), NFPA 70 and NFPA 70E,IEC ,IS as well as local
electrical codes provide minimum standards and requirements in the area of wiring
design and protection, wiring methods and materials as well as equipment for
general use with the overall goal of providing safe electrical distribution systems and
equipment. The Standards/codes also covers minimum requirements for special
occupancies including hazardous locations and special use type facilities such as
health care facilities, places of assembly, theaters, etc. and the equipment and
systems located in these facilities. Special equipment and special conditions such
as emergency systems, standby systems and communication systems are also
covered in the code.
It is the responsibility of the design engineer to be familiar with the IEC, IS, OISD,
NFPA and NEC etc. code requirements as well as the customers facility, process, and
operating procedures; to design a system which protects personnel from electrical live
conductors and utilizes adequate circuit protective devices which will selectively
isolate overloaded or faulted circuits or equipment as quickly as possible.
8
2. Minimum Initial Investment: The owners overall budget for first cost purchase and
installation of the electrical distribution system and electrical utilization equipment will be a
key factor in determining which of various alternate system designs are to be selected.
When trying to
minimize initial investment for electrical equipment, consideration should be given to the cost
of
installation, floor space requirements and possible extra cooling requirements as well as the
initial
purchase price.

3. Maximum Service Continuity: The degree of service continuity and reliability

needed will vary depending on the type and use of the facility as well as the loads
or processes being supplied by the electrical distribution system. For example, for a
smaller commercial office building a power outage of considerable time, say
several hours, may be acceptable, whereas in a larger commercial building or
industrial plant only a few minutes may be acceptable. In other facilities such as
hospitals, many critical loads permit a maximum of 10 seconds outage and certain
loads, such as real-time computers, cannot tolerate a loss of power for even a few
cycles.

Typically, service continuity and reliability can be increased by:

Supplying multiple utility power sources or services.
Supplying multiple connection paths to the loads served.
Using short-time rated power circuit breakers.
Providing alternate customer owned power sources
Selecting the highest quality electrical equipment and conductors.
Using the best installation methods.
Designing appropriate system alarms, monitoring and diagnostics.
Selecting preventative maintenance systems or equipment to alarm
before an outage.
9
4. Maximum Flexibility and Expendability: In many industrial manufacturing
plants, electrical utilization loads are periodically relocated or changed requiring
changes in the electrical distribution system. Consideration of the layout and design
of the electrical distribution system to accommodate these changes must be
considered. For example, providing many smaller transformers or load centers
associated with a given area or specific groups of machinery may lend more
flexibility for future changes than one large transformer. The use of plug-in bus ways
to feed selected equipment in lieu of conduit and wire may facilitate future revised
equipment layouts. In addition, consideration must be given to future building
expansion, and/or increased load requirements due to added utilization equipment
when designing the electrical distribution system. In many cases considering
transformers with increased capacity or fan cooling to serve unexpected loads as
well as including spare additional protective devices and/ or provision for future
addition of these devices may be desirable. Also to be considered is increasing
appropriate circuit capacities or quantities for future growth. Power monitoring
communication systems connected to electronic metering can provide the trending
and historical data necessary for future capacity growth.

5. Maximum Electrical Efficiency (Minimum Operating Costs): Electrical

efficiency can generally be maximized by designing systems that minimize the
losses in conductors, transformers and utilization equipment. Proper voltage level
selection plays a key factor in this area and will be discussed later. Selecting
equipment, such as transformers, with lower operating losses, generally means
higher first cost and increased floor space requirements. Thus, there is a balance to
be considered between the owners utility energy changes for the losses in the
transformer or other equipment versus the owners first cost budget and cost of
money.

6. Minimum Maintenance Cost: Usually the simpler the electrical system design
and the simpler the electrical equipment, the less the associated maintenance costs
and operator errors. As electrical systems and equipment become more complicated
to provide greater service continuity or flexibility, the maintenance costs and chance
for operator error increases. The systems should be designed with an alternate
power circuit to take electrical equipment (requiring periodic maintenance) out of
service without dropping essential loads. Use of draw out type protective devices
such as breakers and combination starters can also minimize maintenance cost and
out-of- service time.

7. Maximum Power Quality: The power input requirements of all utilization

equipment has to be considered including the acceptable operating range of the
equipment and the electrical
distribution system has to be designed to meet these needs. For example, what are
the required input voltage, current, power factor requirements? Consideration to
whether the loads are affected by harmonics (multiples of the basic 50/60 cycle per
second sine wave) or generate harmonics must be taken into account as well as
transient voltage phenomena. The above goals are interrelated and in some ways
contradictory. As more redundancy is added to the electrical system design along
with the best quality equipment to maximize service continuity, flexibility and
expandability, and power quality, the more initial investment and maintenance are
increased. Thus, the designer must weigh each factor based on the type of facility,
the loads to be served, the owners past experience and criteria.

Summary
It is to be expected that the engineer will never have complete load information
available when the system is designed. The engineer will have to expand the
information made available to him on the basis of experience with similar problems.
Of course, it is desirable that the engineer has as much definite information as
possible concerning the function, requirements, and characteristics of the utilization
devices. The engineer should know whether certain loads function separately or
together as a unit, the magnitude of the demand of the loads viewed separately and
as units, the rated voltage and frequency of the devices, their physical location with
respect to each other and with respect to the source and the probability and
possibility of the relocation of load devices and addition of loads in the future.
Coupled with this information, knowledge of the major types of electric power
distribution systems equips the engineers to arrive at the best system design for
the particular building. It is beyond the scope of this guide to present a detailed
discussion of loads that might be found in each of several types of buildings.
Assuming that the design engineer has assembled the necessary load data, the
following pages discuss some of the various types of electrical distribution systems
that can be utilized. The description of types of systems, and the diagrams used to
explain the types of systems on the following pages omits the location of utility
revenue metering equipment for clarity. A discussion of short circuit calculations,
coordination, voltage selection, voltage drop, ground fault protection, motor
protection, and other specific equipment protection is also presented.

Voltage Classification

IEC, ANSI, NEC, IS and other local standards define various voltage
classifications for Single-phase and 3-phase systems.

The terminology used divides voltage

classes into:

Low voltage <1.1 kV.

Medium voltage >1.1 kV to 11 kV
High voltage.>11 kV to 66 kV
Extra-high voltage
Ultra-high voltage
Voltage Recommendations by Motor Horsepower

Some factors affecting the selection of motor operating voltage include:

Motor, motor starter and cable first cost.

Motor, motor starter and cable installation cost.
Motor and cable losses
Motor availability
Voltage drop
Qualifications of the building operating staff; and many more.

System Voltage:

To select distribution and utilization voltages, the following factors should be considered.
Specific loads served (size and voltage level).
Voltage level supplied by the utility or on-site generation
Existing voltage levels in the facility.
Cost of electrical equipment and cable at different voltage levels and current ratings.
Losses due to higher current (at lower voltages)
Overall system flexibility (i.e capability for future expansion)

A major consideration when choosing voltage levels is the cost of equipment and cable. The
advantage of a higher voltage system is that less current is required for the same power than
for lower voltage systems. In some cases, equipment and cable rated at higher voltage levels
may be more economical because of the reduced current rating required. A higher voltage
system is also more efficient because of lower power losses.
Standard nominal system voltages for each country are listed in the applicable code
and standards.
There are three system voltage classes as a rule. The low voltage class contains all nominal
system voltages below 1000 volts. The medium voltage class contains nominal system
voltages equal to or greater than 1000 volts, but less than 100,000 volts. The high voltage
class contains nominal system voltages equal to or greater than 100,000 volts.

Distribution Voltage
In most facilities it is necessary to distribute power at a voltage higher than or equal to the
utilization voltages. When choosing a distribution voltage, the first voltage level to consider
should be the incoming utility (or generator) voltage. If the utility supplies a voltage in the
range of 6,600 volts to 15,000 volts, it is often economical to use this voltage as the primary
distribution voltage for the facility because step down transformers are not required. If the
utility supply is over 15,000 volts, transformation to a lower voltage
is typically required. An economic study should be made to determine the primary distribution
voltage (based on load), future expansion, and distances between load centers.

Typical primary distribution voltage are 13,800 volts, 4,160 (6,600) volts, and 2,400
(3,300) volts. Other voltages such as 22,000 volts, dictated by the standard utility
voltage levels in the area, may be encountered in some systems. For large plant
facilities, the preferred primary distribution voltages are 13,800 volts and 4,160
(4,600) volts, but the selection depends on the total facility load and distance that
the primary distribution voltage must be transmitted. Primary distribution
voltages above 15 kV are seldom recommended in Company facilities because of
significantly higher costs for equipment rated above 15 kV.

In most large facilities where facility load is less than 10,000kVA, 4,160 (6,600)
volts or 2,400 (3,300) volts is the most economical primary distribution
voltage. Depending on the size of motors at the facility, a 4,160 (6,600) volt
system may be less expensive than a 2,400 (3,300)
volt system. The same 5 (5.2) kV class of switchgear and motor controllers is used
for both 2,400 (3,300) volt and 4,160 (6,600) volt systems; however, lower
current-rated breakers and controllers are required for the 4,160 (6,600) volt
system. Cable costs are also usually less on the 4,160 (6,600) volt systems (since
smaller conductors can be used). The cost of 4,160 volt motors is typically 5 to 10%
more than for 2,400 volt motors.

For facilities where the load is 10,000 to 20,000 KVA, an economic study (including
consideration of the costs of future expansion) must be made to determine the
most economical primary distribution voltage-usually between 4,160 and 13,800
volts. Facilities where the load is 20,000 KVA or larger, it is recommend and most
economical to use 13,800 volts for primary distribution.

Utilization Voltage

Selection of utilization voltage is primarily dependent on the equipment to be served.

Listed below are utilization voltages and motor voltages available, based on the size of
individual motors installed at the facility.
Motor Horse Power (hp) Utilization Voltage (V) Motor Rated Voltage (V)

Above 200 6,900 6,600

Up to 200 460 440

In addition to the above list, utilization voltages and motor voltages available are
also listed in API Standard 541. The preferred utilization voltage for small loads (such
as integral horsepower motors below 100 hp) is three-phase 480 (460) volts. Some
floodlights, parking lot lights, or other outdoor lights where voltage drop is a problem,
may be best served at 480 (460) volts. Small dry-type transformers rated 480-
208/120 (440-230/129) volt or 480-240/120 (440-220/110) volt- are used to provided
208 (220) volt-three phase, 120 (110) volt-single phase, and 240 (220) volt single
phase for convenience outlets, lighting, and other small loads.
 Coordination with other Discipline

At the earliest practical time in a project the engineers will need to identify areas of
engineering and design where interfaces are necessary. An efficient system of
communication and exchange of information should be established and
implemented at regular intervals. Meetings should be arranged to discuss problem
areas and short-falls in information. The following generally summarizes what is
needed, particularly during the feasibility and conceptual stage of a project. In order
to be able to engineer an economical and efficient power system it is desirable for
the electrical engineer to have: A basic understanding of the hydrocarbon and
chemical processes and their supporting utilities e.g. compression, pumping, control
and operation, cooling arrangements.

A procedure for regular communication with engineers of other disciplines,

e.g. instrument, process, mechanical, safety, telecommunications, facilities,
operations and maintenance. An appreciation of the technical and economical
benefits and shortcomings of the various electrical engineering options that may be
available for a particular project. The technical flexibility to enable the final design to
be kept simple, easy to operate and easy to maintain.

Process Engineers
The process engineers should be able to inform the electrical engineers on matters
relating to the production processes and supporting utilities:

Variation of production rates with time over the anticipated lifetime of the plant. Fuel
availability, rates and calorific values, pollution components e.g. sulphur,
carbon-dioxide, alkali contaminants, particle size and filtration. Electrical heating and
refrigeration loads, trace heating of vessels and piping. Make available process
flow diagrams (PFD) Process and instrumentation diagrams (PID), utilities and
instrumentation diagrams (UID). Information about hazardous gases and liquids are
available at plant.

Mechanical Engineers
The mechanical engineers will normally need to advise on power consumption data for
rotating machines, e.g. pumps, compressors, fans, conveyors, and cranes. They will also
advise the power output options available for the different types and models of prime movers
for generators, e.g. gas turbines, diesel engines, gas engines. In all cases the electrical
engineer needs to know the shaft power at the coupling of the electrical machine. He is then
able to calculate or check that the electrical power consumption is appropriate for the rating
of the motor, or the power output is adequate for the generator. The mechanical engineer will
also advise on the necessary duplication of machinery, e.g. continuous duty, maximum short-
time duty, standby duty and out-of-service spare machines. He will also give some advice on
the proposed method of operation and control of rotating machines, and this may influence
the choice of cooling media, construction materials, types of bearings, ducting systems,
sources of fresh air, hazardous area suitability, etc. The electrical engineer should keep in
close contact with the progress of machinery selection during the early stages of a project
up to the procurement stage in particular, so that he is sure the electrical machines and
their associated equipment are correctly specified. Likewise after the purchase orders are
placed he should ensure that he receives all the latest manufacturers data relating to the
electrical aspects, e.g. data sheets, drawings, changes, hazardous area information.
Mechanical engineers are subdivided in to following two categories:

1. Static Equipment Packages

Air Fan Coolers
HVAC
Electric Heaters
Fired heaters

2. Rotary Equipment Packages

Compressor
Turbines
Pump
EOT cranes
Machinery Load List

Instrument Engineers
The process and instrument engineers will generally develop the operation and control
philosophies for individual equipments and overall schemes. The electrical engineer should
then interface to enable the following to be understood. Interlocking and controls that affect
motor control centers and switchboards, generator
controls, control panels, local and remote stations, mimic panels, SCADA, computer
networking, displays in the CCR and other locations. Cabling specifications and
requirements e.g. screening, numbers of cores, materials, earthing, routing, segregation and
racking of cables.

Power supplies for control systems, AC and DC, UPS requirements, battery systems.

Symbolic notation, e.g. tag numbers, equipment names and labels, cable and core
numbering systems.

Special earthing Requirements for instruments and DCS/PLC

Interface of electrical and communication system with DCS/PLC

Make available Process and Instrumentation Diagrams (PID) and Utilities and
Instrumentation Diagrams

Communication and Safety Engineers

The communication and safety engineers will be able to advise on power supply
requirements for:

Radar, Radio, Telecommunications and Public Address

Aids to navigation, e.g. lamps, beacons, foghorns, sirens; also alarms, lifeboat davits, etc.

Emergency Routing and exit lighting systems

Supplies for emergency shut-down systems.

Civil and Structure Engineers

The Civil and Structure engineers will be able to advise on following requirements for:

Rolling Shutter and miscellaneous power used for construction.

Structural / Insert plate details
Foundation drawings
UG Composite drawings
Substation Engineering
Cable trench

Piping Engineers

The Piping engineers will be able to advice on following

requirements for

Plot Plan
Cathodic Protection
Electrical Heat Tracing
UG Composite drawings
Fire fighting

Facilities and Operations Engineers

These engineers do not normally contribute any power consumption data, but
their input to the work of the electrical engineer is to advise on subjects such as
equipment layout, access to equipment, maintainability, maintenance lay-down
space, emergency exit routing, operational philosophies of plant and systems,
hazardous area classification.

ESTIMATION OF PLANT ELECTRICAL LOAD

One of the earliest tasks for the engineer who is designing a power system is to
estimate the normal operating plant load. He is also interested in knowing how
much additional margin he should include in the final design.
There are no hard-and-fast rules for estimating loads and various basic
questions need to be answered at the beginning of a project for example:

Is the plant a new Green Field plant?

How long will the plant exist e.g. 10, 20, 30 years
Is the plant old and being extended?
Is the power to be generated on site, or drawn from an external utility, or a
combination?
Does the owner have a particular philosophy regarding the sparing of
equipment?
Are there any operational or maintenance difficulties to be considered?
Is the power factor important with regard to importing power from an external
source?
If a generator suddenly shuts down, will this cause a major interruption to the
plant
Are there any problems with high fault levels?
PRELIMINARY SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAMS

In the first few weeks of a new project the engineer will need to roughly draft a
key single-
line diagram and a set of subsidiary single-line diagrams. The key single-line
diagram should show the sources of power e.g. generators, utility intakes, the
main switchboard and the interconnections to the subsidiary or secondary
switchboards. It should also show important equipment such as power
transformers, bus bar section circuit breakers, incoming and interconnecting
circuit breakers, large items of equipment such as high voltage induction motors,
series reactors for fault current limitation, and connections to old or existing
equipment if these are relevant and the main earthing arrangements. The key
single-line diagram should show at least, the various voltage levels, system
frequency, power or volt-ampere capacity of main items such as generators,
motors and transformers, switchboard fault current levels, the vector group for
each power transformer and the identification names and unique tag numbers
of the main equipment. The set of single-line diagrams forms the basis of all the
electrical work carried out in a particular project. They should be regularly
reviewed and updated throughout the project and issued in their final form at the
completion of the project. They act as a diary and record the development of the
work. Single-line diagrams are also called One Line Diagrams. At this stage the
engineer can begin to prepare a load schedule for each subsidiary switchboard
and motor control centre, and a master schedule for the main switchboard. The
master load schedule will give an early estimate of the total power consumption.
From this can be decided the number of generators and utility intakes to install.
The KW and KVA ratings of each generator or intake will be used to determine the
highest voltage to use in the power system.

Table shows typical voltages used throughout the world for generation,
distribution and transmission of power at different industry plants.
Load Summary
A load summary is a detailed listing of all loads to be served by the electrical
distribution system. It is used to determine the power requirements of a
system -
in order to properly size power sources, distribution equipment, and feeder
systems. The load summary also aids in determining system voltages.

Load
To develop a load summary, data on all loads to be served and information
about the facility processes should be collected first. Generally, industrial
facility loads are a function of the process equipment. A list of loads must be
obtained from the process and equipment designers. The list should include
nameplate ratings of motors, brake-horsepower of electric motor-driven
equipment, and KVA and kW ratings of all other process equipment. If
available, design operating loads should be included. It is important that the
system electrical designer acquire knowledge of the facility processes. This
knowledge will assist in estimating loads and selecting the proper system and
components. At the initial stages of design, accurate load data may be
limited. Loads must be estimated until the design is finalized. It is better to
estimate loads on the high side to avoid undersized equipment.

Load Layout
For large facilities, a load layout should be created using the plot plan to show
major load components. If available, individual horsepower ratings should be
obtained. Loads located on the plan give a geographical view of the load
density, which can be used to assist in devising a logical power distribution
scheme. Familiarity with existing facilities is also helpful.

A load center is defined as an assembly (lineup) of low-voltage (0-1000 volts)

or medium voltage (1001-100,000 volts) switchgear. Load center breakers
typically feed large motors, motor control centers, or other load centers. Areas
containing high load densities should be identified as possibly requiring load
centers. The load layout should then be used to assist in selecting the power
distribution scheme.

Once the basic system has been selected, the load layout is used to assign loads to
individual load centers and Motor Control Centers. Loads should be assigned to
busses before beginning the load summary so that individual summaries can be
made for each bus, making it easier to size system components.
A low voltage motor control enters (MCC) is a group of motor starters and thermal
magnetic circuit breakers rated up to 600 volts. Typically, 460 volt motors rated 200
hp or less are fed from MCCs and started with combination motor starters. Larger
460 volt motors commonly are started with circuit breakers if they draw too
much current for combination motor starters. A combination motor starter consists
of a circuit breaker, a contractor, and an overload relay. Other loads (e.g. lighting and
heating) are served by thermal magnetic circuit breakers in the motor control center.

A medium voltage MCC is a lineup of motor starters rated up to 7200 volts. Starters
typically employ a current limiting fuse, a draw-out air or vacuum contactor, and
ambient compensated overload relays.

Detailed Load Summary

A detailed load summary can be developed once the load data has been gathered, a
load layout made, a basic distribution system chosen, and the loads assigned to
individual busses. The procedures described in Sections 2.2 through 2.6 of the
conceptual design phase must be performed before starting the one-line diagram
and detailed load summary. The load summary is developed for three main reasons:

1) To determine the power requirements for each load center and motor control
center permitting the designer to select distribution voltages and size distribution
equipment (e.g., transformers, buses, circuit breakers, starters, and feeders).

2) To determine power requirements for the entire system permitting power sources
to be sized.

3) To provide a basis for a cost estimate.

First, separate load summaries should be developed for each load center and motor
control center. Next, the totals from these summaries should be combined to
determine power requirements for the entire system. It is best to begin summarizing
at the furthermost downstream bus (often a motor control center). Summarizing in
the upstream direction should continue until the source is reached. Each new
summary in the upstream direction will include load data from previous downstream
summaries for use in sizing upstream equipment.
Figure 3.shows an example of a one-line diagram for an electrical distribution system
during the conceptual design phase. Figure 4 is a load summary for this system.

All significant loads in the electrical system, including planned future loads, should
be listed on the summary by equipment type and number. Brake horsepower should
be listed for electric motor driven equipment. Horsepower ratings should be listed for
electric motors and KVA ratings for other loads (e.g., lighting transformers, power
receptacles, and heat tracing). The load summary should include a calculation of
connected load. Connected load is the sum of electric ratings for all equipment
served by the system, including planned future loads.

Running load is the actual electrical load of the facility during operation. Running
load is used to size utility service, generators, transformers, feeders, motor control
centers, circuit breakers, and uninterruptible power supplies. To determine running
load, individual loads must be identified as continuous, intermittent, or spare.
Running load is the sum of all continuous loads, including planned future continuous
loads. Intermittent loads are included on a percentage basis; spare loads are not
included in running load calculation.
A continuous load is defined as a load that is expected to operate continuously for 3
hours or more. Intermittent loads are loads that operate continuously for periods of
less than 3 hours. Spare loads are operated only when other loads are not operating.

Power factor and efficiency must be known to calculate the running load. Power
factor is defined as the ratio of real power (KW) to apparent power (KVA). A load with
a low power factor
(e.g., a motor) draws more current than a load with a higher power factor. Efficiency
is defined as the ratio of output power to input power.

Initially, only estimated horsepower ratings may be available, and power factor and
efficiency must be estimated. When power factor and efficiency are not known,
consider 1 hp of load to require 1 KVA of power. As actual power factors and
efficiencies become available, particularly for large motors, the load summary should
be updated.

Two factors used to calculate the running load of motors for the sizing of
transformers are demand factor and run factor. Demand factor is the ratio of actual
operating load to nameplate rating. Run factor is the percentage of hours operating
per day, expressed as a decimal equivalent. These factors generally are not used in
the load summary. However, in cases where many large intermittent motors are
connected to a bus, run factors and demand factors should be included in the
running load calculations for economic reasons.
Peak load, the maximum instantaneous load drawn by a system during a stated
period of time, is obtained when the facility is operating at full capacity and the
maximum instantaneous intermittent load is energized. All intermittent loads on a
system normally will not be energized at the same time. Therefore, to estimate peak
load the process must be evaluated to determine when the maximum intermittent
load will be energized. Peak load is the sum of the running load and the maximum
instantaneous intermittent load.
Stand-by loads should be identified on the load summary to enable the electrical
system designer to design the stand-by power system. Typically, stand-by loads
include critical loads that cause damage to the process or product if power is
interrupted, loads required for black start- up of a generator (e.g., jacket water
heaters and pumps), selected plant lighting and HVAC loads, and sewage pumps.
Emergency loads deemed essential for personnel safety (e.g., building egress
lighting) and UPS loads that require clean uninterrupted power (e.g., computers and
certain electronic instrumentation) should also be identified on the load summary.
Typically, emergency loads are powered form unit equipment

LOAD SCHEDULES

Each switchboard will supply power to each load connected to it and in many cases it
will
also supply power to switchboards or distribution boards immediately downstream.
Hence
the input power to a switchboard will have the possibility of two components, one
local and
one downstream. Hereinafter the term switchboard will also include the term motor
control
centre, (The terms switchgear and motor control centre are used in general to
describe
combinations of enclosures, bus bars, circuit breakers, power contactors, power
fuses,
Protective relays, controls and indicating devices) Each local load may be classified
into several different categories for example, vital, essential and non-essential.
Individual oil companies often use their own terminology and terms such as
emergency and normal are frequently encountered. Some processes in an oil
installation may handle fluids that are critical to the loss of power e.g. fluids that
rapidly solidify and therefore must be kept hot. Other processes such as general
cooling water services, air conditioning, and sewage pumping may be able to
tolerate a loss of supply for several hours without any long-term serious effects.
In general terms there are three ways of considering a load or group of loads and
these may be cast in the form of questions:

1. The loss of power jeopardizes safety of personnel or cause serious damage

within the plant. These loads can be called vital loads.
2. The loss of power causes degradation or loss of the manufactured product?
These loads can be called the essential loads.
3. It does the loss have no effect on safety or production? These can be called the
non-
essential loads.

Vital loads are normally fed from a switchboard that has one or more dedicated
generators
and one or more incoming feeders from an upstream switchboard. The generators
provide
power during the emergency when the main source of power fails. Hence these
generators
are usually called emergency generators and are driven by diesel engines. They are

designed to automatically start, run-up and be closed onto the switchboard

whenever a loss
of voltage at the bus bars of the switchboard is detected. An under voltage relay is
often used
for this purpose. Testing facilities are usually provided so that the generator can be
started
and run-up to demonstrate that it is ready to respond when required. Automatic and
manual synchronizing facilities can also be provided so that the generator can be
loaded
during the tests. Low voltage diesel generators are typically rated between 100 and
500 kW, and occasionally as large as 1000 kW. High voltage emergency generator
ratings are typically between 1000 and 2500 kW. The total amount of vital load is
relatively small compared with the normal load and, in many situations, the essential
load. Consequently the vital load is fed from
Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), as AC or DC depending upon the functions
needed.
The vital loads are usually fed from a dedicated part of the emergency switchboard.
The
UPS units themselves are usually provided with dual incoming feeders. Some of the
vital and essential loads are required when the plant is to be started up, and there is
no normal power available. In this situation the starting up of the plant is called
black starting. The emergency generator must be started from a source of power,
which is usually a high capacity storage battery and a DC starter motor, or a fully
charged air receiver and a pneumatic starter motor. In many plants, especially
offshore platforms, the vital and essential loads operate at low voltage e.g. 380, 400,
415 volts. Large plants such as LNG refrigeration and storage facilities require
substantial amounts of essential power during their start-up and shut-down
sequences and so high voltage e.g. 4160, 6600 volts is used. The vital loads would
still operate at low voltage.
All of the vital, essential and non-essential loads can be divided into typically three
duty categories:
Continuous duty.
Intermittent duty.
Standby duty (those that are not out of service).

Hence each switchboard will usually have an amount of all three of these categories.
These are for continuous duty, I for intermittent duty and S for the standby duty. Let
the total amount of each at a particular switchboard j be Cjsum, Ijsum and Sjsum.
Each of these totals will consist of the active power and the corresponding reactive
power. In order to estimate the total consumption for the particular switchboard it is
necessary to assign a diversity factor to each total amount. Let these factors be Dcj
for Csumj, Dij for Isumj and Dsj for Ssumj . Oil companies that use this approach
have different values for their diversity factors, largely based upon experience
gained over many years of designing plants. Different types of plants may warrant
different diversity factors.

The factors should be chosen in such a manner that the selection of main generators
and main feeders from a power utility company are not excessively rated, thereby
leading to a poor choice of equipment in terms of economy and operating efficiency.
The above method can be used very effectively for estimating power requirements
at the beginning of a new project, when the details of equipment are not known until
the manufacturers can offer adequate quotations. Later in a project the details of
efficiency, power factor, absorbed power, rated current etc. become well known from
the purchase order documentation. A more accurate form of load schedule can then
be justified. However, the total power to be supplied will be very similar when both
methods are compared. The total load can be considered in two forms, the total
plant running load (TPRL) and the total plant peak load (TPPL), hence,

Wh
ere n is the number of switchboards.

The installed generators or the main feeders to the plant must be sufficient to supply
the
TPPL on a continuous basis with a high load factor. This may be required when the
production at the plant is near or at its maximum level, as is often the case with a
seasonal demand. Where a plant load is predominantly induction motors it is
reasonable to assume the overall power factor of a switchboard to be 0.87 lagging
for low voltage and 0.89 lagging for high voltage situations. If the overall power
factor is important with regard to payment for imported power, and where a penalty
may be imposed on a low power factor, then a detailed calculation of active and
reactive powers should be made separately, and the total KVA determined from
these two totals. Any necessary power factor improvement can then be calculated
from this information.

DEFINATION:

Diversity Factor: The ratio of the sum of the individual non-coincident maximum
demands of various subdivisions of the system to the maximum demand of the
complete system. The diversity factor is usually greater than 1. The (unofficial) term
diversity, as distinguished from diversity factor refers to the percent of time
available that a machine, piece of equipment, or facility has its maximum or nominal
load or demand (a 70% diversity means that the device in question operates at its
nominal or maximum load level 70% of the time that it is connected and turned
on).Diversity factor is commonly used for a number of mathematics-related topics.
One such instance is when completing a coordination study for a system. This
diversity factor is used to estimate the load of a particular node in the system.

Diversity Factor: Sum of Individual Max. Demands

Max. Demand on Power Station
Demand factor: It is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part of a
system, to the total connected load on the system, or part of the system under
consideration. Demand factor is always less than one.
Load Factor: The ratio of the average load supplied during a designated period to the
peak load occurring in that period, in kilowatts. Simply, the load factor is the actual
amount of kilowatt-hours delivered on a system in a designated period of time as
opposed to the total possible kilowatt-hours that could be delivered on a system in a
designated period of time. Utilities are generally interested in increasing load factors
on their systems.

A high load factor indicates high usage of the systems equipment and is a measure of
efficiency. High load factor customers are normally very desirable from a utilitys point of
view. Using a year as the designated period, the load factor is calculated by dividing the
kilowatt hours delivered during the year by the peak load for the year times the total
number or hours during the year.

Capacity factor: The ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time and its
output if it had operated a full capacity of that time period.

Coincidence factor: The ratio, expressed as a numerical value or as a percentage, of the

simultaneous maximum demand of a group of electrical appliances or consumers within a
specified period, to the sum of their individual maximum demands within the same period.
Example:
An offshore production and drilling platform is proposed as a future project, but before the
detail design commences it is considered necessary to prepare an estimate of the power
consumption. The results of the estimate will be used to determine how many gas-turbine
driven generators to install.

This in turn will enable an initial layout of all the facilities and equipment to be proposed.
Since this is a new plant and the preliminary data is estimated from process calculations,
mechanical calculations and comparisons with similar plants, it is acceptable to use the
following diversity factors, Dc = 1.0, Di = 0.5 and Ds = 0.1.
The total power is found to be 12,029 kW. At this stage it is not known whether the plant is
capable of future expansion. The oil and gas geological reservoir may not have a long life
expectation, and the number of wells that can be accommodated on the platform may be
limited. The 4000 kW of power consumed by the drilling operations may only be required for
a short period of time e.g. one year, and thereafter the demand may be much lower.
During the detail design phase of the project the load schedules will be modified and
additional loads will inevitably be added. At least 10% extra load should be added to the
first estimate i.e. 1203 kW. The total when rounded-up to the nearest 100 kW would be
13,300 kW. Sufficient generators should be installed such that those that are necessary to
run should be loaded to about 80 to 85% of their continuous ratings, at the declared
ambient temperature. This subject is discussed in more detail in sub-section 1.3. If four
generators are installed on the basis that one is a non-running standby unit, then three
must share the load. Hence a reasonable power rating for each generator is between 5216
kW and 5542 kW.

DETERMINATION OF POWER SUPPLY CAPACITY

After the load has been carefully estimated it is necessary to select the ratings and numbers
of generators, or main incoming feeders from a power utility company. Occasionally a plant
may require a combination of generators and incoming feeders e.g. refinery, which may
operate in isolation or in synchronism with the utility company. Usually a plant has scope for
expansion in the future. This scope may be easy to determine or it may have a high degree
of uncertainty. The owner may have strong reasons to economies initially and therefore be
only willing to install enough capacity to meet the plant requirements in the first few years
of operation. If this is the case then it is prudent to ensure that the switchgear in particular
has adequate bus bar normal current rating and fault current rating for all future expansion.
The main circuit breakers should be rated in a similar manner. If the switchgear is rated
properly at the beginning of a project, then all future additions should be relatively easy to
achieve in a practical and economical manner. Such an approach also leads to a power
system that is easy to start up, operate and shut down.
The supply capacity normally consists of two parts. One part to match the known or initial
consumption and a second part to account for keeping a spare generator or feeder ready for
service. Any allowance required for future load growth should be included in the power
consumption calculations. This two-part approach is often referred to as the N 1
philosophy, where N is the number of installed generators or feeders. The philosophy is that
under normal operating conditions in a fully load plant N 1 generators or feeders should
be sufficient to supply the load at a reasonably high load factor.

Pl = power consumption required at the site ambient conditions

Pg = rated power of each generator or feeder at the site ambient conditions
Fo = overload power in % when one generator or feeder is suddenly switched out of service
Fi = load factor in % of each generator or feeder before one is switched out of service
N = number of installed generators or feeders. N is usually between 4 and 6 for an
economical design of a generating plant and 2 or 3 for feeders.
Pl and Pg are usually the known variables, with Fi and Fo being the unknown variables.
Several feasible ratings of Pg may be available and the value of N may be open to choice. A
good choice of Pg and N will ensure that the normally running load factor is high i.e.
between 70% and 85%, whilst the post-disturbance overload on the remaining generators or
feeders will not be so high that they trip soon after the disturbance, i.e. less than 125%.
STANDBY CAPACITY OF PLAIN CABLE FEEDERS AND TRANSFORMER FEEDERS
In above section, the three ways of considering consumers were discussed, and the terms,
vital, essential and non-essential were introduced.
Because of the sensitive nature of the vital and essential consumers with regard to
personnel safety and production continuity, it is established practice to supply their
associated switchboards with dual, or occasionally triple, feeders.
For non-essential switchboards it may be practical to use only one feeder.
For switchboards other than those for the generator or intake feeders it is established
practice to add some margin in power capacity of their feeders so that some future growth
can be accommodated. The margin is often chosen to be 25% above the TPPL.
If the feeders are plain cables or overhead lines then it is a simple matter to choose
their cross-sectional areas to match the current at the 125% duty.
For transformer feeders there are two choices that are normally available. Most power
transformers can be fitted with external cooling fans provided the attachments for these
fans are included in the original purchase order. It is common practice to order transformers
initially without fans and operate them as ONAN until the demand increases to justify the
fan cooling. Thereafter the transformer is
operated as ONAF. Adding fans can increase the capacity of the transformer by 25% to 35%,
depending upon the particular design and ambient conditions. The alternative choice is
simply to rate the ONAN transformer for the 125% duty, and initially operate it at a lower
level. The decision is often a matter of economics and an uncertainty about the future
growth. When standby or future capacity is required
for transformers it is necessary to rate the secondary cables or bus bars correctly at the
design stage of the project. Likewise the secondary circuit breakers and switchgear bus bars
need to be appropriately rated for the future demand. The decision to over-rate the primary
cables or lines may be made at the beginning of the project or later when demand
increases.

PREPARATION OF THE ONE-LINE DIAGRAM ONE-LINE METER AND

RELAY DIAGRAMS

Single-line diagrams are the most essential documents that are developed during the Basic
and detail design phase of a project. They identify almost all the main items of power
equipment and their associated ancillaries. Initially they define the starting point of a
project. Finally they are a concise record of the design, from which all the design and
purchasing work evolved. The final single-line diagrams should contain at least the following
information. Complicated power systems may require the single-line diagrams to be sub-
divided into several companion diagrams, in which aspects such as protection, interlocking
and earthing are treated separately. This ensures that the diagrams are not overly
congested with information. The end results should be unambiguous and be easily read and
understood by the recipient.

DEFINITIONS
1 One-Line Diagram
A one-line diagram shows, by means of single lines and graphic symbols, the course of an
electric circuit or system of circuits and the component devices or parts used therein. In a
three-phase system, a single line represents all three phases.
2 Schematic Diagrams
A schematic diagram shows, by means of graphic symbols, the electrical connections and
functions of a specific circuit arrangement. Schematic diagrams are used to present the
control circuits of electrical equipment such as motors, heaters etc. or to show the control
and protection circuits of transmission line switching equipment such as circuit breakers,
disconnections, etc.
3 Symbols
Graphic symbols represent the functions or interconnections of a circuit. Graphic symbols
are
used on one-line diagrams, on schematic diagrams, or, as applicable, on connection or
wiring
diagrams. Graphic symbols are correlated with parts lists, descriptions, or instructions by
means
of designations.
4 Function Number
A device function number, with an appropriate prefix and appended suffix is used to identify
the
function(s) of each device installed in electrical equipment. These numbers are used in one-
line
diagrams, on schematic diagrams, instruction books, publications and specifications. In
addition,
function number may be physically placed on, or adjacent to, each device on the assembled
equipment.

TABLE OF SYMBOLS
Symbols used to create one-line and schematic diagrams according to ANSI/IEEE and IEC
Standards are given in Table I. Symbols are not always unique. In some cases, within the
same standard, the symbols of the same device are defined in different ways. Table I gives
typical representation of symbols. The table also gives alternative representation of the
same symbol if the alternative representation is specified by Standard. IEEE standard 315-
1975 states: A substantial effort has been made to have American National Standard
compatible with approved IEC Recommendations. Electrical diagrams are a factor in
international trade; the use of one common symbol language ensures a clear presentation
and economical diagram preparation for a variety of users. Hence many of the ANSI
symbols presented in this table use the IEC designated symbols. Protective relay function
numbers are defined by ANSI standard C37.2-1996 and they are commonly used in both
ANSI and IEC projects.
In most cases IEC projects use function numbers defined by ANSI C37.2-1996, however
some projects may choose to use symbolic representations given by IEC-60617. ANSI
Standard C37.2-1996 defines letters and numbers that may be used as prefixes or suffixes
to device function numbers to provide a more specific definition of the function. They may
serve to denote individual or specific parts or auxiliary contacts of these devices or certain
distinguishing features, characteristics, or conditions that describe the use of the device or
its contacts in the equipment. Similarly as the device function numbers, prefix and suffix
letters and numbers can be used in both ANSI and IEC Projects.
Type of System

Once the load layout has been developed and areas of high load concentrations have been
identified, a power distribution scheme can be selected. A system should be selected that
will distribute power to the load centers by the most economical and reliable means possible
that meets the particular facility requirements. The primary distribution voltage can be
distributed to the load centers economically and reliably with the following systems

Radial
Primary selective
Primary loop
Secondary selective

Radial System

(1) In the radial system, one primary service feeder supplies power from a distribution
transformer to the loads (at utilization voltage) from a load center.

(2) This system is simple in operation, and expansion is accomplished easily. A

disadvantage of the radial system is that a loss of the source or primary feeder will shut
down all loads connected to that load center. Also, loads must be shut down for system
maintenance and servicing. The radial system is satisfactory only for installations where the
process allows sufficient down-time for adequate maintenance.
Primary Selective System:

Protection against the loss of a primary supply can be gained through the use of a primary
selective system. Each unit substation is connected to two separate primary feeders
through switching equipment to provide a normal source and an alternate source. If the
normal source fails, the distribution transformer is switched to the alternate source.
Switching can be either manual or automatic, but there will be an interruption of power until
the load is transferred to the alternate source.

If both sources can be paralleled during switching, some maintenance of the primary cables
(and, in certain configurations, switching equipment) may be performed without
interruption of service. Cost is
higher than for a radial system because of duplication of the primary
cable and switchgear.

Primary Loop System

(1) The primary loop system offers the same basic protection against loss of primary supply
as the primary selective system. A primary cable fault can be isolated by sectionalizing -
allowing restoration of service. The cost of this system may be slightly less than the primary
selective system.
(2) The disadvantage of this system is that locating a cable fault in the loop is more
difficult. The method of locating a fault by sectionalizing the loop and reclosing should not
be performed since it is an unsafe practice because several reclosing on the fault may be
required before the fault is located. In addition, a section may be energized from two
directions. For these reasons, the primary loop system is not recommended for new
facilities.

4 Secondary Selective System

(1) If two unit substations are connected through a normally open secondary tie circuit
breaker, the result is a secondary selective system. If the primary feeder or a transformer
fails, the main secondary circuit breaker on the affected transformer is opened and the tie
circuit breaker closed. Operation may be manual or automatic. Maintenance of primary
feeders, transformers, and main secondary circuit breakers is possible with only momentary
power interruption (or no interruption if the stations can be operated in parallel during
switching). Complete station maintenance will require a shut down. With the loss of a
primary circuit or transformer, the total substation load can be supplied by one
transformer. To allow for this condition, one or a combination of the following features should
be considered.

1) Size the transformers so that either one can carry the total load.
2) Provide forced-air cooling to the transformer(s) designated for emergency service.
3) Designate nonessential loads that can be shed during emergency periods.
4) Use the temporary overload capacity of the transformers (and accept the loss of
transformer life).

A variation of the secondary selective system, a distributed secondary selective system, has
two substations in different locations-connected by a tie cable with a normally open circuit
breaker provided in each substation. The cost of the additional tie circuit breaker and the tie
cable should be compared to the cost advantage of locating the unit stations nearer the
load center. In locations where interruptions cannot be tolerated, a variation of the
secondary selective system is to provide a normally closed tie breaker, putting the two load
centers in parallel. However, this method is allowed only if the available short circuit does
not exceed the ratings of the secondary buses and breakers.
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS WHEN READING IEC ONE-LINE
(SINGLE-LINE) AND SCHEMATIC (ELEMENTARY) DIAGRAMS

Some common points that may mislead a reader familiar with ANSI/IEEE Standards when
reading one-line diagrams and schematic diagrams that comply with IEC standards are
given in this Section.

1. Rated power of transformers

Rated power of a power transformer indicated in one-line diagrams or schematic diagrams
need to be properly interpreted. Rated power of a power transformer is defined in sub-
clause 4.1 of IEC 60076-1 as the power into transformer. The power available for the load is
therefore generally slightly less than the rated power of the transformer. Misinterpretation of
the rated power definition may lead tounder estimating the rated power required. Sub-
clause 4.1 IEC 60076-1 states that if different values of apparent power are assigned
under different circumstances (for example with different cooling methods), the highest of
these values is the rated power. It is essential that the short circuit per unit impedance
given in one-line diagram is defined for the rated power. Misinterpretation of the rated
power of a power transformer given in one-line diagrams in this case may lead to
underestimating the short circuit current.

2. System voltages for low voltage

Several years ago, it was decided to harmonize the values of voltage used in 50Hz
applications. Previously, the 2 values were 220/380V and 240/415V, and the new
harmonized value was chosen to be 230/400V. All the new applications should have a
nominal system voltage of 230/400V, but different values may appear when reading old
one-line and schematic diagrams. The fact that the no-load voltage of step-down
transformers is indicated on one-line diagrams sometimes leads to confusion since no-load
voltage of 400V is used for systems having a nominal voltage of 380V. For a nominal system
voltage of 400V, a secondary no-load voltage of 420V is typically used.

REFERENCES
1. ANSI/IEEE Std 315-1975 (Reaffirmed 1993) Graphic Symbols for Electrical and Electronics
Diagrams.
2. ANSI/IEEE Std C37.2-1996 (Reaffirmed 2001) IEEE Standard Electrical Power System
Device Function Numbers and Contact Designations
3. IEC 60617: 2003 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams - Database
4. IEC 60050: 1984 International Electro technical Vocabulary

D. Format Use to prepare single Line Diagram

1. Voltage Levels
A one-line diagram should cover all ac voltage levels within the electrical distribution
system.
It is conventional to prepare the diagram beginning with the highest voltage level at the top
of
the sheet and proceed down to the lower voltage levels of the system in the order indicated
below:
a. Extra high voltage (switchyard) 765 kV, 500 kV, 345 kV, and 230 kV (voltages above 140
kV)
b. High voltage (switchyard and substation) 138 kV, 115 kV, and 69 kV (voltages above 36
kV, up to and including 140 kV)
c. Medium voltage 34.5 kV (distribution), 22 kV, 13.8 kV, 6.9 kV, 4.16 kV, and 2.4 kV
(voltages above 1 kV, up to and including 36 kV)
d. Low voltage (unit substation and MCCs) 480 V, 600 V (voltages up to and including 1 kV)
NOTE: 250 V, 125 V dc, and 120 V ac UPS and 240 V/120 V distribution system one-line
diagrams may be covered on separate drawings.

2. Phase Rotation (or Phase Sequence)

Phase rotations for all voltage levels within the entire electrical distribution system should
be shown, preferably at the top right hand corner of the diagram, starting with the highest
voltage phasor as the reference, and the first phase of the highest voltage system pointing
upward (12 oclock position).The usual notation of the phase rotations is A-B-C (or X-Y-Z or U-
V-W or 1-2-3 or L1-L2-L3 or by three colors, R-Y-B) counterclockwise (or) AC-B
counterclockwise. In addition, phase relationship (electrical angular displacement) between
the various voltage
levels should be shown.

3. Definition of Scope and Responsibility

The One-line diagram must include boundary lines clearly identifying the equipment and
engineering work within Contractor's scope and responsibility. Also, major components and
interconnections covered by Others (for example, the Utility's switchyard) but interfacing
with the equipment within Contractor's scope and responsibility must be shown on the
diagram with a specific note that these are provided by Others.

Equipment Details
The Main One-line Diagrams should present ratings and details of the major electrical
equipment and interconnecting components as listed below:

Switchboards and motor control centers:

All switchboards and motor control centre names, bus-section numbers, line voltages,
number of phases, number of wires, frequency, busbar continuous current rating.
Identification of main incoming bus-section, outgoing and interconnecting circuit breakers
including spare and unequipped cubicles. Some diagrams show the cable tag number of the
principal cables. A simplified breaker arrangement including the associated disconnect
switches, surge (lightning) arresters for extra-high or high voltage breakers, and the Current
and Voltage transformers that interface with the plant for synchronization, protective
relaying and metering should be shown.

Generators:
Names and tag numbers.
Nominal ratings in MVA or kVA and power factor.
D-axis synchronous reactance in per-unit.
D-axis transient reactance in per-unit.
D-axis sub-transient reactance in per-unit.
Neutral earthing arrangements, e.g. solid, with a neutral earthing resistance (NER), with a
common busbar, switches or circuit breakers for isolation.
Current and time rating of the NER if used, and the voltage ratio of the earthing
transformer if used.

Generator breaker (if applicable)

Names and tag numbers.
No. of Poles.
Type of interruption.
Nominal ratings in voltage, Amps and kA
Transformer feeders:
Names and tag numbers.
Nominal ratings in MVA or kVA.
Leakage impedance in per-unit.
Symbolic winding arrangement of the primary and secondary.
Line voltage ratio.

Surge arresters, and surge capacitors

Names and tag numbers.
Nominal ratings in voltage, Amps and kA

Isolated-phase buses
Names and tag numbers.
No. of Poles.
Nominal ratings in voltage, Amps and kA

Non-segregated buses
Names and tag numbers.
 No. of Poles.
Nominal ratings in voltage, Amps and kA

High voltage and large low voltage motors:

Names and tag numbers.
Nominal ratings in kW.

Current limiting reactors

Names and tag numbers.
Nominal ratings in Amp.

Power factor improvement capacitors

Names and tag numbers.
Nominal ratings in Voltage, kVAr and short circuit current kA.

Distribution 120 V ac (including UPS) system (on separate diagrams)

Names and tag numbers.
Nominal ratings in Voltage, KW or AmpHr and short circuit current kA.

General notes column or box:

Usually several notes are added to the diagram to explain unusual or particular features,
such as interlocking, limitations on impedance values for fault currents or volt drop.
PROCEDURE FOR PREPARATION

The following discrete steps are recommended for preparation of project Main One-line
Diagrams.

Step 1: Collection of Basic Data

This step is intended to obtain and organize basic technical data for the major elements in
the electrical distribution system that is listed below. (If actual data/information specific to
the project are not available at the preliminary stage, data/information from a similar project
recently executed by Contactor be used to approximate the data. However, as and when
technical data specific to the project
become available, these shall substitute for the approximated data/information).

a. Utilize the project Equipment List to prepare the electrical load lists for the medium
voltage and low voltage loads. Normal operating and spare loads should be assigned to
separate busses. Notes may be added to indicate nature of loads such as common facility
loads, essential loads, intermittently operating.
b. Determination of load centers and their dedication to the systems. eg, HRSG Load center.
c. Selection of voltage levels appropriate to the subsystems
d. Selection of distribution system (radial, primary loop, ring bus etc.)
e. Selection of grounding system (ungrounded, high resistance, low resistance or solidly
grounded)
f. Major equipment ratings (per ANSI or IEC Std)
g. Interconnecting components (iso-phase bus, non-segregated bus, power cables)
h. Scope and responsibility (marked by boundary lines between the plant and the
switchyard, boundary lines covering equipment and systems within Others scope of
supply) The extent of the equipment data, details, and notes shown on the one-line
diagrams may vary from one project to another, or from one industry to another. Reference
may be made (on the diagrams) to Medium Voltage and Low Voltage
Diagrams or vendor or contractor drawings for equipment ratings and details.

Step 2: Configuration of Electrical Distribution System

The electrical distribution system shall be configured showing interconnections between
equipment at different voltage levels. In general, the physical locations of individual pieces
of equipment need not be considered in the layout. However; the equipment arrangement
shall be from top to bottom based on the voltage levels. If any special features such as
automatic or manual bus transfers (for example,
between start-up and normal sources of power) and interlocks are involved, these should
also be indicated and notes on the drawing should cover their details/description.

Step 3: Drafting of the Diagram

Drafting of the diagram shall comply with company standards. Typical project one-line
diagrams are included in this design guide. These figures depict generic arrangement and
are for drafting references only. Preparation of SLD of Individual Switchboards and Motor
Control Centres:

Switchboards and motor control centre name and tag number.

Bus-section numbers or letters.
Cubicle numbers or letters.
Line voltage, number of phases, number of wires, frequency, bus-bar continuous current
rating.
Bus-bar nominal fault breaking capacity in kA at 1 or 3 seconds.
Identification of all circuit breakers, fuse-contactor units, and their nominal current
bratings.
Neutral earthing arrangements, e.g. connections to the incomers.
Protective devices of all incomers, bus-section circuit breakers, bus-bars, and outgoing
circuits.
Interlocking systems in schematic form.
Local and remote indication facilities.
Details of special devices such as transducers, automatic voltage regulators,
synchronizing schemes, fault limiting reactors, reduced voltage motor starters, bus-bar
trunking.
Rating, ratio and accuracy class of current and voltage transformers.
 Identification of spare and unequipped cubicles.
References to other drawing numbers, e.g. continuation of a switchboard, associated
switchgear, drawing in the same series, legend drawing, cables schedule and protective
relay schedule.
Column or box for detailed notes.
Column or box for legend of symbols

PREPARATION OF ONE-LINE METER AND RELAY DIAGRAMS

GENERAL
1. The system Single Line Meter and Relay Diagram (SLM&RD) is a schematic representation
of a specific electrical system illustrating the functional relationships among the various
components and the electrical control, metering, and protective relays. A system SLM&RD is
a key project document, and is intended to fulfill the following primary objectives:
a. Furnish all information related to the system design
b. Provide interface information to other disciplines
c. Provide the client, regulatory and other agencies, and equipment vendors with a means of
better understanding the system design and requirements
d. Serve as a primary record of system design information and requirements for major
equipment (such as generator, transformer, switchgear, load centers/unit substations)
protective relaying and meters
e. Serve as a basis for generating additional project documents, including system
description, protection logic and schematic diagrams, circuit and raceway schedules,
electrical equipment index, and loop diagrams for distributed control systems (DCS)

2. System SLM&RDs shall include all applicable major electrical equipment, meters and their
switches, protective relays with associated instrument transformers, motor protectors,
electrical transducers, resistance temperature detectors, and interlock devices. These
equipment and components are to be represented schematically. The following technical
information and details are to be included in system SLM&RDs:
a. System phase rotation (phase sequence)
b. Equipment names, ratings, device identification numbers, and associated location
c. A Protective Relay Table covering device numbers, description of relays, make/model,
locations, and intended function of relays
d. Types of meters and transducers with specified ranges
e. Main generator ratings, excitation, and neutral grounding
f. Power transformer and instrument transformer connection (delta-wye, wye-wye, etc.) and
grounding requirements, including polarity markings for instrument transformers
g. Continuous current ratings of power circuit breakers, or motor starters, and their
numbering and cubicle location numbers in switchgear assemblies and motor starter
assemblies
h. Isolated phase bus and/or nonse gregated phase bus continuous current ratings
i. Cable entry (top or bottom) to switchgear, medium voltage motor starter lineups, load
centers, and current limiting reactor (This information may be noted on the diagrams where
physical elevation of the equipment is shown).
j. Power cable sizes (Types and installation [conduit, underground ductbank, or tray] may be
noted on the diagrams.)
k. The quantities of each protective relay and associated instrument transformers and fuses
l. Current ratios of current transformers and polarities and voltage ratios of potential
transformers (Metering or relay accuracy classes may be noted on the diagrams.) m. "Local"
and/or "remote" control points of an electrically operated circuit breaker; the associated
control switch, selector switch, and meter; and their respective location numbers (This
information may be indicated on the diagrams.)
n. Computer input requirements
o. Identification of the electrical system designators
p. Power and control cable numbers may be shown
q. Medium voltage motor RTDs (windings and bearings) and differential CTs as applicable
r. Interlocking between breakers as applicable

3. The following details and information are not to be shown on system SLM&RDs:
a. Contact development of control switches
b. Indication lights
c. Contacts of auxiliary relays and control switches (including alarm initiating contacts)
d. Cable block diagrams, and wire numbers
e. Detailed wiring or connections between equipment, components, and devices

4. For low voltage MCCs, the meter and relay requirements may be documented in the form
of a schedule of tabulated design information. Low voltage MCCs feed motors (typically up
to 75 hp, or up to 200 hp, depending on the project design criteria), battery chargers, HVAC
system, heaters, etc.

The MCC schedule (or single line) is an expedient means to define the electrical design
requirements for each load supplied from the MCC. The following information is to be
furnished on the schedule format (Refer to Figure 7 for a typical MCC schedule of tabulated
design
a. Identification of the MCC by its location number and/or system designation
b. Service description of load, its assigned identification number, its system designation
(where applicable), and its rating in appropriate unit
c. The MCC cubicle number feeding the load and its vertical cubicle dimension
d. Horsepower rating, service factor, the full load current (FLA), locked rotor current (LRA),
and feeder cable size for motor load
e. Control point, whether local or remote, from which the load can be controlled
f. Fuse disconnect switch or breaker rating requirements, including frame size, continuous
current rating, and trip setting or fuse type and rating
g. Starter size, type, and overload element or solid-state trip device settings
h. Control transformer rating and associated fuse rating
i. Breaker or disconnect switch number assigned to the load (Other Bechtel or vendor
document numbers may be referenced, if applicable.)
j. Motor space heater requirements, if applicable
k. Any special design features, such as adding a relay or switch, etc.

5. The meter and relay diagram for the high voltage, extra-high voltage switchyard and
substation system is a schematic representation illustrating the primary circuit equipment
and bus arrangement, secondary circuits with meters, protective relays and functional
relationships among the various components. The primary circuit equipment and bus
arrangement shown on the diagram should be in agreement with the physical layout
arrangement. The following technical information and details are to be included in the high
and extra-high voltage system single line meter and relay diagrams:
a. System phase rotation (phase sequence)
b. Type of circuit breaker either dead tank or live tank design and whether gang operated or
independent pole operated may be noted on the diagram. For dead tank breakers, current
transformers are located on both side bushings and form a part of the circuit breaker. For
live tank breakers, current transformers are to be shown as separate equipment.
c. Main bus voltage, continuous current rating and bus identification
d. Type of operator of the disconnect switches and ground switches, show whether motor or
manually operated e. Current transformers ratios, polarities, metering and relay accuracy
classes, burden designation
f. Potential transformers ratios, connection (wye-wye, wye-open delta etc.), metering or
relay accuracy classes
g. Surge arrestor location
h. Line trap and line tuner details and location (where applicable)
i. Equipment names, ratings, identification number, transmission line or feeder descriptions
j. Current and voltage transformer secondary circuits showing the devices connected to
each secondary circuit. Current transformer secondary circuits shall be summed up for
multiple breaker application. Redundant relays shall be connected from different current
transformer circuits. (Test switches are not to be shown on the single line meter and relay
diagrams).
k. A protective relay, meter and transducer table covering device number, description of
devices, make/model, locations, intended functions, measuring ranges for meters and
transducers
l. Synchronizing potential signals and its interface with synchronizing devices
m. Potential signal to transformer load tap changer (where applicable)
n. Electrical signals between relays, breakers, and disconnect & ground switches for trip,
close and safety interlocks
o. Revenue meters, make/model, accuracy class, associated current and potential
transformers (where separate instrument transformers are used for revenue measurement)
p. Interfaces of the revenue meters with the computer and/or RTU/SCADA system
q. Interface of protection signals with remote ends of the lines and with the plant including
basic details of communication arrangement
r. Interfaces with fault recorder (where applicable)
s. Local and/or remote control points of circuit breakers and disconnect switches (This
information may be indicated as operating philosophy notes on the diagram)
t. Computer input requirement (This information may be covered on a separate drawing/list)
u. RTU/SCADA input requirement (This information may be covered on a separate
drawing/list)
v. Event recorder input requirement (This information may be covered on a separate
drawing/list)

FORMAT FOR SLM & RD

1. System SLM&RDs must be simple, neat, and presented in schematic form. Since all
information may not be available during the early stages of the project, system SLM&RDs
shall first be prepared on a conceptual basis, and then updated with changes and additions
as design progresses.

2. The system SLM&RDs may be presented in a manner such that the components
represented schematically on the drawing are in agreement with the physical arrangement
as installed when viewed from the front. If this relationship cannot be maintained, the front
view of the equipment depicting the actual arrangements of the components may be added
to the drawing. A concerted effort must be made to develop the system SLM&RDs so that all
of the components of a system appear on the one or more drawings assigned to that
system.

The following specific drawing format is recommended:

a. System phasing sequence should be shown at top left or right b. The device or relay table
should be shown on the upper right portion of the drawing
c. The location number summary table, if furnished, should be near the device or relay table
d. Space should be allowed for explanatory notes and device legends on the right side of the
drawing above the title block
e. If the front elevation of a piece of equipment is required, it may be shown at the top of
the drawing
f. Reference drawings should be listed

Note: If power is delivered to motors, MCCs, and other loads scoped within mechanical
systems, these components may also be shown in the electrical distribution system,
indicating applicable system designators for both electrical and mechanical systems.

DEVELOPMENT OF SLM & RD

Since all of the information to be shown on system SLM&RDs may not be available during
the early stages of a project, it is recommended that system SLM&RDs be prepared at
several stages during project development, in the following discrete issues:
a. Preliminary issue
b. Design issue (construction issue)
c. As-built issue an explanation of the need for these discrete issues follows.
1. Preliminary Issue
During the early stages of the project, the function, control, and protection philosophies for
different systems are required to be established and incorporated into the plant design
criteria. To support this effort, system SLM&RDs are prepared for preliminary issue based on
equipment design data available for the project or on the data extracted from a similar plant
type (reference plant) of recent design. The preliminary issue is primarily intended for client
review and/or approval and request for bid proposals from vendors of switchgear,
transformers, load centers, MCCs, etc.
2. Design Issue
The design issue of SLM&RDs is to include design requirements and additional, more
accurate information from successful vendor bid proposal documents. The design issue is
generally marked as "issued for award" or "issued for Purchase."
3. Construction Issue
The construction issue is prepared to update system SLM&RDs by incorporating information
from as-built or certified documents (supplied by equipment vendors).
4. As-Built Issue
The As-built issue will incorporate any field changes implemented during construction or
Startup of the system. This may be treated as the final issue of SLM&RDs to clients.

Bus Arrangement
The four most common types of bus arrangements are:
Single-ended
Double-ended
Ring Bus
Breaker-and-a-half scheme

The arrangement(s) selected depends upon the needs of the particular process. A
combination of bus arrangements should be used to achieve the required reliability and
selectivity. In general, system costs increase with system reliability if component quality is
equal. The first step in selecting a bus arrangement is to analyze the process to determine
its reliability needs and potential losses in the event of power interruption. Some
processes are minimally affected by interruption; in these cases, a simple single-ended bus
arrangement may be satisfactory. Other processes may sustain long-term damage by even
brief interruptions. A more complex system, with an alternate power source for critical loads,
may be justified in these cases.
Circuit redundancy may be required in continuous process systems to allow equipment
maintenance. Although the reliability of electric power distribution equipment is high,
optimum reliability and safety of operations require routine maintenance. A system that
cannot be maintained because of improper bus arrangements is improperly designed.

Single-Ended Bus Arrangement

(1) A single-ended bus arrangement, also known as a radial system, utilizes a single
primary service and distribution transformer to supply all feeders. System investment is the
lowest of all circuit arrangements since there is no duplication of equipment.
(2) Operation and expansion are simple. If quality components are used, reliability is high.
However, loss of a cable, primary supply, or transformer will cut off service. Equipment must
be shut down to perform routine maintenance and servicing. Where the industrial process
allows enough down-time for maintenance and is minimally affected by interruptions, the
simple radial system or the single-ended
bus arrangement is recommended.

Double-Ended Bus Arrangement

(1) A double-ended bus arrangement, also known as a secondary selective system, utilizes
two unit substations connected through a normally open secondary tie circuit breaker. This
type of bus arrangement is commonly used in industrial installations where high reliability is
required.

(2) If the primary feeder or a transformer fails, the circuit breaker protecting the affected
transformer is opened, and the tie circuit breaker is closed. Operation may be manual or
automatic. Maintenance of primary feeders, transformers, and main secondary circuit
breakers is possible with only a momentary power interruption (or no interruption if the
stations can be operated in parallel with the tie breaker closed during switching). If this
arrangement is ever operated with the tie breaker closed, the available short circuit current
must not exceed the short circuit rating of the bus and interrupting rating of the breakers.
Complete station maintenance requires shut down.
(3) With the loss of one primary circuit or transformer, total substation load may be supplied
by one transformer. To allow for this condition, one or a combination of the four features
outlined in Section 2.2 for a secondary selective system must be implemented.
(4) Where a process cannot be shut down for maintenance and interruption of power cannot
be tolerated, a double-ended bus arrangement or secondary selective system is
recommended. Each transformer should be sized to carry 75% of the total running load on
both buses at its self-cooled, 55 rating. The transformers should be dual rated with
provisions for future fans. This provision ensures that when one transformer is out of
service (such as for repairs) the other transformer will be able to carry the total running load
on both buses (at their 65rating, with forced air cooling). This design feature can be used
for the main power source or for substations within a facility.

(1) A ring bus arrangement is used primarily when two utility sources supply the facility.
The ring bus arrangement offers the advantage of automatically isolating a fault and
restoring service if a fault occurs in one of the sources.
(2) Normally all breakers of a ring bus arrangement are closed (Figure 11.). If a fault occurs
in Source 1, Breakers A and D operate to isolate the fault, while Source 2 feeds the loads. A
fault anywhere in the system results in two breakers operating to isolate the fault. Manual
isolating switches are installed on each side of the automatic device to allow maintenance
to be performed safely and to allow the system to be expanded without interruption of
service. This system is less expensive than the breaker-and-a-half scheme described below,
but more expensive than single- and double-ended bus arrangements.
Breaker-and-a-Half Scheme A breaker-and-a-half scheme is used extensively as an alternate
scheme to the ring bus arrangement in main facility substations where more than one
source of power is available. As its name implies, this arrangement requires one-and-a-half
breakers for each source (three breakers for every two sources) in the scheme. Normally all
the breakers are closed. This arrangement offers a high degree of security since a faulted
area will in no way affect other operating sections. This design has particular advantage
when more than one major circuit must share the same right-of-way where the possibility of
a double circuit outage is increased.

Schematic Diagram
A schematic diagram shows, by means of graphic symbols, the electrical connections and
functions of a specific circuit arrangement. Schematic diagrams are used to present the
control circuits of electrical equipment such as motors, heaters etc. or to show the control
and protection circuits of transmission line switching equipment such as circuit breakers,
disconnections, etc.
SELECTION AND SIZING OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
Generators and Generator Systems

Introduction
The selection and application of generators into the electrical distribution system will
depend on
the particular application. There are many factors to consider including code requirements,
environmental constraints, fuel sources, control complexity, utility requirements and load
requirements.
The electrical supply for data centers, financial institutions, telecommunications,
government and public utilities also require high reliability. Threats of disaster or terror
attacks have prompted many facilities to require complete self-sufficiency for continuous
operation.

Types of Engines
Many generator sets are relatively small in size, typically ranging from several kilowatts to
several megawatts. These units are often required to come on line and operate quickly. They
need to have the capacity to run for an extended period of time. The internal combustion
engine is an excellent choice as the prime mover for the majority of these applications.
Turbines may also be utilized. Diesel fueled engines are the most common, but other fuels
used include natural gas, digester gas, landfill gas, propane, biodiesel, crude oil, steam and
others. Some campuses and industrial facilities use and produce steam for heating and
other processes. These facilities may find it economically feasible to produce electricity as a
by-product of the steam production. These installations would typically be classified as a
cogeneration facility producing a fairly constant power output and operating in parallel with
the electric utility system.

Types of Generators
Generators can be either synchronous or asynchronous. Asynchronous generators are also
referred
to as induction generators. The construction is essentially the same as an induction
motor. It has a squirrel-cage rotor and wound stator. An induction generator is a motor
driven
above its designed synchronous speed thus generating power. It will operate as a motor if it
is running below synchronous speed. The induction generator does not have an exciter and
must
operate in parallel with the utility or another source. The induction generator requires vars
from
an external source for it to generate power. The induction generator operates at a slip
frequency so
its output frequency is automatically locked in with the utility's frequency. An induction
generator is a popular choice for use when designing cogeneration systems, where it will
operate in parallel with the utility. This type of generator offers certain advantages over a
synchronous generator. For example, voltage and frequency are controlled by the utility;
thus voltage and frequency regulators are not required. In addition, the generator
construction offers high reliability and little maintenance. Also, a minimum of protective
relays and controls are required. Its major disadvantages are that it requires vars from the
system and it normally cannot operate as a standby/emergency generator. Synchronous
generators, however, are the most common. Their output is determined by their field and
governor controls. Varying the current in the dc field windings controls the voltage output.
The frequency is controlled by the speed of rotation. The torque applied to the generator
shaft by the driving engine controls the power output. In this manner, the synchronous
generator offers precise control over the power it can generate. In cogeneration
applications, it can be used to improve the power factor of the system.

Generator Systems
Emergency Standby Generator System There is primarily three types of generator systems.
The first and simplest type is a single generator that operates independently from the
electric utility power grid. This is typically referred to as an Emergency Standby Generator
System. Figure 1.2-1 shows a single standby generator, utility source and a transfer switch.
In this case, the load is either supplied from the utility or the generator. The generator and
the utility are never continuously connected together. This simple radial system has few
requirements for protection and control. It also has the least impact on the complete electric
power distribution system. It should be noted that this type of generator system improves
overall electrical reliability but does not provide the redundancy that some facilities require
if the generator fails to start or is out for maintenance.
Emergency Standby Generator System Multiple Isolated Standby generators

The second type of generator system is a multiple isolated set of standby generators.
Figure1.2-2 shows multiple generators connected to a paralleling bus feeding multiple
transfer switches. The utility is the normal source for the transfer switches. The generators
and the utility are never continuously connected together in this scheme. Multiple
generators may be required to meet the load requirements (N system). Generators may be
applied in an N+1 or a 2N system for improved system reliability.

Multiple Isolated Set of Standby Generators

In an N system, where N is the number of generators required to carry the load; if a
generator fails
or is out for maintenance, then the load may be dropped. This is unacceptable for most
critical 24/7 operations. In an N + 1 system, N is the number of generators needed to carry
the load and 1 is an extra generator for redundancy. If one generator fails to start or is out
for maintenance, it will not affect the load. In a 2N system, there is complete 100%
redundancy in the standby generation system such that the failure of one complete set of
generators will not affect the load. Multiple generator systems have a more complex control
and protection requirement as the units have to be synchronized and paralleled together.
The generators are required to share the load proportionally without swings or prolonged
hunting in voltage or frequency for load sharing. They may also require multiple levels of
load shedding and/or load restoration schemes to match generation capacity.

Multiple Generators Operating in Parallel with Utility System

The third type of system is either one with a single or multiple generators that operate in
parallel with the utility system. Figure 1.2-3 shows two generators and a utility source
feeding a switchgear lineup feeding multiple loads. This system typically requires generator
capacity sufficient to carry the entire load or sophisticated load shedding schemes. This
system will require a complete and complex protection and control scheme. The electric
utility may have very stringent and costly protection requirements for the system. IEEE
standard 1547 describes the interconnection requirements for paralleling to the utility.
Multiple Generators Opera
Auto Starting, Auto Synchronizing auto Load sharing, Auto Load shedding, Grid
Islanding and Load shading of Generators in parallel many industries have multiple
generators for their captive usage, each of different size and different vintage - but they
encounter many problems when paralleling the generators.

The problems faced when generators are paralleled are:

a) Instability and hunting at higher outputs
b) Cascaded tripping
c) Accidental reverses power flow due to breaker failure
d) Poor power factor
e) Sensitivity to grid disturbances
f) Protection against grid faults
g) Handling of grid outages as per local utility regulations
h) Reverse synchronization Parallel operation of generators can be of three types:
a) Generators running on a common bus, feeding a given plant load - here, the generating
capacity is adequate to feed the plant load. The advantages are:
- Flexible & better management of plant load
- Switchgear cost reduction
- Economy in cost of generation
- Optimum usage of installed capacity
b) Generators running on a common bus, feeding plant load, but with local utility grid
connected to the common bus here, the plant load is more than the generating capacity.
Power is being imported from the grid, to meet the additional power requirement along with
the captive generator sets. In this system, in addition to the advantages listed above, the
user has to minimize power import from the local utility and maximize the captive
generation, resulting in an overall economy and stability in power supply.

c) Generators running on a common bus , feeding plant load, but with local utility grid
connected to the common bus, with a possibility of power export to grid.

In this case, the plant load is less than the generating capacity. In addition to the
advantages listed above, the user has an opportunity to export excess power from the
generators to the grid and gain sizeable revenue from the local utility.
In all the above cases, the protection and control needs of the generator is totally different
from what is normally required when they are operating independently on a bus and
feeding a dedicated plant load.
Following paragraphs, various issues involved in paralleling of generators along with cost
economic protection solutions are discussed in detail.

Parallel operation of generators - without Grid

Consider a case of three generators in parallel. The ratings are:
G1 33MW Gas turbine
G2 18 MW Steam Turbines
G3 12 MW Diesel engine Total 63 MW.

The problems associated in this case are:

a) If one generator trips due to some problem, the other two generators also trip one after
the other, due to over load. This is called cascaded tripping.

b) The given plant load at any time, is not shared equally by the generators.

Let us say that the plat load is 54 MW. This would mean that all three generators have to run
to meet this power demand. The plant load is 85.7% of the capacity. Ideally the three
generators should share this 54 MW equally - with respect to their rated capacities (i.e) each
generator should run at 85.7 % of its rated capacity. (ie)

G1 should be running at 28.28 MW

G2 should be running at 15.44 MW
G3 should be running at 10.28 MW
Total 54 MW

This kind of power delivery at the above levels, have to be ensured by adjusting the
governor and exciter controls of each of the generators. If this is not ensured, then the
largest generator will try to take the entire load of 54 MW, will get over loaded, and trip. This
will result in overloading of the next largest generator it will trip and so on. Final result is
that there a cascaded tripping of all generators and total black out.

The adjustment of governor and exciter controls can be done manually by operating on the
potentiometers or Inc / dec push buttons. If the load is fluctuating between 75% to 90%
(which is a normal the case) an operator will go mad doing the adjustments at a rapid speed
and eventually make mistakes. It is always recommended to have an Automatic Load
Sharing system, particularly when the generators are large and the load is fluctuating.

c) Even after installing a suitable auto load sharing system, one of the generators may trip -
not due to swallowing of excess load , but due to some other problems like electrical fault
or engine related faults or intentional stop. In this case also the remaining generators
will get over loaded and trip in cascade. To avoid this, a proper load shedding system has to
be incorporated. This system will always monitor the over load conditions of the generators
- based on which generator is over loaded, it will initiate a load shedding of appropriate
loads. This will ensure that, at anytime, the total plant load on the generator bus is not
above the total capacity of generation. Following paragraphs describe the Auto Load Sharing
system and Auto Load shedding system. For 3 generators, when they are operating on a
same bus - but without connection to grid.

Auto Load Sharing System:

Load sharing, to certain extent is achieved by the built in droop behavior of the generator
governor - but this is not adequate particularly when generators are of large, different in
sizes, different vintages, and different makes. For the case in hand as above, a
comprehensive system with load sharing relays (type RRS) is recommended. These load
sharing relays are mounted on each generator feeder - they continuously measure the
power being produced by each generator and compare with a parameter (let us say Px)
equivalent to the proportion of total capacity versus actual plant load. They have facility to
give Inc/ dec pulses to governor and exciter. If at any time, the power measured by RRS
relay is above the level of Px, then the relay gives decrease pulses to governor, so that the
power generated by generator will become equal to Px. Similarly, if the power measured by
RRS relay is below the level of Px, then the relay gives increase pulses to governor, so that
the power generated by generator will become equal to Px. The above process is on line,
continuous and automatic. Hence it takes care of any fluctuating load conditions.

It should be noted that, both the active power as well as the reactive power portions of the
load
must be shared equally for stable operation of generators in parallel. Otherwise, there may
be PF related problems. If reactive power is not controlled properly, each generator will
operate at a different PF the generator with poor PF will get over heated and trip.
Consequently, a dedicated load sharing relay RRS will be required - one each per generator
for kW sharing and one each per generator for kVAR sharing.

The KW sharing RRS relay measures the active power, compares with the dynamically
varying set point Px and controls the governor.

The KVAr sharing RRS relay measures the reactive power, compares with the dynamically
varying set point Pr and controls the exciter. It should be noted that load sharing is
commenced after synchronizing is completed when Synchronizing, the load sharing is
disabled. Hence the load sharing relay should have a provision, whereby load sharing
activity can be enabled when a potential free contact is available at certain terminals of the
relay (like N/O contact of the breaker)

A typical Auto Loads Sharing Scheme, with RRS relays, for both KW and KVAr control, for
three generators, is shown in fig. 1. Basically two RRS relays per generator will be required
to achieve a proper load sharing of both KW and KVAr.

Auto Load shedding scheme

Following two methods can be used for initiating load shedding:

a) Frequency based Load shedding: Here the frequency of the generator bus is monitored
by using a frequency relay a falling frequency is a good indication of an over loaded bus.
Based on the frequency of the bus, go on shedding a preselected load

For this purpose L&T relay type UFD34 is ideal - this relay gives settings for 4 levels of under
frequency and two levels of dF/dT. With this facility, the relay can be used to detect
progressive fall in frequency and up to 4 loads can be tripped. One UFD34 relay can give 4
contacts, which can be set to different levels of under frequency and time delays.
Independently settable based on total number of loads to be shed, one or two UFD34 relays
may be required.

b) Power based Load shedding: Here the power level of each of the generators is monitored
by an over power relay - if there is over power in any of the generators, initiate load
shedding.

For this L&T relay type MW33 can be used. One MW33 relay per generator will be required.
Each MW33 relay will give two contacts for active power and two contacts for reactive
power. Pick up levels of these contacts are independently adjustable. Consequently upto 6
loads can be shed with this system.

Load shedding logic:

The relays UFD34 or MW33 relays described above can only give a contact for tripping a
load when there is an over load in the generators. This contact has to be routed properly to
a selected breaker for actual load shedding to take effect. The actual load to be shed will
depend upon the plant running condition at any time. Consequently, the load shedding
scheme should always:
Recognize what loads are on in the plant at moment of generator over load
All of these loads, what are non critical loads, and
Divert the relay trip signals to these non critical loads in the order of priority.

If this logic sequence is not followed, there is a danger that

a) A non running load receives the trip signal and there is no effect of load shedding

b) The same loads are tripped every time there is a trigger for load shedding.

Both above conditions are not desirable - and hence a logic scheme is required apart from
the relays. This logic system is plant specific and has to be deigned based on the SLD of the
plant and the grouping philosophy of the plant with respect to critical / non critical loads to
be tripped during over loads.
Parallel operation of generators - with Grid

If grid paralleling is envisaged, then the generators would require additional

protections in the form of Grid Islanding , load shedding and load shading schemes.

Grid Islanding
The main idea of islanding is that the generators should be safe and they should continue to
deliver power to the plant when the grid is disturbed without getting affected by the harmful
effects of grid disturbances. Grid islanding scheme ensures disconnection of captive power
generator plant from the grid in the event of grid supply failure or disturbances in the grid.
A grid disturbance is detected by
following events on the generator bus (which is connected to grid)

a) Rapid fall in frequency - this will happen when there is sudden over load in the grid. Under
frequency relay with dF/dT function is used for detecting this condition.

b) Fault in the grid - in this case the generator will feed the fault and trip on over current
resulting in loss of power to the plant. Directional Over current + Directional Earth fault
relays are used to detect this condition.

c) Fault in the grid or grid failure is also well detected by a de/dT relay - here the rate of
change of fall in voltage is sensed and a trip command is issued.

d) Incomer failure - this may cause under frequency on the generator bus if the plant was
importing power from the grid or over frequency if the plant was exporting power.

e) Another solution for detecting mains failure is to use a Vector surge relay. When the
incomer utility voltage fails during export mode, the bus voltage will momentarily shift
in the time axis - this phase shift is an indication of mains failure.

f) Mains failure can also be detected by a sensitive reverse power relay - if the plant is
importing power or a low forward power relay if the plant is exporting power.

Typical grid islanding schemes are:

a) dF/dT + under frequency + Over frequency + de/dT

b) Reverse Power or Low forward power

c) Under Voltage + Directional Over current

d) Vector Surge

e) Under frequency or under voltage

Depending upon the nature and requirement of the plant the user may opt for relays which
will give any of the above or combination of the above schemes.

LOAD SHEDDING SCHEME (AFTER ISLANDING DURING IMPORT OF POWER)

When generators are running in parallel with the grid by importing power, and, when the
generators have islanded due to grid disturbance, the generators may not be in a position to
deliver the power to the plant
load which was connected to the bus at the time of islanding. Unless a load shedding
operation follows quickly after islanding, the generators will trip on over load resulting in a
total power shut off to the plant.

Normally load shedding, as per predetermined sequence, should be completed within 3 to

20 cycles after islanding (depending upon the overload withstand capacity of the
generator). This will ensure that the generator does not get over loaded and trip after
islanding.

LOAD SHADING OF GENERATORS:

Load shading (progressive reduction of power output of a generator) is required wherever

generators are connected to the grid and they are exporting power to the grid. When a
generator is exporting some part of its power and there is a grid disturbance, it will island
since there is no out let to consume the exported power, after islanding, its terminal voltage
/ frequency will rise rapidly only to damage the generator. To avoid this there should be an
arrangement which will quickly sense this rapidly increasing dV/dT or dF/dT and issue
signals to governor and exciter to reduce the power level of the generator. This is called load
shading in a generator.

Load shading is a built in feature in the load sharing relay RRS- whenever a contact input is
given (N/C contact from the incomer breaker), the load sharing relay will initiate a
continuous decrease pulse train and ensure power reduction.

DATA / EVENT LOGGING:

Apart from the issues discussed above, a user can have a facility by which the above relays
of the generator installation are connected to a computer system. The relays UFD34 and
MW33 are totally Numeric in technology and are communicable relays. RRS relay is a solid
state relay - since its function is of regulating nature, it is not required to communicate. The
small islanding / load shedding logic can be achieved by L&Ts Matrix module MX-7/5 which
is again a communicating relay.

These relays come with RS485 serial communication port through which data can be
retrieved / sent in on mod-bus protocol from a PC with specialized communication software.
The specialized software is
resident in the PC, and this will:

Establish communication with each of the individual relays continuously poll each relay at
regular interval and down load all data from relay memory to the PC hard disk Store the
down loaded data in a file format

Provide the user a facility to view / print all data through a structured, user friendly menu
format generate reports in a readymade format for the users management. If required,
special additional relays can be provided for oscillographic recording of the waveform of
voltage / current on a trigger (like islanding). These wave forms can be down loaded in to
the PC and a study can reveal valuable fault diagnostic information.

SUMMARY

An attempt has been made to bring out various issues involved in operating generators in
parallel ,
along with suggestions on the type of relays / hardware to be used to address each issue
without
ambiguity. It should be noted that all the solutions suggested for various operations above,
follow a building block concept to address any newly envisaged projects as well as existing
plants with older type of generators with conventional relays, governors and exciters.

Following are L&T relays for various operations:

Relays for Load sharing RRS (Two per generator)

Relays for Load shedding
Relays for Islanding
UFD34 (Common for the generator bus)
MW33 (One per generator)
UFD34 (For dF/dT + Under Frequency)
MRP11 (For reverse power)
MW33 (For low forward power)
DM30 (For directional O/C + E/F)
UM30 (For vector surge)

Relays for Islanding logic Matrix module MX-7/5

(Quantity will depend on plant)
PC system Standard configuration with Windows
Communication software MSCOM software

The usage of present day numerical relays as above ( except RRS) , in addition to
performing all the tasks effectively, will offer considerable economy in cost, size,
maintenance and a high degree of ease of operation of the total system.
Generator Fundamentals
A generator consists of two primary components, a prime mover and an alternator. The
prime mover is the energy source used to turn the rotor of the alternator. It is typically a
diesel combustion engine for most emergency or standby systems. In cogeneration
applications, the prime mover may come from a steam driven turbine or other source. On
diesel units, a governor and voltage regulator are used to control the speed and power
output. The alternator is typically a synchronous machine driven by the prime mover. A
voltage regulator controls its voltage output by adjusting the field. The output of a single
generator or multiple paralleled generator sets is controlled by these two inputs. The
alternator is designed to operate at a specified speed for the required output frequency,
typically 60 or 50 hertz. The voltage regulator and engine governor along with other systems
define the generators response to dynamic load changes and motor starting characteristics.

Generators are rated in power and voltage output. Most generators are designed to operate
at a 0.8 power factor. For example, a 2000 kW generator at 277/480 V would have a kVA
rating of 2500 kVA (2000 kW/ 08 pf) and a continuous current rating of 3007 A Typical
synchronous generators for industrial and commercial power systems range in size from 100
to 3,000 kVA and from 208 V to 13,800 V. There are other ratings available and these
discussions are applicable to those ratings as well. Generators must be considered in the
short circuit and coordination study as they may greatly impact the rating of the electrical
distribution system. This is especially common on large installations with multiple generators
and systems that parallel with the utility source.
Generator Controls
The engine generator set has controls to maintain the output frequency (speed) and voltage.
These controls consist of a governor and voltage regulator. As loads change on the system
the frequency and voltage will change. The speed control will then adjust the governor to
correct for the load (kW) change. The voltage regulator will change the field current to adjust
the voltage to the desired voltage value. These are the basic controls found on all
synchronous generators. Multiple generator systems require more sophisticated controls.
Generators are paralleled in a multi-generator system and they must share the load. These
systems often have a load shed scheme, which adds to the complexity. Multiple generator
schemes need a master controller to prevent units from being connected out of phase. The
sequence of operation is to send a start signal to all generators simultaneously. The first unit
up to frequency and voltage will be permitted to close its respective breaker and energize
the paralleling bus. Breakers for the other generators are held open, not permitted to close,
until certain conditions are met. Once the paralleling bus is energized the remaining
generators must be synchronized to it before the generators can be paralleled.
Synchronization compares the voltage phasors angle and magnitude. Both generators must
be operating at the same frequency and lined up within typically 5 to 10 degrees with each
other. The voltage magnitude typically must be within 20 to 24%. A synch-scope is typically
supplied on paralleling gear. The synch-scope displays the relative relationship between
voltage phasors on the generator to be paralleled and the bus. If the generator is running
slower than the bus (less than 60 Hz) then the needle on the scope will spin in the
counterclockwise direction. If it is running faster then it will rotate in the clockwise direction.
The greater the frequency difference, the faster is the rotation. It is important that the
generators are in phase before they are paralleled. Severe damage will occur if generators
are paralleled out-of-phase. starting of a DG set. Through an auto-mains failure (AMF) This is
a common scheme to bring a standby DG set on line automatically on the failure of the main
source of supply with the help of a battery backed-up ignition scheme. On the failure of the
main supply, generally three ignition pulses are given to the engine to auto-start the
machine. If the engine fails to start at three attempts, a further pulse is blocked. To start, the
engine is made automatic. The generator excitation or the field current is also pre-set, which
adjusts the generator voltage to the required level automatically through the AVR. Provision
is also made to start it manually in case the AMF scheme fails and to also facilitate routine
testing and give it more flexibility.

Control supply
A battery backed-up d.c. source of control supply is provided for the AMF panel and engine
ignition. The control scheme generally consists of a 220 or 240 V a.c. source of supply, with a
transformer rectifier unit, to provide a 24 or 48 V d.c. control voltage, to charge the battery
as required and a battery back-up of suitable capacity.

Selection scheme
Auto or manual selection (switch SW2)
A switch SW2 is provided for the selection of the engine to be started in auto or manual
modes: Auto mode
In auto mode the engine starts automatically on failure of the a.c. bus voltage, V,, through
an
Under voltage or bus voltage relay (Relay code 27). The relay is provided on the generator
control panel with time delay contacts. Time delay is provided to allow a pause to the
generator if the normal supply is quickly restored.

Manual mode
Local control
In manual mode, the engine can be started and stopped locally, through a pair of start and
stop push buttons, provided on the AMF panel

Local remote control (switch SW3)

This is provided to facilitate the manual start and stop of the engine from a remote point
such as through a remote station.

Three-attempts start
A three- attempts start facility is provided through a sequential timer (ST) in auto mode. A
starting
relay (SR) gives three ignition impulses to the engine. If the engine fails to start at three
consecutive attempts, the starting relay (SR) automatically locks out and emits no further
ignition impulse. This feature is essential to protect the engine against a possible hunting
and a drain of the battery.

Switching off
Bus voltage relay (Relay code 27) provides an impulse to the generator trip circuit as soon as
normal supply is restored. The generator falls out of the circuit automatically after a pause of
2- 10-30 seconds, and the engine stops. The relay now also has a delayed feature as it had
during the start, to allow a pause to the main supply in case the main supply fails quickly
again Generator Short Circuit Characteristics If a short circuit is applied directly to the output
terminals of a synchronous generator it will produce an extremely high current initially;
gradually decaying to a steady state value. This change is represented by varying reactive
impedance. There are three specific reactance's used for short circuit fault currents. They
are:
Sub transient reactance Xd which is used to determine the fault current during the first 1
to 5 cycles.
Transient reactance Xd which is used to determine the fault current during the next 5 to
200 cycles.
Synchronous reactance Xd which is used to determine the steady state fault current.

The sub-transient reactance Xd will range from a minimum of approximately 9% for a two
pole round rotor machine to approximately 32% for a low speed salient pole hydro-generator.
The initial symmetrical fault current can be as much as 12 times full load current. Depending
on the generator type, the zero sequence impedance may be less than the sub-transient
reactance and the ground fault current substantially higher than the three phase short circuit
current. For example, a 2500 kVA, 480/277 V, 4 pole, 2/3rds pitch stand-by generator has a
0.1411 per unit sub-transient reactance Xd and a 0.033 per unit zero sequence Xo
reactance. The ground current is approximately a third larger than the three-phase fault
current. The ground fault current can be reduced to the three-phase level by simply adding a
small reactance between the generators neutral and ground while still being considered
solidly grounded. The electric power system analysis must be performed based on the worst
case operating conditions. Typically this is when all sources are paralleled. If the system can
operate with both the utility supply and generators in parallel then the equipment must be
rated for the combined fault current plus motor contribution. If the generator and utility will
not be paralleled, then both cases will need to be looked at independently and the worst
case used for selecting the equipment ratings.

Generator Set Sizing and Ratings

Many factors must be considered when determining the proper size or electrical rating of an
electrical power generator set. The engine or prime mover is sized to provide the actual or
real power in kW, as well as speed (frequency) control through the use of an engine
governor. The generator is sized to supply the kVA needed at startup and during normal
running operation and it also provides voltage control using a brushless exciter and voltage
regulator. Together the engine and generator provide the energy necessary to supply
electrical loads
in many different applications encountered in todays society. The generator set must be able
to supply the starting and running electrical load. It must be able to pick up and start all
motor loads and low power factor loads, and recover without excessive voltage dip or
extended recovery time. Non-linear loads like variable frequency drives, uninterruptible
power supply (UPS) systems and switching power supplies also require attention because the
SCR switching causes voltage and current waveform distortion and harmonics. The
harmonics generate additional heat in the generator windings and the generator may need
to be upsized to accommodate this. The type of fuel (diesel, natural gas, propane etc.) used
is important as it is a factor in determining generator set transient response. It is also
necessary to determine the load factor or average power consumption of the generator set.
This is typically defined as the load (kW) x time (hrs. while under that particular load) / total
running time. When this load factor
or average power is taken into consideration with peak demand requirements and the other
operating parameters mentioned above, the overall electrical rating of the genset can be
determined. Other items to consider include the unique installation, ambient and site
requirements of the project. These will help to determine the physical configuration of the
overall system. Typical rating definitions for diesel gensets are: standby, prime plus 10,
continuous and load management (paralleled with or isolated from utility). Any diesel genset
can have several electrical ratings depending on the number of hours of operation per year
and the ratio of electrical load/genset rating when in operation. The same diesel genset can
have a standby rating of 2000 kW at 0.8 power factor (pf) and a continuous rating of 1825
kW at 0.8 pf. The lower continuous rating is due to the additional hours of operation and
higher load that the continuous genset must carry. These additional requirements put more
stress on the engine and generator and therefore the rating is decreased to maintain
longevity of the equipment. Different generator set manufacturers use basically the same
diesel genset electrical rating definitions and these are based on international diesel fuel
stop power standards from organizations like ISO, DIN and others. A standby diesel genset
rating is typically defined as supplying varying electrical loads for the duration of a power
outage with the load normally connected to utility, genset operating < 100 hours per year
and no overload capability. A prime plus 10 rating is typically defined as supplying varying
electrical loads for the duration of a power outage with the load normally connected to utility,
genset operating 500 hours per year and overload capability of 10% above its rating for
one hour out of twelve. A continuous rating is typically defined as supplying unvarying
electrical loads (i.e., base loaded) for an unlimited time. The load management ratings apply
to gensets in parallel operation with the utility or isolated/islanded from utility and these
ratings vary in usability from < 200 hours per year to unlimited usage. Refer to generator set
manufacturers for further definitions on load management ratings, load factor or average
power consumption, peak demand and how these ratings are typically applied. Even though
there is some standardization of these ratings across the manufacturers, there also exists
some uniqueness with regards to how each manufacturer applies their generator sets.
Electrical rating definitions for natural gas powered gensets are typically defined as standby
or continuous with definitions similar to those mentioned above for diesels. Natural gas
gensets recover more slowly than diesel gensets when subjected to block loads. Diesel
engines have a much more direct path from the engine governor and fuel delivery system to
the combustion chamber and these results in a very responsive engine-generator.
A natural gas engine is challenged with air-fuel flow dynamics and a much more indirect path
from the engine governor (throttle actuator) and fuel delivery system (natural gas pressure
regulator, fuel valve and actuator, carburetor mixer, after cooler, intake manifold) to the
combustion chamber and these results in a less responsive engine-generator. Diesel gensets
recover about twice as fast as natural gas gensets. For the actual calculations involved for
sizing a genset, there are readily accessible computer
software programs which are available on the genset manufacturer's Internet sites or from
the manufacturer's dealers or distributors. These programs are used to quickly and
accurately size generator sets for their application. The programs take into consideration the
many different parameters discussed above including the size and type of the electrical
loads (resistive, inductive, SCR etc.), reduced voltage soft starting devices (RVSS), motor
types, voltage, fuel type, site conditions, ambient conditions and other variables. The
software will optimize the starting sequences of the motors for the least amount of voltage
dip and determine the starting kVA needed from the genset. It also provides transient
response data including voltage dip magnitude and recovery duration. If the transient
response is unacceptable, then design changes can be considered including over sizing the
generator to handle the additional
kvar load, adding RVSS devices to reduce the inrush current, improving system power factor
and other methods.

Generator Set Installation and Site Considerations

There are many different installation parameters and site conditions that must be considered
to have a successful generator set installation. The following is a partial list of areas to
consider when conducting this design. Some of these installation parameters include:
Foundation type (crushed rock, concrete, dirt, wood, separate concrete inertia pad etc.).
Foundation to genset vibration dampening (spring type, cork and rubber etc.).
Noise attenuation (radiator fan mechanical noise, exhaust noise, air intake noise).
Combustion and cooling air requirements.
Exhaust backpressure requirements.
Emissions permitting.
Delivery and rigging requirements.
Genset derating due to high altitudes or excessive ambient temperatures.
Hazardous waste considerations for fuel, antifreeze, engine oil.
Meeting local building and electrical codes.
Genset exposure (coastal conditions, dust, chemicals etc.).
Properly sized starting systems (compressed air, batteries and charger).
Allowing adequate space for installation of the genset and for
Flex connections on all systems that are attached to the genset and a rigid structure (fuel
piping, foundation
vibration isolators, exhaust, air intake, control wiring, power cables, radiator flanges/duct
work etc.).
Diesel fuel day tank systems (pumps, return piping).
Fuel storage tank (double walled, fire codes) and other parameters. Please see the
generator set manufacturers
Application and Installation Guidelines for proper application and operation of their
equipment.

Typical Genset Installation

Diesel engine damage due to misapplication or misuse of generating set. Diesel engines can
suffer damage as a result of misapplication or misuse - namely internal glazing and carbon
buildup. This is a common problem in generator sets caused by failure to follow application
and operating guidelines - ideally diesel engines should
run at least around 60-75% of their maximum rated load. Short periods of low load running
are permissible providing the set is brought up to full load, or close to full load on a regular
basis. Internal glazing and carbon buildup is due to prolonged periods of running at low
speeds and/or low loads. Such conditions may occur when an engine is left idling as a
'standby' generating unit, ready to run up when needed, (misuse); if the engine powering the
set
is over-powered (misapplication) for the load applied to it, causing the diesel unit to be
under-loaded, or as is very often the case, when sets are started and run off load as a test
(misuse).

Running an engine under low loads causes low cylinder pressures and consequent poor
piston ring sealing since this relies on the gas pressure to force them against the oil film on
the bores to form the seal. Low cylinder pressures cause poor combustion and resultant low
combustion pressures and temperatures.

This poor combustion leads to soot formation and unburnt fuel residues which clogs and
gums piston rings. This causes a further drop in sealing efficiency and exacerbates the initial
low pressure. Glazing occurs when hot combustion gases blow past the now poorly-sealing
piston rings, causing the lubricating oil on the cylinder walls to 'flash burn', creating an
enamel-like glaze which smoothes the bore and removes the effect of the intricate pattern of
honing marks machined into the bore surface which are there to hold oil and return it to the
crankcase via the scraper ring.

Hard carbon also forms from poor combustion and this is highly abrasive and scrapes the
honing marks on the bores leading to bore polishing, which then leads to increased oil
consumption (blue smoking) and yet further loss of pressure, since the oil film trapped in the
honing marks is intended to maintain the piston seal and pressures. Un-burnt fuel leaks past
the piston rings and contaminates the lubricating oil. Poor combustion causes the injectors to
become clogged with soot, causing further deterioration in combustion and black smoking.

The problem is increased further the formation of acids in the engine oil caused by
condensed water and combustion by-products which would normally boil off at higher
temperatures. This acidic build-up in the lubricating oil causes slow but ultimately damaging
wear to bearing surfaces.

This cycle of degradation means that the engine soon becomes irreversibly damaged and
may not start at all and will no longer be able to reach full power when required. Under
loaded running inevitably causes not only white smoke from unburnt fuel but over time is
joined by the blue smoke of burnt lubricating oil leaking past the damaged piston rings, and
the black smoke caused by the damaged injectors. This pollution is unacceptable to the
authorities and any neighbors.

Once glazing or carbon build up has occurred, it can only be cured by stripping down the
engine and re-boring the cylinder bores, machining new honing marks and stripping,
cleaning and de-coking combustion chambers, fuel injector nozzles and valves. If detected in
the early stages, running an engine at maximum load to raise the internal
pressures and temperatures, allows the piston rings to scrape glaze off the bores and allow
carbon buildup to be burnt off. However, if glazing has progressed to the stage where the
piston rings have seized into their grooves this will not have any effect.
The situation can be prevented by carefully selecting the generator set in accordance with
manufacturers printed guidelines. For emergency only sets, which are islanded, the
emergency load is often only about 1/4 of the sets standby rating, this apparent over size
being necessitated to be able to meet starting loads and minimizing starting voltage drop.
Hence the available load is not usually enough for load testing and again engine damage will
result if this is used as the weekly or monthly load test. This situation can be dealt with by
hiring in a load bank for regular testing, or installing a permanent load bank. Both these
options cost money in terms of engine wear and fuel use but are better than the alternative
of under loading the engine. For remote locations a Salt water rheostat can be readily
constructed. Often the best solution in these cases will be to convert the set to parallel
running and feed power into the grid, if available, once a month on load test, and or enrolling
the set in utility Reserve Service type schemes, thereby gaining revenue from the fuel burnt.
TRANSFORMER

OPERATING PRINCIPLE

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils or "windings". Except for air-core
transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or around
separate but magnetically-coupled cores. A varying current in the first or "primary" winding
creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the "secondary"
winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an
electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will flow from the
primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced
voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is
given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary to the number of turns in the
primary as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current
(AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by
making NS less than NP. The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric
current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing
magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnitude
of the applied magnetic field. The changing magnetic flux extends to the secondary coil
where a voltage is induced across its ends. A simplified transformer design is shown to the
left. A current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and
secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron;
this ensures that most of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary current are within
the iron and pass through the secondary coil as well as the primary coil.
Induction law

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:

Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and
equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic field
strength B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the
cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time
according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both
the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across
the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation[13] for stepping
up or stepping down the voltage.

2. ENERGY LOSSES
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical
transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger
transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually
perform better than 98%. Experimental transformers using superconducting windings
achieve efficiencies of 99.85%. While the increase in efficiency is small, when applied to
large heavily-loaded transformers the annual savings in energy losses are significant. A small
transformer, such as a plug-in "wall-wart" or power adapter type used for low- power
consumer electronics, may be no more than 85% efficient, with considerable loss even when
not supplying any load. Though individual power loss is small, the aggregate losses from the
very large number of such devices are coming under increased scrutiny. The losses vary with
load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance
dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99%
of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, meaning that even an idle
transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, which encourages development of
low-loss transformers (also see energy efficient transformer). Transformer losses are divided
into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed
iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance: - Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the
conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding
resistance and losses.

Hysteresis losses: - Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost
due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the
frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.

Eddy currents: - Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made
from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire
length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are
responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex
function of the square of supply frequency and Inverse Square of the material thickness.

Magnetostriction:-Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to

physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known
as Magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with
transformers,[13] and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible cores.

Mechanical losses: - In addition to Magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes

fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These
incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a
small amount of power.

Stray losses: - Leakage inductance is by itself lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic
fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that
intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give
rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.
3. VOLTAGE REGULATION: - The voltage regulation of the transformer is the percentage
change in the output voltage from no-load to full-load. And since power factor is a
determining factor in the secondary voltage, power factor influences voltage regulation.

4. Transformer Nameplate:-

The following data must be on the rating plate:

Maker: The manufacturers name or initials.
Serial number: Number for identification.
Current type: To be specified if DC.

Rated current: The rated value for the current flowing through a windings line terminals at
rated load. The maximum current for which the winding is designed.

Rated frequency: The frequency at which the transformer is intended to work (AC).
Rated power: The apparent power in VA, kVA or MVA for AC, W or kW for DC.

Rated voltage primary is the value of the main voltage which is intended to be applied to or
induced in the primary winding. The maximum voltage for which the transformer is designed
in normal operation.

Rated voltage secondary: The voltage which is generated for the transformers secondary
line terminals with or without load (depending on the standard).
Cooling type: A code which indicates the cooling type. Ambient temperature (ta): See
separate section.

Short-circuit impedance (ez): To be specified if the transformer is greater than or equal to I

kVA.

Short-circuit resistance (er): To be specified if the transformer is greater than or equal to I

kVA.

Transformer weight: Must be specified if the transformer weighs more than 18 kg.

Transformers degree of protection: IP rating, see separate section.

Insulation class: See separate section.

Coupling group and vector number: Must be specified if it is a three-phase transformer.

Type of operation: Continuous or intermittent operation. Depending on whether it is a small

transformer or power transformer:

Year/date of build

Build standard.

Cos phi: power factor.

5. INSULATION CLASSES

The insulation class of a transformer is determined based on the test levels that it is capable
of withstanding. Transformer insulation is rated by the BIL, or Basic Insulation Impulse Level,
in conjunction with the voltage rating. Internally, a transformer is considered to be a non-self-
restoring insulation system, mostly consisting of porous, cellulose material impregnated by
the liquid insulating medium. Externally, the transformers bushings and, more importantly,
the surge protection equipment must coordinate with the transformer rating to protect the
transformer from transient overvoltages and surges. Standard insulation classes have been
established by
standards organizations stating the parameters by which tests are to be performed. Wye
connected transformers will typically have the common point brought out of the tank through
a neutral bushing. Depending on the application, for example in the case of a solidly
grounded neutral vs. a neutral grounded through a resistor or reactor or even an ungrounded
neutral, the neutral may have a lower insulation class than the line terminals. There are
standard guidelines for rating the neutral based on the situation. It is important to note that
the insulation class of the neutral may limit the test levels of the line terminals for certain
tests, such as the applied potential, or hi-pot, test where the entire circuit is brought up to
the same voltage level. A reduced rating for the neutral can significantly reduce the cost of
larger units and autotransformers as opposed to a fully rated neutral.

6. Cooling Classes

Since no transformer is truly an ideal transformer, each will incur a certain amount of
energy loss, mainly that which is converted to heat. Methods of removing this heat can
depend on the application, the size of the unit, and the amount of heat that needs to be
dissipated. The insulating medium inside a transformer, usually oil, serves multiple purposes,
first to act as an insulator, and second to provide a good medium through which to remove
heat. The windings and core are the primary sources of heat; however, internal metallic
structures can act as a heat source as well. It is imperative to have proper cooling ducts and
passages in proximity to the heat sources through
which the cooling medium can flow such that the heat can be effectively removed from the
transformer. The natural circulation of oil through a transformer through convection has been
referred to as a thermo siphon effect. The heat is carried by the insulating medium until it
is transferred through the transformer tank wall to the external environment. Radiators,
typically detachable, provide an increase in the convective surface area without increasing
the size of the tank. In smaller transformers, integral tubular sides or fins are used to provide
this increase in
surface area. Fans can be installed to increase the volume of air moving across the cooling
surfaces thus increasing the rate of heat dissipation. Larger transformers that cannot be
effectively cooled using radiators and fans rely on pumps that circulate oil through the
transformer and through external heat exchangers, or coolers, which can use air or water as
a secondary cooling medium.

Allowing liquid to flow through the transformer windings by natural convection is also
identified as non-directed flow. In cases where pumps are used, and even some instances
where only fans and radiators are being used, the liquid is often guided into and through
some or all of the windings. This is called directed flow in that there is some degree of control
of the flow of the liquid through the windings. The difference between directed and non-
directed flow through the winding in regard to winding arrangement will be discussed further
with the description of winding types.

The use of auxiliary equipment such as fans and pumps with coolers, called forced
circulation, increases the cooling and thereby the rating of the transformer without
increasing the units physical size. Ratings are determined based on the temperature of the
unit as it coordinates with the cooling equipment that is operating. Usually, a transformer will
have multiple ratings corresponding to multiple stages of cooling, as equipment can be set to
run only at increased loads.

(IEC60726) On the transformers rating plate there should be a code indicating the cooling
type. The code is made up of four letters which specify the following in the given order:

1. Coolant in contact with the windings -

(Primary coolant)

2. Circulation method for the primary coolant.

3. Coolant in contact with the cooling system -

(Secondary coolant).

4. Circulation method for the secondary coolant.

The cooling class is identified by the following methodology:

First Letter

Internal Cooling Medium in Contact with the Windings

Letter Definition
O Mineral oil or synthetic insulating liquid with fire point 300C K Insulating liquid with fire
point > 300C L Insulating liquid with no measurable fire point

Second Letter

Circulation Mechanism for Internal Cooling Medium

Letter Definition

N Natural convection flow through cooling equipment and in windings

F Forced circulation through cooling equipment (i.e., coolant pumps) and natural convection
flow in windings (also called non directed flow)

D Forced circulation through cooling equipment, directed from the cooling equipment into the
main windings

Third Letter

External Cooling Medium

Letter Definition

A Air

W Water

Fourth Letter

Circulation Mechanism for External Cooling Medium

Letter Definition

N Natural convection

F Forced circulation [fans (air cooling) or pumps (water cooling)]

7. VECTOR GROUP/PHASOR GROUP OF 3-PH TRANSFORMER

A Vector group is the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) method of categorizing

the primary and secondary winding configurations of three-phase transformers. Within a
polyphase system power transformer it indicates the windings configurations and the
difference in phase angle between them. The phase windings of a polyphase transformer can
be connected together internally in different configurations, depending on what
characteristics are needed from the transformer. For example, in a three-phase power
system, it may be necessary to connect a three-wire system to a four-wire system, or vice
versa. Because of this, transformers are manufactured with a variety of winding
configurations to meet these requirements. Different combinations of winding connections
will result in different phase angles between the voltages on the windings. This limits the
types of transformers that can be connected between two systems, because mismatching
phase angles can result in circulating current and other system disturbances.

Symbol designation

The vector group provides a simple way of indicating how the internal connections of a
particular transformer are arranged. In the system adopted by the IEC, the vector group is
indicated by a code consisting of two or three letters, followed by one or two digits. The
letters indicate the winding configuration as follows:

D: Delta winding, also called a mesh winding. Each phase terminal connects to two
windings, so the windings form a triangular configuration with the terminals on the points of
the triangle.

Y: Wye winding, also called a star winding. Each phase terminal connects to one end of a
winding, and the other end of each winding connects to the other two at a central point, so
that the configuration resembles a capital letter Y. The central point may or may not be
connected outside of the transformer.
 Z: Zigzag winding, or interconnected star winding. Basically similar to a star winding, but
the windings are arranged so that the three legs are "bent" when the phase diagram is
drawn. Zigzag-wound transformers have special characteristics and are not commonly used
where these characteristics are not needed.

III: Independent windings. The three windings are not interconnected inside the
transformer at all, and must be connected externally.

In the IEC vector group code, each letter stands for one set of windings. The HV winding is
designated with a capital letter, followed by medium or low voltage windings designated with
a lowercase letter. The digits following the letter codes indicate the difference in phase angle
between the windings, with HV winding is taken as a reference. The number is in units of 30
degrees. For example, a transformer with a vector group of Dy1 has a delta-connected HV
winding and a wye-connected LV winding. The phase angle of the LV winding lags the HV by
30 degrees.

The point of confusion is in how to use this notation in a step-up transformer. As the
IEC60076-1 standard has stated, the notation is HV-LV in sequence. For example, a step-up
transformer with a delta-connected primary, and star-connected secondary, is not written as
'dY11', but 'Yd11'. The 11 indicates the LV winding leads the HV by 30
degrees.

Transformers built to ANSI standards usually do not have the vector group shown on their
nameplate and instead a vector diagram is given to show the relationship between the
primary and other windings.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:-

A. Autotransformer: - An autotransformer has only a single winding with two end terminals,
plus a third at an intermediate tap point. The primary voltage is applied across two of the
terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from one of these and the third terminal. The
primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Since
the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its
number of turns. An adjustable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the winding
coils and making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a variable turns
ratio.

Polyphase transformers :- For three-phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase

transformers can be used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-
phase transformer. In this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core thus
containing a three-phase flow of flux. A number of winding configurations are possible, giving
rise to different attributes and phase shifts. One particular polyphase configuration is the
zigzag transformer, used for grounding and in the suppression of harmonic currents.

Leakage transformers: - A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a

significantly higher leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a
magnetic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is sometimes
adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an inherent current limitation
due to the loose coupling between its primary and the secondary windings. The output and
input currents are low enough to prevent thermal overload under all load conditions - even if
the secondary is shorted.

Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps (neon
lamps and cold cathode fluorescent lamps, which are series-connected up to 7.5 kV AC). It
acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic ballast. Other applications are
short-circuit-proof extra-low voltage transformers for toys or
doorbell installations.

Hermetically sealed transformer :- These are filled with mineral oil or synthetic liquid and
sealed with an inert gas like nitrogen at the top portion of the tank to ensure dryness of
sealed unit .these transformers do not need periodic filtration and maintenance explosion
vent is provided against build up of pressure within.

ABB Industrial Transformers Unified power for your success

Rectifier Transformers

For various electrolysis applications like aluminum and other metals and chlorine, rectifier
transformers are combined with a diode or thyristor rectifier. The applications range from
very large aluminum electrolysis to various medium size operations. The transformers may
have a built-in or separate voltage regulation unit.

Applications

Electrolysis processes are used for the production of metals, such as aluminum, magnesium,
copper and zinc, or chemicals, mainly chlorine. The largest installations are those for
aluminum electrolysis with several transformer/rectifier units in parallel operation to achieve
the required DC current. In all cases the rectifier can be with diodes or thyristors.
Duty

Electrolysis is generally considered to be continuous and stable processes, but with a

constant high loading and current harmonics.

Design

Due to a large variety of applications there are several influencing factors to consider:

Rectifier bridge connection: For medium to high DC voltage level.

Rectifier single-way inter phase connection: For low DC voltage levels combined with high
DC currents.

Thyristor or diode rectifier.

Voltage range and step voltage.

Double-decker: HV and LV windings in two levels and wye and delta connection to achieve
12-pulse reaction.

Pulse numbers higher than 12: Requires additional phase shifting windings.

LV winding arrangements: Adapted to minimize winding hotspots and the influence of

harmonics.

LV bushing arrangement: Adapted to rectifier design and to limit structural heating.

Voltage regulation

Thyristor rectifiers normally require transformer voltage regulation with a no-load-tap-

changer (NLTC), if any. For short voltage ranges the NLTC can be situated in a HV tapped
winding. Diode rectifiers will in comparison have a longer range and a higher number of
smaller voltage steps in the transformer. A multi-coarse-fine on-
load-tap-changer (OLTC) or an OLTC/NLTC combination is preferred, together with LV-side
saturable reactors for the voltage fine-tuning. The required double-wound or auto connected
regulating transformer can, depending on transport or site limitations, be built into the same
tank as the rectifier transformer or into a separate tank.

Technical features

Unit ratings: Up to 160 MVA

Secondary voltage: Up to 1500 VAC

Unit process current: Up to over 100 kADC

AC Arc Furnace Transformers

Applications

Electric arc furnace (EAF) transformers are required for many different furnace processes and
applications. They are built for:

Steel furnaces, mainly long arc

Ladle furnaces
 Ferroalloy furnaces and similar with short or submerged arc

Duty

Steel arc furnace transformer operate under very severe conditions with regard to frequent
over currents and over voltages generated by short-circuits in the furnace and the operation
of the HV circuit breaker(furnace breaker). The loading is cyclic, while in other applications
the loading is more continuous a thigh utilization.

Design

ABB EAF transformers are rigidly designed to withstand repeated short circuit conditions and
high thermal stresses and to be protected against operational over voltages.

Design options:

Direct or indirect regulation

On-load or no-load tap changer (OLTC or NLTC)

Built-in reactor for long-arc stability

Secondary bushing arrangements and designs, air or water cooled

Internal secondary phase closure (internal delta)

RC-SA high voltage protection system

Series Reactors
Applications
In large long-arc steel furnaces with high arc voltages there will generally be required to
introduce extra reactance in order to stabilize the arc during operation. For this purpose, a
linear series reactor will be used. The reactor may be built into the same tank as the furnace
transformer, or supplied as a separate unit.

Duty
For operational flexibility the reactor will normally be supplied with a tap changer. Depending
on the melting process and type of steel being produced this may be an on-load or no-load
tap changer with the required number of steps.

Direct Regulation
The secondary voltage can be regulated by tapping the primary winding. Step voltages over
the range will be unequal, due to the inherent winding design, but adaptations can be made
to satisfy most requirements. A single core-coil unit makes this the most cost-effective
regulation principle in a furnace transformer as long as a suitable on-load tap changer is
available. A primary star-delta reconnection switch will expand the range.

Indirect Regulation
When equal and/or very small voltage steps or a very long regulating range is required, the
alternative will be the
Booster regulation with two core-coil units directly connected in the same tank. The main
unit will supply a fixed
LV component and the series unit will supply a variable and reversible LV component. The
two LV systems are connected in series for the desired LV voltage positions and range.

Over-voltage Protection
In order to protect the HV side of the transformer from incoming switching over-voltages, a
system of RC filters and surge arresters (SA) should be fitted to the HV side of the
transformer. On the LV side capacitors may be added to suppress over-voltages from the arc.

Technical Features
Ratings: Up to 200 MVA
Secondary voltages: Up to 1500 V
Electrode current (steel): Up to 100 kA
Electrode current (Fe-alloy) Up to 160 kA

Design
The reactor will have the same heavy duty as the furnace transformer itself. Therefore the
design has to be very rugged in order to maintain stability and linearity of the reactance. The
ABB reactors for this kind of application are
built as coreless coils surrounded by a shielding structure of core laminations in a 3-phase
arrangement.

DC Arc Furnace Transformers

Applications
Most large DC arc furnaces are built for steel production. The use of a thyristor rectifier forthe
conversion to DC will normally reduce the requirement for on-load voltage regulation of the
furnace transformer. The step voltages will be larger than for an AC furnace transformer and
a no-load tap changer (NLTC) will in many applications be adequate.
Duty
Being a rectifier transformer for furnace operation, the DC furnace transformer will have to
withstand the characteristic stresses of furnace operation, as well as the additional stresses
related to rectifier operation, including generated current harmonics. Also, the HV side needs
to be protected from frequent switching over voltages.

Design
DC furnace transformers are mostly built with two axially displaced LV windings, normally
one connected in delta and one in wye, each having a separate high voltage winding. In this
double-decker design the transformer is connected to two six-pulse rectifiers, adding up to a
12-pulse system or two parallel 6-pulse systems. The regulation of the LV transformer
voltage is normally done by using a NLTC in the primary winding. The location of the 6-pulse
Rectifiers can be on the same side of the transformer or on opposite sides, as required by
plant layout.

Intermediate yoke
DC furnace transformers in double-decker design, having two HV-LV voltage systems on the
same core may have an intermediate yoke to enable largely independent operation of the
two systems.

Technical Features
Ratings: Up to 120 MVA
Secondary voltages: Up to 1200 V
Electrode current: Up to over 100 kADC

Large Drives Converter Transformers

Applications
For special applications, such as large pumping stations, wind tunnels and rolling stock, a
transformer combined with a frequency converter will supply the input for a variable speed
system. For fixed railway feeding stations a conversion from normal grid frequency to railway
frequency takes place in a similar way.

Duty
The duty is much related to type of application. In pumping stations a high loading with
limited
variation over time can be expected, while in other applications there may be a more
intermittent duty cycle with load peaks.

Design
Drives transformers are mostly built with two secondary and two primary windings, allowing
for a 12-pulse rectifier reaction. Such transformers are normally built with a tertiary winding
system connected to a filter bank to take out harmonics created by the converter. Due to the
operation cycles of the converters, there are strong requirements for correct inter-winding
impedance relations and accuracy.

Technical Features
Ratings: Up to 137 MVA
Secondary voltages: Up to 134 kV

Connection of Transformer Windings

There are four fundamental three-phase transformer connections delta-wye, delta-delta,
wye-delta, and wye-wye. The connection recommended for most applications is delta-wye
(delta winding on the primary and wye winding on the secondary). The wye-connected
secondary windings can be used as a three-wire or four-wire system, depending on the
application. It usually is used as a three-wire system with the neutral grounded; however, a
fourth wire connected to the wye neutral can be used to support single-phase loads (such as
lighting).
Each winding connection has advantages and disadvantages that make it suitable or
unsuitable for particular applications. When paralleling with an existing system, the same
connection scheme must be used to provide identical phase shifting; otherwise potentially
destructive circulating currents may flow.

1) Delta-Wye
a) Advantages
Effective control of phase to neutral over-voltages
Easy detection of phase-to-ground faults
Isolation of ground-fault current from the high voltage (delta) side, thus not affecting ground
relaying on the high voltage side.

b) Disadvantages
Possibility of large phase-to-ground fault current, leading to possible sustained arcing. (See
high-resistance grounding in Design Manual GTP-6DMP-031, Grounding System, for
recommendations)
Interruption of critical processes due to disconnection of equipment upon detection of a
ground fault. (See high resistance grounding in Design Manual GTP-6DMP-031, Grounding
System.)
Entire system rendered inoperable by failure of one winding.

2) Delta Delta. Not recommended for new installations, except where required to parallel
with an existing system.
a) Advantages
Low level of line-to-ground fault current.
Low flash hazard to personnel (from line-to-ground faults)
Continued operation of equipment after one ground fault
.Three-phase power still available if one winding fails, although load-carrying capability must
be derated
b) Disadvantages
Neutral-to-ground over-voltages uncontrolled and can lead to equipment breakdown and
shorter life.
Overvoltage stresses caused by unresolved faults.
Possible reduced insulation life (from over-voltages)
Large circulating currents unless delta windings have identical impedance ratings.
Difficulty in locating ground faults. (Therere, however, methods of creating high
resistance grounding schemes, similar to wye winding with high value neutral resistor, that
allow ground faults to be found quickly without interrupting operations).

3) Wye-Delta. Not recommended for new installations, except where required to parallel with
an existing system.
a) Advantages
Low levels of line-to-ground fault current.
Low flash hazard to personnel (from line-to-ground faults)
Continued operation of equipment after one ground fault

b) Disadvantages
Neutral-to-ground over-voltages uncontrolled and can lead to equipment breakdown and
shorter life.
Overvoltage stresses caused by unresolved faults.
Possible reduced insulation life from over-voltages
Difficulty in locating ground faults
Entire system rendered inoperable by failure of one winding.

4) Wye-Wye. Not recommended except when required by utilities.

a) Advantages
Advantages on the secondary side similar to those of delta-wye connection, except ground
fault currents not isolated from the primary side.
b) Disadvantages
Voltage collapse of the neutral if a single-phase load or unbalanced load is placed on the
secondary. This
problem can be solved with tertiary delta-connected windings.
Higher cost due to insulation degradation and requirement of tertiary delta windings.
Third harmonic voltages impressed upon line-to-line voltages, resulting in additional voltage
stress on equipment. (Third harmonics can be significantly reduced by using three-phase
core-type transformers).
SWITCHGEAR

The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid, refers to the
combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolate electrical
equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and
to clear faults downstream. The terms switchgear and motor control centers are used in
general to describe combinations of enclosures, bus bars, circuit breakers, power contactors,
power fuses, protective relays, controls and indicating devices.
The standards used in Europe often refer to IEC60050 for definitions of general terms.
Particular IEC standards tend to give additional definitions that relate to the equipment being
described, e.g. IEC60439 and IEC60947 for low voltage equipment, IEC60056, IEC60298 and
IEC60694 for high voltage equipment. An earlier standard IEC60277 has been withdrawn.
These standards tend to prefer the general terms switchgear and control gear. Control
gear may be used in the same context as motor control centers which is a more popular and
specific term used in the oil industry. In general switchgear may be more closely associated
with switchboards that contain circuit breaker or contactor cubicles for power distribution to
other switchboards and motor control centers, and which receive their power from
generators or incoming lines or cables. Motor control centers tend to be assemblies that
contain outgoing cubicles specifically for supplying and controlling power to motors.
However, motor control centers may contain outgoing cubicles for interconnection to other
switchboards or motor control centers, and circuit breakers for their incomers and bus bar
sectioning. Switchboards may be a combination of switchgear and motor control centers. For
example a main high voltage switchboard for an offshore platform will have switchgear for
the generators, bus bar sectioning and outgoing transformer feeders. It will have motor
control centre cubicles for the high voltage motors. IEC60439 applies to low voltage
equipment that is described as factory built assemblies, or FBAs, of switchgear and control
gear. Switchgear tends to be operated infrequently, whereas motor control centers operate
frequently as required by the process that uses the motor. Apart from the
incomers and bus bar section circuit breakers, the motor control centers are designed with
contactors and fuses (or some types of moulded case circuit breakers in low voltage
equipment) that will interrupt fault currents within a fraction of a cycle of AC current. Circuit
breakers need several cycles of fault current to flow before interruption is
complete. Consequently the components within a circuit breaker must withstand the higher
forces and heat produced when several complete cycles of fault current flow. Switchgear is
available up to at least 400 kV, whereas motor control centers are only designed for voltages
up to approximately 15 kV because this is the normal limit for high voltage motors.
CONSTRUCTION
The switchgear (SWGR) and motor control centers (MCC) considered in this section are
those found in the onshore and offshore oil industry for supplying power to processes and
utilities. Extra high voltage (EHV) transmission and distribution equipment used by
electricity authorities is not considered herein. Hence most of the equipment used
onshore and offshore is limited to an upper service voltage of between 11 kV and 15 kV.
Occasionally voltages in the range of 30 kV to 40 kV are used when the incoming line or
generating capacity exceeds approximately 120 MW. Voltages as high as 69 kV are used for
long submarine cable systems. The SWGR and MCC equipment are invariably housed in a
building or enclosed module, or at least effectively protected against bad weather and
aggressive environmental conditions. The construction is therefore of the metal clad type, in
which all the live parts are housed in a mild-steel sheet metal enclosure. The enclosure is
sub-divided so that personnel may work safely on some compartments without danger or
the risk of electric shock. Various degrees of personnel and ingress protection are commonly
available. The degree of protection is defined in various international standards e.g. NEMA
and NEC in USA, IEC in UK and Europe. For use inside buildings where manual operation and
interference is infrequent and where the atmosphere is cool, dry and clean an enclosure of
the IEC60529 type IP40, 41 or 42 or NEMA type 1 or 2 is usually adequate. If equipment is to
be located in a poor atmosphere e.g. dust laden, damp, hot and where hose-pipes may be
used to wash down adjacent plant, then a more demanding enclosure type is required e.g.
IP54 or NEMA type 4, but this would normally only apply to low voltage equipment.

The main electrical components are:-

 Main bus bars.
Earthing bulbar.
Incoming and bus bar section circuit breakers.
Outgoing switching devices, contactors or circuit breakers.
Fuses for MCC outgoing circuits.
Safety interlocking devices.
Electrical protective relays and devices for all power circuits.
Control and indication devices.
Communication or network interfacing system.
Main connections and terminal compartments.

Main Bus bars

The main bus bars should be made of high-grade copper. Aluminum is not recommended
because it suffers from mechanical problems associated with the soft nature of the metal,
which makes the physical jointing and connection of auxiliary devices difficult. For voltages
up to 600 V it is often required to use four bus bars, one
being for the neutral. This i s because unbalanced loads need to be supplied as a 4-wire
system. In this case a 4wire feeder from the source is necessary, e.g. a HV/LV transformer,
LV generator. Care needs to be taken when specifying the number of horizontal and vertical
bus bars in low voltage motor control centers. Often in oil industry motor control centers
there is a mixture of motor controllers and static load feeder units. Motors seldom need a 4-
wire supply but static loads are often unbalanced and require the fourth or neutral wire. The
motor and static load units need not necessarily be segregated into different complete
vertical assemblies, although this is good engineering practice, and so it is advisable to
specify a fourth vertical bus bar in each vertical assembly. When a 4-wire system is required
the incoming and bus bar section circuit breakers may be 3-pole with a
linked neutral or be 4-pole. If the SWBD or MCC feeds equipment located in a hazardous
area then the 4-pole circuit breakers should be used, as recommended in the international
standards. For balanced loads and for voltages above 1000 V a 3-wire source is used and
hence only three bus bars are needed. Unbalanced loads are seldom encountered at high
voltages.

The maximum value of 4000 A for low voltage bus bars roughly corresponds to the
secondary current of a fully loaded 2500 kVA transformer. 2500 kVA is often chosen as the
limit for transformers that feed motor control centers because the fault current that they
allow through is typically near to the limit that the manufacturers can normally supply, e.g.
80 kA symmetrical rms current. A 2500 kVA transformer with at 6% leakage impedance and
a 400 V secondary winding will pass approximately 60 kA of fault current. If the MCC feeds
mostly motors then they will collectively contribute some fault current in addition to that
from the transformer, see IEC60363 clause 4 and
IEC60909 clause 13. In the above simple example some of the margin between 60 kA and
80 kA will be taken up by the sub-transient contributions from the motors. It can be noted at
this point that if the transformer is subsequently increased in rating by the addition of forced
air fans, then the fault current passed by the transformer will be unchanged. It is advisable
to specify the rating of the transformer in its forced air-cooled mode of operation, if such
cooling is considered likely to be needed in the future. This would ensure that the incoming
circuit breakers and bus bar normal rated currents would be correctly matched to the
transformers. High voltage switchboards are available with bus bar ratings up to 5000 A.
Consider for example an 11 kV switchboard that is fed by four 25 MVA generators, two
connected to the left-hand side bus bar section and two on the right-hand side section. The
total rated current from a pair of generators is 2624 A, which is the maximum current that
can flow
across the bus bar section circuit breaker. Hence the bus bars can be adequately rated at
3000A or 3150A for this plant. Bus bars are mounted on insulated bushes that are strong
enough to withstand the peak short circuit currents and forces. The bus bars may be air
insulated or enclosed in an insulating sleeve. The sleeve is used where the atmosphere may
be damp or corrosive. Neutral bus bars are usually rated at half the phase bus bar current
ratings. If the neutral is likely to carry harmonic currents then it is good practice to use a
fully rated neutral bus bar i.e. the same as the individual phase bus bars.

Earthing Bus bars

The earthing (grounding) bus bar is separate from the neutral bus bar, and is used to earth
all conductors that need to be earthed as well as the metallic frame and casing of the
switchboard or motor control centre. The earthing bus bar is made of high-grade copper and
is usually located at the front or rear of the enclosure at ground level.
Incoming and Bus bar Section Switching Device Low voltage systems up to 600 V The
incoming and busbar section switching devices are usually air-break circuit breakers, which
can be fixed or withdraw able from the main frame or enclosure. They can be 3 or 4-pole
depending upon whether a 3 or 4-wire supply is required. Some low power switchboards
may use load-break switches for these functions.

High voltage systems up to 15 kV

Several types of circuit breakers are available for high voltage operation. The main types
are:-
Air-break.
Sulphur hexafluoride gas.
Vacuum.
The use of oil in switchgear has become unnecessary and discontinued. The choice of circuit
breaker type for a particular power system depends upon several main factors:-
Ambient and environmental conditions, derating may be required for high ambient
temperatures.
Rated normal rms current.
Fault peak making current with the appropriate DC offset.
Fault rms breaking current with the appropriate DC offset if it is still present.
Fault withstand duty
Cost and economics
Variety of choice in the market so that a technical and economic comparison can be made
Physical size and suitability for the intended location

Manufacturing time and delivery time.

Obsolescence and the availability of spare parts.
Post purchase follows up services.
Single or duplicate busbar system requirements.

Forms of Separation Cubicle type switchgear can be constructed in many different

arrangements depending
upon a variety of requirements. For example the following aspects may be important for a
particular plant, environmental protection, ease of access to internal parts, ease of
terminating cables, fixed or with draw able switching devices, maintainability and level of
personnel skill, cost and economics, expected life duration of the product, fitness for its
purpose. The switchgear industry is very competitive and so it is essential to clearly
specify what is required in the form of assembly and its construction. Otherwise a false or
unsatisfactory decision may be made mainly based on a cost comparison. The steel
cladding and compartments are necessary for support of the electrical and mechanical
components, and for providing a safety barrier for the personnel who operate
and maintain the switchgear. Safety risk has two main features. Firstly, electric shock and
secondly, injury from explosive faults and fires. A well-designed enclosure should ensure
that these features are minimized.
The following discussion refers to IEC standards for low voltage switchgear in particular.
However, the basic concepts also apply to high voltage switchgear.
The main IEC standard for low voltage switchgear assemblies is IEC60439 which has seven
parts. Part 1 covers the basic requirements for internal separation, compartments, barriers
and partitions. It uses the IPXY notation of IEC60529 as a basis for the ingress protection,
mainly concentrating on X for access by tools, fingers, hands, small particles and dust. The
minimum value of X used in the standard is 2 for protection against live parts, and for
ingress between adjacent units of an assembly, in particular by the fingers of a person. The
standard defines four basic forms of separation:-
Form 1. No separation is provided.
Form 2. Separation is only provided between the bus bars and other functional units.
Form 3a Separation of the bus bars from the functional units separation of one functional
unit from another. However, the terminals for the external cables need not be separated
from the functional units or from each other.
Form 3b. As for Form 3a except that the terminals as a group are separated from the
functional units. The terminals need not be separated from each other in the group.
Form 4. As for Form 3a except that the terminals are an integral part of a separated
functional unit. The terminals need to be separated from each other in the group. Also
defined in the standard are many terms and expressions that are used to describe individual
parts and components as well as combinations of them, e.g. assembly, functional unit,
barrier. The standard states what is to be achieved but not how and with what materials. An
annex has been issued in the UK that expands the general principles. In June 1996 The
Electrical Installation Equipment Manufacturers Association (EIEMA) published Reference 1.
The four forms were sub-divided as follows:

Form 1. No sub-divisions.
Form 2. Sub-divisions as:-
Form 2a
Form 2b, Type 1
Form 2b, Type 2
Form 3. Sub-divisions as:-
Form 3a
Form 3b, Type 1
Form 3b, Type 2
Form 4. Sub-divisions as:-
Form 4a, Type 1
Form 4a, Type 2
Form 4a, Type 3
These various forms and types differ in detail regarding:-
Separation of bus bars and terminations.
Separation provided between the bus bars and cable terminals.
Use of rigid barriers.
Location of cable glands.
Whether each functional unit has its own integral glanding arrangement. Reference 1 has
an excellent diagram in the form of a decision tree to fully illustrate the above details.
Another good summary which includes a table showing the relationship between bus bar
functional units and terminations is Reference 2. Oil industry users tend to prefer the various
types of Form 4, with an ingress code of IP31, 32, 41 or 42 for use indoors.

Ambient Temperature Derating Factor

Switchboards and motor control centers are generally required to operate continuously at
temperatures above 15C, for example when the switch room air conditioning fails or the
ambient temperature is exceptionally high. However, switchboards are usually
manufactured to meet the requirements of an ambient temperature of 40C, see for
example, IEC60439 clause 6.1.1 ambient air temperature. Rated Normal Current When
choosing the root mean square ratings of switchboards due regard should be made for
possible extra consumption of power in the future. The amount of extra power depends
upon the particular situation, for example:-
Updating an existing plant.
New plant with detailed data.
New plant with estimated data.
Future plans for growth.
A good rule-of-thumb guide is to assume that between 15% and 25% extra capacity will be
required. Hence the chosen rating will be 115% to 125% of the best-known estimate at the
early design stage. This requirement also applies to power transformers and their main
cables or overhead power lines, and to outgoing feeder cables to auxiliary switchboards and
motor control centers. It does not usually apply to individual motor consumers,

Fault Making Peak Current

The circuit breakers and bus bars in the switchgear must be capable of withstanding
the worst-case fault making situation, which should include the appropriate DC off-
set. This is taken to be due to a zero impedance short circuit occurring within the
switchboard, e.g. on the busbars, and is also assumed to exist or have been applied
before the incoming feeder circuit breaker is closed. Hence the equipment must be
capable of closing on to the worst possible fault, and clearing the fault within the
breaking duty time period.
Switchboards that are fed by generators usually have the most onerous fault conditions to
clear, due to the high off-set of the current that can occur. High voltage induction motors
can also contribute fault current that has a significant DC off-set,

SWITCHING DEVICES

FUSE: - a fuse (short for fusible link) is a type of over current (Short Circuit Faults) protection
device. Its typical component is a metal wire or strip (element) that melts when too much
current flows, which interrupts (disconnects) the circuit in which it is connected. Circuit or
device failure is often a reason for excessive
current. A fuse blows (interrupts excessive current) so that further damage (ie. fire) is
prevented. A fuse typically is not intended to protect from the initial cause of over current.
Their ability to provide protection against overloads and earth-faults is limited.
Fusing Factor: - It is the ration of the minimum current at which a fuse will blow to its
rated current

Fusing Factor =Minimum Fusing current

Rated Current
It is always greater than unity and is equal
to 1.9 to 2 for the re-wire able fuses and
equal to 1.45 for standard duty cartridge
fuses.
Types of Fuses:-
1. Rewirable type
A. open type
B. Semi-enclosed type

2. Cartridge type
A. d-type
B. Link type or High Rupturing capacity(HRC) fuse .

CONTACTOR
Motor control centers and some switchboards use contactors as the frequently
operated switching device for individual outgoing loads up to about 400 amps.
Contactors differ from circuit breakers in that they are designed to handle rated
running current and very short-term low fault level situations. Contactors cannot
withstand the high fault currents.

A fuse must be placed in series to interrupt fault currents and sustained over
currents. This means that the device is physically much more compact than a
circuit breaker and hence much less expensive. Low voltage contactors are simple
air-break electromagnetic devices. High voltage contactors are air-break, vacuum or
SF6 devices, although air-break is becoming obsolete. Most contactors are closed
and held closed by the action of a powerful fast acting electromagnet. Occasionally
a mechanically held
arrangement is required to safeguard against a loss of supply and the need to
maintain power to the load once the supply is restored. This practice often applies
to feeders for distribution transformers, where restoration of the secondary supply
must not be delayed by manual intervention. In all cases the opening of the
contactor is carried out by a powerful spring. With a mechanically held
arrangement an auxiliary solenoid is fitted to unlatch the holding mechanism. Low
voltage contactors are usually fitted with purpose-made protection devices for
guarding against overloading and single-phase operation. These devices are used
individually or in combination and operate on magnetic, thermal or electronic
principles. Electronic static devices offer the widest range of time-current
characteristics.

CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic
function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to
immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and
then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying
sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large
switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The
circuit breaker serves two basic purpose.

1] Switching during normal operating conditions for the purpose of operations and
maintenance.
2] Switching during abnormal conditions such as short circuits and interrupting fault
currents.

Circuit breakers are switching and current interrupting devices. CB comprises of a

set of fixed and movable contacts. The contacts are separated by means of an
operating mechanism. The separation of current carrying contacts produces an arc.
The arc is extinguished by a suitable medium and circuit breakers are classified
according to the medium used for arc quenching.

Operation
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary
substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit
breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit
breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large
currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault
current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases
the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage
circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and
an internal control power source.

Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt
the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or
compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts,
although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself.
Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip
the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit
breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must
also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts
are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials. Service life
of the contacts is limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. Miniature circuit
breakers are usually discarded when the contacts are worn, but power circuit
breakers and high voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts. When a
current is interrupted, an arc is generated - this arc must be contained, cooled, and
extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again
withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air,
insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are
used to extinguish the arc including:
Lengthening of the arc
Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
Division into partial arcs
Zero point quenching
Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits
Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be
closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit.
Types of circuit breaker
Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their
features
such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.

Low voltage circuit breakers

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and
industrial application, include:
MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Trip
Characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.
Breakers illustrated above are in this category.
MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to 1000 A. Thermal or
thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.
ACB (Air Circuit Breaker) -Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in
multi-tiers in LV switchboards or switchgear cabinets.
The characteristics of LV circuit breakers are given by international standards such
as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that
allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. Large low-
voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electrical motor
operators, allowing them to be tripped (opened) and closed under remote control.
These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power.
Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, for
example DC supplied for subway lines. Special breakers are required for direct
current because the arc does not have a natural tendency to go out on each half
cycle as for alternating current. A direct current circuit breaker will have blow-out
coils which generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc when
interrupting direct current. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in
equipment, or are arranged in a
breaker panel.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers
Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into
metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual
components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced
oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by
vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers
described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays
operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are
given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit
breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protection relays, instead
of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic over current sensors. Medium-voltage
circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

Vacuum circuit breaker-With rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt

the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are
generally applied for voltages up to about 35,000 V, [4] which corresponds roughly
to the medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to
have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.
Air circuit breaker-Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully
adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically
controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral
electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant,
where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.
SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride
gas. Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted
connections to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-
voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out
construction, allowing the breaker to be removed without disturbing the power
circuit connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked mechanism to
separate the breaker from its enclosure.

High-voltage circuit breakers

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-
voltage breakers. The definition of "high voltage" varies but in power transmission
work is usually thought to be 72,500 V or higher, according to a recent definition by
the International Electro technical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are
nearly always solenoid operated, with current sensing protective relays operated
through current transformers. In substations the protection relay scheme can be
complex, protecting equipment and busses from various types of overload or
ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium
used to extinguish the arc.
Bulk oil
Minimum oil
Air blast
SF6
Circuit breaker can be classified as "live tank", where the enclosure that contains
the
breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth
potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to
765,000 volts. High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be
arranged to allow a single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all
three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and
availability.

Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current
device:

Residual-current device (RCD, formerly known as a Residual Current Circuit

Breaker)-detects current imbalance, but does not provide over-current protection.
Residual Current Breaker with Over-current protection (RCBO)-combines the
functions of an RCD and an MCB in one package. In the United States and Canada,
panel-mounted devices that combine ground (earth) fault detection and over-
current protection are called Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) breakers; a wall
mounted outlet device providing ground fault detection only is called a GFI.
Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)-This detects earth current directly rather
than detecting imbalance. They are no longer seen in new installations for various
reasons.

SAFETY INTERLOCKING DEVICES

Most switchboards and motor control centers are fitted with a variety of electrical
and mechanical safety interlocking devices.

Their purposes are to protect against for example:-

Withdrawing the switching device while it is carrying load or fault current.
Prevent the switching mechanism from being inserted when it is in its on state.
Opening of access doors or panels before setting the switching device in its off
state.
Gaining physical access by human operators while the main conductors and
contacts are energized.
Gaining access to the bus bars when the switching devices have been withdrawn.
To prevent earthing switches from being closed on to live circuits or bus bars.
Incorrect electrical operation of a complex process system in which various
external devices, motors, pumps, etc. are intimately related. For example a
lubrication oil pump must be running before the main drive motor is started on a
pump or compressor. Most of the above interlocks are mechanical latches, bolts
and shutters. The last category is electrical functions using wired relays or
electronic logic. Electrical interlocking is also used to ensure that certain closing
and tripping functions take place in a particular sequence.

Second method is popular and uses a synchronizing check relay (25) to sense the
voltage on both sides of a circuit breaker. For the above mentioned dual incomer
switchboard all three circuit breakers would be equipped with the synchronizing
check relays.

CONTROL AND INDICATION DEVICES

The requirements for control and indication vary considerably depending upon the
type of circuit,
e.g. incoming, bus bar section or outgoing circuit, whether the equipment is a
switchboard or a motor control centre, high or low voltage, process duty, the need
for remote indication and control, and owner preferences. Table 7.2 gives typical
minimum requirements for switchboard and motor control centre incoming, bus bar
section and outgoing circuits, but at the equipment and not including remote
devices or recording instruments.
Some of these devices may be mounted on a local panel in the switch room so as
to avoid a
human operator having to stand in front of a live cubicle to operate the open and
close controls. A modern plant requires more information, events and alarms to be
made available at the main
control room than was generally the case in the past. This has been made much
easier to achieve by the
use of computer networking and fiber optical technology. Most of the information
that is available at
the switchboard can be transferred to the main control room; so that, for example,
a one-line diagram
presentation can be made on a computer desk-top monitor (man-machine
interface, MMI).

Restarting and Reaccelerating of Motors

During the normal operation of a power system there are occasions when the
voltage profile of the whole system or just a part of it is lowered for a short period
of time. This drop in voltage may be due to:-

Device
Generator Transformer Busbar
Motor Transformer
Incoming Incoming section outgoing
outgoing

Stop (open) button Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Start (close) button Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Note 2
One ammeter No Yes Yes Yes
Yes
Three ammeter or a selector switch Yes Note 1 Note 1
No Note 1
One voltmeter with or without. Yes Yes Note 3 No
No
Selector switch
One wattmeter Yes Yes No Note
4 Note 1
One varmeter Yes Note 1 No No
No
One power factor meter Yes Note 1 No No
Note 1
One frequency meter Note 1 Note 1 No No
No
Synchronizing devices Yes Note 1 Note 1
No Note 1

Note 1: Optional, may be necessary.

Note 2: Some oil companies are not in favor of having a human operator standing
in front of a high voltage switchboard to manually close the switching device.
Note 3: One voltmeter for each side of the switchboard bus bars.
Note 4: Occasionally used for high voltage motors and variable speed drives.

Starting a large motor.

Occurrence and clearance of a fault.
Malfunction of an automatic voltage regulator of a generator.
Lightning surge from an overhead line.

In general motors are specified to be able to reaccelerate or restart their loads

from a constant voltage that is 80% of its nominal value, assuming that it does not
recover during these operations. This voltage should be that appearing at the
terminals of the motor. For motors that are located at the end of short cables, the
volt-drop in the cables may be neglected. Volt-drop in long cables may be high
enough to aggravate the reacceleration or starting process, even to the extent that
these operations cannot be completed. If high voltage motors and transformers are
switched by contactors that derive their coil voltage from the switchboard bus bars,
then the contactor coil may not hold in when the bus bar voltage drops below a
particular value. It is better practice to derive the coil voltage from a reliable source
such as an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or a battery. Switchboards are often
provided with under voltage (27) relays to trip predetermined loads when the bus
bar voltage falls below a certain limit for a preset length of time. The loads may be
tripped individually or in groups. If the group tripping is issued then the motors in
the group should be related to a particular process rather than being chosen by
their kW rating or some other criterion. The scheduling of the restarting of
individual motors or groups of motors should be progressive so that a large surge of
reactive power is avoided. Each oil company tends to have its own philosophy for
restarting and reaccelerating motors, and schemes can become complicated to
understand. The introduction of micro-computers has enabled almost any
philosophy to be implemented. If a severe disturbance occurs that causes the
voltage to drop well below 80% then the duration should be relatively short, e.g.
0.15 second, otherwise recovery may be difficult. If a complete loss of voltage
occurs then even progressive restarting in an automatic manner may prove difficult
if the loss exceeds about 3 seconds.

Micro-computer Based Systems

Modern switchgear is available with micro-computer based intelligence and
network communication
facilities. These facilities enable much more information to be managed,
manipulated and displayed
than was possible in the past, when only analog devices were available. Modern
practice for most
major projects is to ensure that the network communication precisely matches that
of other facilities
within the plant. System control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems and
distributed control sys-
terms (DCS) were developed in the industrial process control industries long before
micro-computers
became available for switchgear. In recent years there has been some convergence
of approach
between the more traditional SCADA and DCS network languages and protocols
and those of the
electrical power industries. Consequently it is now much easier to specify fully
compatible process
and electrical network systems. Within switchgear the approach to control,
indication and protection has changed. These functions are no longer separate
entities. They are combined into micro-computer based electronic relay modules. A
module is used for each incoming, bus bar section and outgoing unit, that is
capable of measuring currents, voltages, status of switching devices, interfacing
with external interlocks. They are also capable of carrying out relatively simple
calculations such as active power, reactive power and power factor of the circuit,
number of attempted starts for a motor. Transmission of information between
switchboards and to other locations such as a control room can be achieved by
either optical fiber or hard wire cables. Suitable interfaces are placed at each end
of the cables. As with many aspects of computing the speed of data transmission,
method of porting, the protocols available, memory capacity and speed of
calculation are upgraded, improved and superseded almost on a yearly basis. It is
therefore necessary to be well aware of the state of the art in these subjects so
that a system that is about to be superseded is not purchased. The following
description of integrated motor control systems (IMCS) is based upon Reference 7,
for which permission to use the material therein was kindly given by Switchgear
and Instrumentation Ltd. The principles described can be used for low and high
voltage switchgear that contains plain feeders, interconnectors, incomers and bus
bar section circuit breakers, in addition to motor feeders. Four main units are used
in the IMCS, which are the motor control unit (MCU), the feeder control unit (FCU),
the circuit breaker control unit (CBCU) and the central control unit (CCU). A MCU is
a microprocessor (micro-computer) based module which has integrated control,
monitoring, protection functions, and a communication interface for the motor
starter. An FCU is very similar to a MCU and interfaces communication for the plain
feeder contactor or circuit breaker. A CBCU is also similar to a MCU but is used for
incomers, interconnectors and bus bar section circuit breakers. A CCU provides the
facility to communicate simultaneously with MCUs, FCUs, CBCU, and a distributed
control system (DCS), system control and data acquisition (SCADA) and other
digital information systems. Other discrete devices such as special protective relays
can also be addressed by the CCU provided the software and porting systems are
compatible. Serial communication network equipment is used to couple all the
microprocessor based units.
Control centers can be increased to cater for a large plant. A typical IMCS should
include at least the following components:-
Each outgoing motor or plain feeder unit requires a MCU or a FCU.
Each incoming interconnector and bus bar circuit breaker also requires a FCU.
A CCU should be provided for either, a complete switchboard, a group of
switchboards, or all switchboards located in a switch room. A dual redundant
system may be chosen so as to raise the system reliability and availability.
Interfacing equipment and software to communicate with a DCS and a SCADA
system, if they exist.
A local area network
(LAN)tocouplealltheunitswithintheIMCS,whichshouldnotbeashared system such as
the DCS.
Various sources of uninterruptible power will be required, if the plant is spread
over a large site. These will provide the essential power to the IMCS processing
units when other less reliable power supplies interrupt or fail.
Protection circuits and devices to render the system immune from
electromagnetic interference.

In switchboards that supply motors the protection, control and measurement

functions will be the most varied for the motor circuits. Generator incomers would
be the next lower in complexity. The following functions are typical of all but the
lowest ratings of motors:-
Motor current.
Motor overload protection, settings, status, pre-alarms and time to trip.
Unbalanced loading, settings, status and pre-alarms.
Earth fault protection, settings, status, alarms.
Thermal status information including inhibition of starting.
Stalling protection, settings and status.
Acceleration time.
Automatic restarting information due to voltage drop at the busbars.
Total operating time of the motor.
Operating time since the last start command.
Non-operating time since the last stop command.
Number of operations of the contactor.
Local stop command function, i.e. a push button or key.
Manual resetting of all trips and alarms.
Remote resetting of certain trip and alarm functions by using a password.
Facilities to allow external hard-wired circuits, such as interlocks, to be monitored
Under power protection of the motor and its driven equipment.
Under voltage tripping facilities for mechanically latched contactors.
Historical event logging for all alarms, trips, commands and inhibiting of starting.
Trend records should be stored for a predetermined period such as six weeks.

A similar set of functions are typical for plain feeder, incomer, interconnector and
busbar circuit breakers:-
Circuit current.
Circuit voltage.
Circuit power factor (optional).
Circuit active power (optional).
Circuit reactive power (optional).
Open-close status of the switching device.
Unbalanced loading, settings, status and pre-alarms (optional).
Protective device performance information, settings and status.
Manual resetting of all trips and alarms.
Remote resetting of certain trip and alarm functions by using a password.
Facilities to allow external hard-wired circuits, such as interlocks, to be monitored
Under voltage tripping facilities for mechanically latched contactors.
Historical event logging for all alarms, trips, commands and inhibiting of starting.
Trend records should be stored for a predetermined period such as six weeks.

Indicative information such as running current should be displayed at the unit or

starter itself, as well as being accessible at a console or visual display unit in a
remote location. Process control systems traditionally use an analog signal of 4 to
20 mA DC and so it is recommended that such signals should be interfaced with the
MCUs by use of compatible high-speed analog-to-digital converters. The IMCS will
scan all the MCUs, FCUs and CBCUs on a continuous basis with a complete cycle
time in the order of 0.5 second, regardless of the number of units in the system.
Priority interrupting functions should be used for protective relaying functions,
interlocking and safety related signals, where rapid action is necessary.
MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Comparison with Fuses
Low voltage switchgear incorporates circuit breakers and contactors as its main
power switching and control devices, particularly for the outgoing plain and motor
feeder circuits. The international standards that are often used for moulded case
circuit breakers are IEC60157 part 1 and IEC60292 part 1 which have been
incorporated into IEC60947. IEC60947 parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 are for power circuit
breakers, switches and contactors. In addition the international standards ANSI-
C37.13, NEMA-SG3, NEMA-AB1 and VDE 0660 are regularly applied. Circuit breakers
are invariably used for the incomer, bus bar section and switchboard interconnector
switching devices, because the currents that they need to switch are too high for
contactors to handle properly. Outgoing circuits can be static loads or motor loads,
and these are usually limited.
MOTOR
Electric motors, ac motors and dc motors, come in many shapes and sizes. Some
are standardized electric motors for general-purpose applications. Other electric
motors are intended for specific tasks. In any case, electric motors should be
selected to satisfy the dynamic requirements of the machines on which they are
applied without exceeding rated electric motor temperature. Thus, the first and
most important step in electric motor selection is determining load characteristics --
torque and speed versus time. Electric motor selection is also based on mission
goals, power available, and cost. Starting and running torque are the first
parameters to consider when sizing electric motors. Starting torque requirements
for electric motors can vary from a small percentage of full loads to a value
several times full-load torque. Starting torque varies because of a change in load
conditions or themechanical nature of the machine, which the electric motor is
installed in. The latter could be caused by the lubricant, wear of moving parts, or
other reasons. Electric motors feature torque supplied to the driven machine, which
must be more than that required from start to full speed. The greater the electric
motor's reserve torque, the more rapid the acceleration. Electric motor drive
systems that use gear reducers have parts that rotate at different speeds. To
calculate acceleration torque required for these electric motors, rotating
components must be reduced to a common base. The part inertias are usually
converted to their equivalent value at the drive shaft. Equivalent inertia W2K22 of
the load only is found from:
WK2 = W(S/2N) 2

Where W1K21 = load inertia in lb-ft2, N1 = load speed in rpm, and N2 = electric
motor speed in rpm. Electric motors have bodies, which have a straight-line motion
are often connected to rotating driving units by rack-and-pinion, cable, or cam
mechanisms. For these electric motor parts, the equivalent WK2 is found from:
WK2 = W(S/2N) 2
Where W = load weight, S = translation speed in fpm, is pi, and N = rotational
speed in
rpm.

1) Acceleration time:
Acceleration time for electric motors is directly proportional to total inertia and
inversely proportional to the electric motor torque. For electric motors with
constant acceleration torque, acceleration time is:

Where WK2 = rotational inertia in lb-ft2, (N2- N1) = the speed difference, and Tx
acceleration torque in lb-ft
For translating bodies, acceleration time is:

Where W = weight of the load in lb, (S1 - S2 ) = the translation speed difference,
and F x =translation Force in lb.

An approximation method is necessary to find the electric motor's acceleration time

if acceleration torque is not linear during speed increase. The quickest method is to
break up the speed versus torque curves of the electric motor and the driven
machine into segments and calculate acceleration time for each segment. Accurate
electric motor acceleration times usually result.

2) Power rating
Electric motors offer the horsepower required to drive a machine, which is typically
referred to as electric motor load. The most common equation for power based
electric motors on torque and rotational speed is:
hp = (torque X rpm)/5,250.
If the electric motor's load is not constant and follows a definite cycle, a
horsepower versus time curve for the driven machine is helpful. From this curve
both peak and rms the electric motor's horsepower can be determined. Rms load
horsepower indicates the necessary continuous electric motor rating.
Peak load horsepower is not necessarily an indication of the required electric motor
rating. However, when a peak load is maintained for a period of time, electric
motors feature a rating, which usually should not be less than peak load
horsepower.

3) Duty Cycle
Continuous steady-running loads over long periods are demonstrated by fans and
blowers. On the other hand, electric motors installed in machines with flywheels
may
have wide variations in running loads. Often, electric motors use flywheels to
supply the
energy to do the work, and the electric motor does nothing but restore lost energy
to the
flywheel. Therefore, choosing the proper electric motor also depends on whether
the load is steady, varies, follows a repetitive cycle of variation, or has pulsating
torque or shocks.

For example, electric motors that run continuously in fans and blowers for hours or
days
may be selected on the basis of continuous load. But electric motors located in
devices
like automatically controlled compressors and pumps start a number of times per
hour.
And electric motors in some machine tools start and stop many times per minute.
Duty cycle is a fixed repetitive load pattern over a given period of time which is
expressed as the ratio of on-time to cycle period. When operating cycle is such that
electric motors operate at idle or a reduced load for more than 25% of the time,
duty cycle becomes a factor in sizing electric motors. Also, energy required to start
electric motors (that is, accelerating the inertia of the electric motor as well as the
driven load) is much higher than for steady-state operation, so frequent starting
could overheat the electric motor.
For most electric motors (except squirrel-cage electric motors during acceleration
and
plugging) current is almost directly proportional to developed torque. At constant
speed,
torque is proportional to horsepower. For accelerating loads and overloads on
electric motors that have considerable droop, equivalent horsepower is used as the
load factor. The next step in sizing theelectric motor is to examine the electric
motor's performance curves to see if the electric motor has enough starting torque
to overcome machine static friction, to accelerate the load to full running speed,
and to handle maximum overload.

4) Service factors
A change in NEMA standards for electric motor service factors and temperature rise
has
been brought about because of better insulation used on electric motors. For
instance, a 1.15 service factor -- once standard for all open electric motors -- is no
longer standard for electric motors above 200 hp. Increases in electric motor
temperature are measured by the resistance method in the temperature rise table.
Electric motors feature a nameplate temperature rise, which is always expressed
for the maximum allowable load. That is, if the electric motor has a service factor
greater than unity, the nameplate temperature rise is expressed for the overload.
Two Class-B insulated electric motors having 1.15 and 1.25 service factors will,
therefore, each be rated for a 90C rise. But the second electric motor will have to
be larger than the first in order to dissipate the additional heat it generates t 125%
load. Electric motors feature a service factor, which indicates how much over the
nameplate rating any given electric motor can be driven without overheating.
NEMA Standard MGI-143 defines service factor of an ac motor as "...a multiplier
which, when applied to the rated horsepower, indicates a permissible horsepower
loading which may be carried under the conditions specified for the service
factor..." In other words, multiplying the electric motor's nameplate horsepower by
the service factor tells how much electric motors can be overloaded without
overheating. Generally, electric motor service factors:
Handle a known overload, which is occasional.
Provide a factor of safety where the environment or service condition is not well
defined, especially for general-purpose electric motors.
Obtain cooler-than-normal electric motor operation at rated load, thus
lengthening insulation life.
5) Efficiency
Small universal electric motors have an efficiency of about 30%, while 95%
efficiencies are common for three-phase machines. In less-efficient electric motors,
the amount of power wasted can be reduced by more careful application and
improved electric motor design. Electric motor's feature an efficiency level, which
also depends on actual electric motor load versus rated load, being greatest near
rated load and falling off rapidly for under and overload conditions.

TYPES OF MOTORS

Induction motor
An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is
supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Another
commonly used name is squirrel cage motor because the rotor bars with short
circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage (hamster wheel). Induction motors are now
the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged construction, absence
of brushes (which are required in most DC motors) and thanks to modern power
electronics the ability to control the speed of the motor.
Starting of Induction Motor:-
When a motor is switched on, there is a high inrush current from the mains which
may,
especially if the power line section is inadequate, cause a drop in voltage likely to
affect receptor operation. This drop may be severe enough to be noticeable in
lighting equipment. To overcome this, some sector rules prohibit the use of motors
with direct on-line starting systems beyond a given power. There are several
starting systems which differ according to the motor and load specifications. The
choice is governed by electrical, mechanical and economic factors. The kind of load
driven is also important in the choice of starting system.

MODES OF STARTING
A) Direct on-line starting: This is the simplest mode, where the stator is directly
connected to the mains supply. The motor starts with its own characteristics.
When it is switched on, the motor behaves like a transformer with its
secondary, formed by the very low resistance rotor cage, in short circuit. The
simplest way to start a three-phase induction motor is to connect its
terminals to the line. This method is often called "direct on line" and
abbreviated DOL.
B) In an induction motor, the magnitude of the induced emf in the rotor circuit
is proportional to the stator field and the slip speed (the difference between
synchronous and rotor
speeds) of the motor, and the rotor current depends on this emf. When the
motor is
started, the slip speed is equal to the synchronous speed, as the rotor speed
is zero (slip equal to 1), so the induced emf in the rotor is large. As a result, a
very high current flows through the rotor. This is similar to a transformer with
the secondary coil short circuited,
which causes the primary coil to draw a high current from the mains. When
an induction
motor starts DOL, a very high current is drawn by the stator, in the order of 5
to 9 times
the full load current. This high current can, in some motors, damage the
windings; in
addition, because it causes heavy line voltage drop, other appliances
connected to the
same line may be affected by the voltage fluctuation. To avoid such effects,
several other strategies are employed for starting motors. There is a high
induced current in the rotor
which results in a current peak in the mains supply:
Current on starting = 5 to 8 rated Current. The average starting torque is:
T on starting = 0.5 to 1.5 rated T.
In spite of its advantages (simple equipment, high starting torque, fast start, low
cost), direct on-line starting is only suitable when:
The power of the motor is low compared to that of the mains, which limits
interference from inrush current,
The machine to drive does not need to speed up gradually or has a damping device
to limit the shock of starting,
The starting torque can be high without affecting machine operation or the load
that is
driven.
DOL Reversing Starter:-
Most motors are reversible or, in other words, they can be run clockwise and anti-
clockwise. A reversing starter is an electrical or electronic circuit that reverses the
direction of a motor automatically. Logically, the circuit is composed of two DOL
circuits; one for clockwise operation and the other for anti-clockwise operation. The
case of three phase motor inter changing of any two phases will do the same.
Star-delta starting
This starting system can only be used with a motor where both ends of its three
stator windings are fitted to a terminal board. Furthermore, the winding must be
done so that the delta connection matches the mains voltage: e.g. a 380V 3-phase
supply will need a motor with 380V delta and 660V star coiling. The principle is to
start the motor by connecting the star windings at mains voltage, which divides the
motors rated star voltage by 3 (in the example above, the mains voltage
at 380V = 660V 3).
The starting current peak (SC) is divided by 3:

SC = 1.5 to 2.6 RC (RC rated Current).

A 380V / 660V motor star-connected at its rated voltage of 660V absorbs a current
3 time less than a delta connection at 380V. With the star connection at 380V, the
current is divided by 3 again, so by a total of 3.
As the starting torque (ST) is proportional to the square of the supply voltage, it is
also divided by 3:
ST = 0.2 to 0.5 RT (RT Rated Torque)
The motor speed stabilizes when the motor and resistive torques balance out,
usually at
75-85% of the rated speed. The windings are then delta connected and the motor
recovers its own characteristics. The change from star connection to delta
connection is controlled by a timer. The delta contactor closes 30 to 50 milliseconds
after the star contactor opens, which prevents short-circuiting between phases as
the two contactors.
cannot close simultaneously. The current through the windings is broken when the
star contactor opens and is restored when the delta contactor closes. There is a
brief but strong transient current peak during the shift to delta, due to the counter
electromotive force of the motor. Star-delta starting is suitable for machines with a
low resistive torque or which start with no load (e.g. wood-cutting machines).
Variants may be required to limit the transient phenomena above a certain power
level. One of these is a 1-2 second delay in the shift from star to delta. Such a delay
weakens the counter-electromotive force and hence the transient current peak. This
can only be used if the machine has enough inertia to prevent too much speed
reduction during the time delay. Another system is 3-step starting: star-delta +
resistance-delta. There is still a break, but the resistor in series with the delta-
connected windings for about three seconds lowers the transient current. This stops
the current from breaking and so prevents the occurrence of transient phenomena.
Use of these variants implies additional equipment, which may result in a
significant rise in the cost of the installation.

Disadvantages of this method over DOL starting are:

. Lower starting torque, which may be a serious issue with pumps or any devices
with significant breakaway torque
. Increased complexity, as more contactors and some sort of speed switch or timers
are needed
. Two shocks to the motor (one for the initial start and another when the motor
switches from wye to delta)

Part winding motor starting

This system, not widely used in Europe, is quite common in the North American
market (voltage of 230/460, a ratio of 1:2). This type of motor has a stator winding
divided into two parallel windings with six or twelve output terminals. It is
equivalent to two half motors of equal power. On starting, a single half motor is
connected directly at full mains voltage strength, which divides the starting current
and the torque approximately by two. The torque is however greater than it would
be with a squirrel cage motor of equal power with star-delta starting. At the end of
the starting process, the second winding is connected to the mains. At this point,
the current peak is low and brief, because the motor has not been cut off from the
mains supply and only has a little slip.
Resistance stator starting
With this system, the motor starts at reduced voltage because resistors are
inserted in series with the windings. When the speed stabilizes, the resistors are
eliminated and the motor is connected directly to the mains. This process is usually
controlled by a timer. This starting method does not alter the connection of the
motor windings so the ends of each winding do not need outputs on a terminal
board. The resistance value is calculated according to the maximum current peak
on starting or the minimum starting torque required for the resistance torque of the
machine to drive. The starting current and torque values are generally:

SC = 4.5 RC
ST = 0.75 RT
During the acceleration stage with the resistors, the voltage applied to the motor
terminals is not constant but equals the mains voltage minus the voltage drop in
the starting resistance. The voltage drop is proportional to the current absorbed by
the motor. As the current weakens with the acceleration of the motor, the same
happens to the voltage drop in the resistance. The voltage applied to the motor
terminals is therefore at its lowest on starting and then gradually increases. As the
torque is proportional to the square of the voltage at the motor terminals, it
increases faster than in star-delta starting where the voltage remains constant
throughout the star connection. This starting system is therefore suited to
machines with a resistive torque that increases with the speed, such as fans and
centrifugal pumps. It has the drawback of a rather high current peak on starting.
This could be lowered by increasing the resistance value but that would cause the
voltage to drop further at the motor terminals and thus a steep drop in the starting
torque. On the other hand, resistance is eliminated at the end of starting without
any break in power supply to the motor, so there are no transient phenomena.
Autotransformer starting
The motor is powered at reduced voltage via an autotransformer which is bypassed
when the starting process is completed. The starting process is in three steps: in
the first place, the autotransformer is star-connected, then the motor is connected
to the mains via part of the autotransformer windings. The process is run at a
reduced voltage which depends on the transformation ratio. The autotransformer is
usually tapped to select this ratio to find the most suitable voltage reduction value
the star connection is opened before going onto full voltage. The fraction of coil
connected to the mains then acts as an inductance in series with the motor. This
operation takes place when the speed balances out at the end of the first step - full
voltage connection is made after the second step which usually only lasts a fraction
of a second. The piece of autotransformer winding in series with the motor is short-
circuited and the autotransformer is switched off. The current and the starting
torque vary in the same proportions. They are divided by (mains V/reduced V2).
The values obtained are:
SC = 1.7 to 4 RC
ST = 0.5 to 0.85 RT
The starting process runs with no break in the current in the motor, so transient
phenomena due to breaks do not occur. However, if a number of precautions are
not taken, similar transient phenomena can appear on full voltage connection
because the value of the inductance in series with the motor is high compared to
the motors after the star arrangement is open. This leads to a steep drop in voltage
which causes a high transient current peak on full voltage connection. To overcome
this drawback, the
magnetic circuit in the autotransformer has an air gap which helps to lower
the inductance value. This value is calculated to prevent any voltage variation at
the motor terminals when the star arrangement opens in the second step. The air
gap causes an increase in the magnetizing current in the autotransformer. This
current increases the inrush current in the mains supply when the autotransformer
is energized. This starting system is usually used in LV for motors powered at over
150kW. It does however make equipment rather expensive because of the high cost
of the autotransformer.

Slip ring motor starting

A slip ring motor cannot be started direct on-line with its rotor windings short-
circuited, otherwise it would cause unacceptable current peaks. Resistors must
therefore be inserted in the rotor circuit and then gradually short-circuited, while
the stator is powered at full mains voltage. The resistance inserted in each phase is
calculated to ascertain the torque-speed curve with strict accuracy. The result is
that it has to be fully inserted on starting and that full speed is reached when it is
completely short-circuited. The current absorbed is more or less proportional to the
torque supplied at the most only a little greater than the theoretical value. For
example, for a starting torque equal to 2 RT, the current peak is about 2 RC. This
peak is thus much lower and the maximum starting torque much higher than with a
squirrel cage motor, where the typical values are about 6 RC for 1.5 RT when
directly connected to the mains supply. The slip ring motor, with rotor starting, is
the best choice for all cases where current peaks need to be low and for machines
which start on full load. This kind of starting is extremely smooth, because it is easy
to adjust the number and shape of the curves representing the successive steps to
mechanical and electrical requirements (resistive torque, acceleration value,
maximum current peak, etc.).
Soft starter starting/slackening
This is an effective starting system for starting and stopping a motor smoothly It
can be used for: current limitation, torque adjustment. Control by current limitation
sets a maximum current (3 to 4 x RC) during the starting stage and lowers torque
performance. This control is especially suitable for turbo machines (centrifugal
pumps, fans).Control by torque adjustment optimizes torque performance in the
starting process and lowers mains inrush current. This is suited to constant torque
machines.
Motor soft starters can consist of mechanical or electrical devices, or a combination
of
both. Mechanical soft starters include clutches and several types of couplings using
a
fluid, magnetic forces, or steel shot to transmit torque, similar to other forms of
torque
limiter. Electrical soft starters can be any control system that reduces the torque by

temporarily reducing the voltage or current input, or a device that temporarily

alters how the motor is connected in the electric circuit. Motor soft starters can
consist of mechanical or electrical devices, or a combination of both. Mechanical
soft starters include clutches and several types of couplings using a fluid, magnetic
forces, or steel shot to transmit torque, similar to other forms of torque limiter.
Electrical soft starters can be any control system that reduces the torque by
temporarily reducing the voltage or current input, or a device that temporarily
alters how the motor is connected in the electric circuit.
Frequency converter starting
This is an effective starting system (C Fig.8) to use whenever speed must be
controlled and adjusted.
Its purposes include:
- starting with high-inertia loads,
- starting with high loads on supplies with low short-circuit capacity
- Optimization of electricity consumption adapted to the speed of "turbo machines".
This starting system can be used on all types of machines. It is a solution primarily
used to adjust motor speed, starting being a secondary purpose.
SPEED COTROL
Adjustable speed drive (ASD) or variable-speed drive (VSD) describes equipment
used
to control the speed of machinery. Many industrial processes such as assembly
lines
must operate at different speeds for different products. Where process conditions
demand adjustment of flow from a pump or fan, varying the speed of the drive may
save energy compared with other techniques for flow control. Where speeds may
be selected from several different pre-set ranges, usually the drive is said to be
"adjustable" speed. If the output speed can be changed without steps over a range,
the drive is usually referred to as "variable speed". Adjustable and variable speed
drives may be purely mechanical, electromechanical, hydraulic, or electronic. Fixed
speeds of electric motors Alternating-current electric motors run at speeds closely
determined by the number of poles in the motor and the frequency of the
alternating current supply. This is unlike the steam engine, which can be made to
run over a range of speeds by adjusting the timing and duration of valves admitting
steam to the cylinder. AC motors can be made with several sets of poles, which can
be chosen to give one of several different speeds (say, 720/1800 RPM for a 60 Hz
motor). The number of different speeds available is limited by the expense of
providing multiple sets of windings. If many different speeds or continuously
variable speeds are required, other methods are required. Direct-current motor
sallows changes of speed by adjusting the shunt field current. Another way of
changing speed of a direct current motor is to change the voltage applied to the
armature. An adjustable speed drive might consist of an electric motor and
controller that is used to adjust the motor's operating speed. Thecombination of a
constant-speed motor and a sleeplessly adjustable mechanical speed-changing
device might also be called an adjustable speed drive. Electronic variable frequency
drives are rapidly making older technology redundant.

Reasons for using adjustable speed drives

Process control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using an
adjustable speed drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed for
process control, but energy conservation has emerged as an equally important
objective. Adjusting speed as a means of controlling a process
The following are process control benefits that might be provided by an adjustable
speed drive:
Smoother operation
Acceleration control
Different operating speed for each process recipe
Compensate for changing process variables
Allow slow operation for setup purposes
Adjust the rate of production
Allow accurate positioning
Control torque or tension
Example
An adjustable speed drive can often provide smoother operation compared to an
alternative fixed speed mode of operation. For example, in a sewage lift station
sewage usually flows through sewer pipes under the force of gravity to a wet well
location. From there it is pumped up to a treatment process. When fixed speed
pumps are used, the pumps are set to start when the level of the liquid in the wet
well reaches some high point and stop when the level has been reduced to a low
point. Cycling the pumps on and off results in frequent high surges of electrical
current to start the motors resulting in
electromagnetic and thermal stresses in the motors and power control equipment,
the pumps and pipes are subjected to mechanical and hydraulic stresses, and the
sewage treatment process is forced to accommodate surges in the flow of sewage
through the process. When adjustable speed drives are used, the pumps operate
continuously at a speed that increases as the wet well level increases. This matches
the outflow to the average inflow and provides a much smoother operation of the
process. Saving energy by using adjustable speed drives an adjustable speed drive
often uses less energy than an alternative fixed speed mode of operation. Fans and
pumps are the most common energy saving applications. When a fan is driven by a
fixed speed motor, the airflow may sometimes be higher than it needs to be.
Airflow can be regulated by using a damper to restrict the flow, but it is more
efficient to regulate the airflow by regulating the speed of the motor. It follows from
the affinity laws that reducing fan speed to 50% results in a power consumption
drop to 12.5%.

Types of adjustable speed drives

Speed adjustment techniques have been used in transmitting mechanical power to
machinery since the earliest use of powered machinery. Before electric motors were
invented, mechanical speed changers were used to control the mechanical power
provided by water wheels and steam engines. When electric motors came into use,
means of controlling their speed were developed almost immediately. Today,
various types of mechanical drives, hydraulic drives and electric drives compete
with one another in the industrial drives market.
a) Mechanical adjustable speed drives there are two types of mechanical drives,
variable pitch drives and traction drives. Variable pitch drives are pulley and belt
drives in which the pitch diameter of one or both pulleys can be adjusted. Traction
drives transmit power through metal rollers running against mating metal rollers.
The input/output speed ratio is adjusted by moving the rollers to change the
diameters of the contact path. Many different roller shapes and mechanical designs
have been used.
b) Hydraulic adjustable speed drives
There are three types of hydraulic drives, those are: hydrostatic drives,
hydrodynamic drives and hydro viscous drives.
A hydrostatic drive consists of a hydraulic pump and a hydraulic motor. Since
positive displacement pumps and motors are used, one revolution of the pump or
motor corresponds to a set volume of fluid flow that is determined by the
displacement regardless of speed or torque. Speed is regulated by regulating the
fluid flow with a valve or by changing the displacement of the pump or motor. Many
different design variations have been used. A swash plate drive employs an axial
piston pump and/or motor in which the swash plate angle can be changed to adjust
the displacement and thus adjust the speed.

Hydrodynamic drives or fluid couplings use oil to transmit torque between an

impeller on the constant speed input shaft and a rotor on the adjustable-speed
output shaft. The torque converter in the automatic transmission of a car is a
hydrodynamic drive.

A hydroviscous drive consists of one or more discs or connected to the input shaft
pressed against a similar disc or discs connected to the output shaft. Torque is
transmitted from the input shaft to the output shaft through an oil film between the
discs. The transmitted torque is proportional to the pressure exerted by a hydraulic
cylinder that presses the discs together.

c)Continuously variable transmission (CVT) Main article: Continuously variable

transmission Mechanical and hydraulic adjustable speed drives are usually called
transmissions or continuously variable transmissions when they are used in
vehicles, farm equipment and some other types of equipment.

d) Electric adjustable speed drives

There are three general categories of electric drives: DC motor drives, eddy current
drives and AC motor drives. Each of these general types can be further divided into
numerous variations. Electric drives generally include both an electric motor and a
speed control unit or system. The term drive is often applied to the controller
without the motor. In the early days of electric drive technology, electromechanical
control systems were used. Later, electronic controllers were designed using
various types of vacuum tubes. As suitable solid state electronic components
became available, new controller designs incorporated the latest electronic
technology.

e) DC drives
DC drives are DC motor speed control systems. Since the speed of a DC motor is
directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to field current,
either armature voltage or field current can be used to control speed. Several types
of DC motors are described in the electric motor article. The electric motor article
also describes electronic speed controls used with various types of DC motors.

f) Eddy current drives

An eddy current drive consists of a fixed speed motor and an eddy current clutch.
The clutch contains a fixed speed rotor and an adjustable speed rotor separated by
a small air gap. A direct current in a field coil produces a magnetic field that
determines the torque transmitted from the input rotor to the output rotor. The
controller provides closed loop speed regulation by varying clutch current, only
allowing the clutch to transmit enough torque to operate at the desired speed.
Speed feedback is typically provided via an integral AC tachometer. Eddy current
drives are a type of slip controlled drive. Slip controlled drives are generally less
efficient than other types of drives. The motor develops the torque required by the
load and operates at full speed. The output shaft transmits the same torque to the
load, but turns at a slower speed. Since power is proportional to torque multiplied
by speed, the input power is proportional to motor speed times operating torque
while the output power is output speed times operating torque. The difference
between the motor speed and the output speed is called the slip speed. Power
proportional to the slip speed times operating torque is dissipated as heat in the
clutch.

g) AC drives
AC drives are AC motor speed control systems.
Slip controlled drives control the speed of an induction motor by increasing a
motor's slip. This is accomplished by reducing the voltage applied to the motor or
increasing the resistance of the rotor windings. Because they are generally less
efficient than other types of drives, slip controlled drives have lost popularity and
have recently been used only in special situations. See eddy current drives above.
Adjustable-frequency drives (AFD) control the speed of either an induction motor or
a synchronous motor by adjusting the frequency of the power supplied to the
motor. Adjustable frequency drives are also known as variable-frequency drives
(VFD).When changing the frequency of the power supplied to an AC motor, the ratio
of the applied voltage to the applied frequency (V/Hz) is generally maintained at a
constant value between the minimum and maximum operating frequencies.
Operation at a
constant voltage (reduced V/Hz) above a given frequency provides reduced torque
capability and constant power capability above that frequency. The frequency or
speed at which constant-voltage operation begins is called the base frequency or
speed. Whether the applied voltage is regulated directly or indirectly, the V/Hz
tends to follow the general pattern described for the performance described. The
variable-frequency drive article provides additional information on electronic speed
controls used with various types of AC motors.
VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVE (VFD)
A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of
an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the
electrical power supplied to the motor.[1][2] [3] A variable frequency drive is a
specific type of adjustable speed drive. Variable frequency drives are also known as
adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VS D), AC drives, micro
drives or inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied along with frequency, these are
sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable frequency) drives. Variable-
frequency drives are widely used. For example, in ventilations systems for large
buildings, variable-frequency motors on fans save energy by allowing the volume of
air moved to match the system demand. Variable frequency drives are also used on
pumps, conveyor and machine tool drives.

Operating principle
The synchronous speed of an AC motor is determined by the frequency of the AC
supply and the number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:

Where
RPM = Revolutions per minute
f = AC power frequency (hertz)
p = Number of poles (an even number)
The constant, 120, is 60 cycles per minute multiplied by 2 poles per pole pair.
Sometimes 60 is used as the constant and p is stated as pole pairs rather than
poles. By varying the frequency of the voltage applied to the motor, its speed can
be changed. Synchronous motors operate at the synchronous speed determined by
the above equation. The speed of an induction motor is slightly less than the
synchronous speed.

Example
A 4-pole motor that is connected directly to 60 Hz utility (mains) power would have
a synchronous speed of 1800 RPM:

If the motor is an induction motor, the operating speed at full load will
be about 1750 RPM. If the motor is connected to a speed controller that provides power at
50 Hz, the synchronous speed would be 1500RPM:

VFD types

All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning
them only on or off. Attempting to use a linear device such as transistor in its linear mode
would be impractical, since power dissipated in the output devices would be about as much
as power delivered to the load.

Drives can be classified as:

Constant voltage

Constant current
 Cycloconverter

In a constant voltage converter, the intermediate DC link voltage remains approximately

constant during each output cycle. In constant current drives, a large inductor is placed
between the input rectifier and the output bridge, so the current delivered is nearly
constant. A cycloconverter has no input rectifier or DC link and instead connects each
output terminal to the appropriate input phase.

The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width
modulation to control both the frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load.

VFD system
A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a controller and an
operator interface.

VFD motor
The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of
single-phase motors can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various
types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations, but induction motors are
suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical choice. Motors that are
designed for fixed-speed mains voltage operation are often used, but certain enhancements
to the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance.

VFD controller
Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The
usual design first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier bridge.
The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter
switching circuit. The rectifier is usually a three-phase diode bridge, but controlled rectifier
circuits are also used. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many
units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase
converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated when using
single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load.
PWM VFD Diagram
As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, these have promptly been
applied to inverter circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are
available. Introduced in the 1980s, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) became the
device used in most VFD inverter circuits in the first decade of the 21st century. AC motor
characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the
frequency is changed in order to deliver the rated torque. For example, if a motor is
designed to operate at 460volts at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to 230 volts
when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated
to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz in this case). For optimum performance, some
further voltage adjustment may be necessary, but nominally constant volts per hertz are the
general rule. This ratio can be changed in order to change the torque delivered by the
motor. In addition to these simple volts per hertz control more advanced control methods
such as vector control and direct torque control (DTC) exist. These methods adjust the
motor voltage in such a way that the magnetic flux and mechanical torque of the motor can
be precisely controlled. The usual method used to achieve variable motor voltage is pulse-
width modulation (PWM). With PWM voltage control, the inverter switches are used to
construct a quasi-sinusoidal output waveform by a series of narrow voltage pulses with
sinusoidal varying pulse durations. Operation at above synchronous speed is possible, but is
limited to conditions that do not require more power than nameplate rating of the motor.
This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, is operating at less than
rated volts/hertz and above synchronous speed. Example, a 100 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775
RPM (4 pole) motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 =
80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power.

PWM VFD Output Voltage Waveform PWM AC variable speed drive

An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. The main
microprocessor programming is in firmware that is inaccessible to the VFD user. However,
some degree of configuration programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided
so that the user can customize the VFD controller to suit specific motor and driven
equipment requirements.[10] At 460 Volts, the maximum recommended cable distances
between VFDs and motors can vary by a factor of 2.5:1. The longer cables distances are
allowed at the lower Carrier Switching Frequencies (CSF) of 2.5 kHz. The lower CSF can
produce audible noise at the motors. The 2.5 kHz and 5 kHz CSFs cause less motor bearing
problems than caused by CSFs at 20 kHz.[15] Shorter cables are recommended at the
higher CSF of 20 kHz. The minimum CSF for synchronize tracking of multiple conveyors is 8
kHz.

VFD operator interface The operator interface, also commonly known as an HMI (Human
Machine Interface),
provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating
speed. Additional operator control functions might include reversing and switching between
manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal.
The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and/or
indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An
operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD
controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-
connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided
with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches and other
operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often
available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored and controlled using a
computer.

VFD Operation
When a motor is simply switched to the grid at full voltage, it initially draws at least 300% of
its rated current from the mains. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops
a little and then rises to a peak while the current remains very high until the motor
approaches full speed. On the contrary, when a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low
frequency and voltage to the motor. The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus
starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that occurs when a motor is
started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. After the start
of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped
up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive current. This starting method typically
allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while drawing less than 50% of its rated
current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady
150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed. Thus by using a VFD it is possible
to start and run a motor in a weak grid without causing excessive voltage dips and flickering
of the lights. In addition to that big energy savings are often possible when the loads (for
example pumps and fans) can be run at a lower speed when the maximum output is not
required. With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence.
The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate.
When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking
torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor
were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by
adding a braking circuit to dissipate the braking energy or return it to the power source.
Induced power line harmonics While PWM allows for very specific supply currents and
voltages to be applied to a load, PWM slices square-wave notches of power out of sinusoidal
alternating current, creating high frequency harmonic feedback in the power line. When the
VFD load size is small and the available utility power is large, the effects of PWM power
systems slicing small chunks out of AC generally go unnoticed. However, when either a
large number of low-amperage PWM devices, or just a few very large-load PWM devices are
used, they can have a cumulative negative impact on the AC power available to other utility
customers outside of the business, due to chopping such large irregular pieces out of the
utility sine wave. The utility power wave becomes misshapen and distorted, and may be
unable to effectively drive normal AC motors, resulting in waste heating of motors. The high
frequency power line harmonics may not easily cross transformers that are tuned to operate
at utility frequency, resulting in waste heating of utility substation transformers. This
increases the power factor of utility-supplied current, and a business may be required to
install filtering equipment to smooth out the irregular waveform. Alternately, the utility may
choose to install filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount
of VFD / PWM equipment being used.

Applications considerations
The output voltage of a PWM VFD consists of a train of pulses switched at the carrier
frequency. Because of the rapid rise time of these pulses, transmission line effects of the
cable between the drive and motor must be considered. Since the transmission-line
impedance of the cable and motor are different, pulses tend to reflect back from the motor
terminals into the cable. If the cable is long enough, the resulting voltages can produce up
to twice the rated line voltage, putting high stress on the cable and eventual insulation
failure. Because of the standard ratings of cables, this phenomenon is of little concern for
230 volt motors, may be a consideration for long runs and 480 volt motors, and frequently a
concern for 600 v motors. Available VFD power ratings Variable frequency drives are
available with voltage and current ratings to match the majority of 3-phase motors that are
manufactured for operation from utility (mains) power. VFD controllers designed to operate
at 110 volts to 690 volts are often classified as low voltage units. Low voltage units are
typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 0.2 kW or 1/4 horsepower (hp) up to
at c least 750 kW or 1000 hp. Medium voltage VFD controllers are designed to operate at
2400/4162 volts (60 Hz), 3000 volts (50 Hz) or up to 10 kV. In some applications a step up
transformer is placed between a low voltage drive and a medium voltage load. Medium
voltage units are typically
designed for use with motors rated to deliver 375 kW or 500 hp and above. Medium voltage
drives rated above 7 kV and 5000 or 10000 hp should probably be considered to be one-of-
a-kind (one-off) designs.
Brushless DC motor drives
Much of the same logic contained in large, powerful VFDs is also embedded in small
brushless DC motors such as those commonly used in computer fans. In this case, the
chopper usually converts a low DC voltage (such as 12 volts) to the three-phase current
used to drive the electromagnets that turn the permanent magnet rotor.

PROTECTION OF MOTOR
Thermal Protection
Thermal Protection is made up of both winding protection and bearing protection. Winding
Protection consists of thyristors, thermostats, RTD's and thermocouples. Bearing Protection
consists of devices such as RTD per bearing, thyristors and thermocouples. Thermal
Protection - Windings

RTD (Resistance Thermal Detectors)

Winding RTD - A resistance device used to measure temperature change in the motor
windings to detect a possible overheating condition. These detectors would be mounted in
the coil head of the motor and their resistance varies with the temperature
Space Heaters
Introduction
Space heaters and drains are used to prevent damage to the motor windings and internal
parts, which can be caused by moisture condensing within the motor. Premature motor
winding failure can result if moisture or condensation is allowed to settle within the motor
frame. Modem non-hydroscopic insulation systems are highly resistant to moisture,
however, they are not 100% effective if a large amount of water is present. Internal parts
can also be damaged by corrosion or oxidation caused by the presence of excessive
moisture. Condensation can form in a motor due to the inherent moisture content of the
earth's atmosphere and the heating and cooling cycles of a motor. The characteristic of air
is such that warm air will hold more moisture than the same quantity of cooler air at the
same pressure. The air inside of a running motor is warmer and thus, less dense than the air
outside of the motor. When the motor is shut down, the air within it will cool down and the
volume will decrease (become denser). As the air volume decreases, air is drawn in from the
outside to equalize the air pressure. This is known as motor "breathing". As the moisture
laden air within the motor is cooled below a certain temperature (the dew point) and the
pressure is equalized, condensation will begin to form on the windings and internal parts of
the motor. Motors operating outdoors are especially susceptible to internal condensation
since this condition can generally be anticipated when the ambient temperature is 50
degrees F or less. Motors which are subjected to the above conditions and to a continual
running and idle cycle can experience a sufficient collection of internal condensation to
cause a premature winding failure.
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
Instrument transformers (ITs) are designed to transform: voltage (Voltage (VTs) or Potential
Transformers (PTs)) or current (Current transformers (CTs)) from the high values in the
transmission and distribution systems to the low values that can be utilized by low voltage
current metering devices. There are three primary applications for which
ITs are used:
-metering (for energy billing and transaction purposes)
-Protection control (for system protection and protective relaying purposes)
-load survey (for economic management of industrial loads)

Depending on the requirements for those applications, the IT design and construction can
be quite different. Generally, the metering ITs require high accuracy in the range of normal
operating voltage and current. Protection ITs require linearity in a wide range of voltages
and currents. During the disturbance, such as a system fault, over voltage transients, the
output of the IT is used by a protective relay to initiate an appropriate action (open or close
a breaker, reconfigure the system, etc.) to mitigate the disturbance and protect the rest of
the power system. Instrument transformers are the most common and economic way to
detect a disturbance. Typical output levels of instrument transformers are 0-5 A and 115-
120 V for CTs and VTs, respectively. There are several classes of accuracy for instrument
transformers defined by the IEEE, CSA, IEC and ANSI standards.
Core balance CT (CBCT):
The CBCT, also known as a zero sequence CT, is used for earth leakage and earth fault
protection. The concept is similar to the RVT. In the CBCT, the three core cable or three single
cores of a three phase system pass through the inner diameter of the CT. When the system is
fault free, no current flows in the secondary of the CBCT. When there is an earth fault, the
residual current (zero phase sequence current) of the system flows through the secondary of
the CBCT and this operates the relay. In order to design the CBCT, the inner diameter of the
CT, the relay type, the relay setting and the primary operating current need to be furnished.

CT Shorting
CTs should remain shorted during installation until secondary wiring is complete. Figure 4
shows the termination of a multi-ratio CT on a shorting terminal strip. A shorting screw
inserted through the shorting bar ties isolated terminal strip points together. Any shorting
winding effectively shorts the entire CT.

Standards:
The Indian and international standard references for VT s are as given in the table below:
Standard Standard Number Year
Indian IS 3156 1992
British BS 3841 1973
British BS 7625 1993
British BS 7729 1994
IEC IEC186 1987
Australian AS 1243 1982
American ANSI C.57.13 1978
Tests
A number of routine and type tests have to be conducted on VT s before they can meet the
standards specified above. The tests can be classified as:
Accuracy tests to determine whether the errors of the VT are within specified limits.
Dielectric insulation tests such as power frequency withstand voltage test on primary and
secondary windings for one minute, induced over-voltage test, impuse tests with 1.2u/50u
wave, and partial discharge tests (for voltage>=6.6 kV) to determine whether the discharge
is below the specified limits.
Temperature rise tests
Short circuit tests
Verification of terminal markings and polarity
Typical specification for a 11 kV VT
System voltage: 11 kV
Insulation level voltage (ILV): 12 /28/75 kV Number of phases: Three
Vector Group: Star / Star
Ratio: 11 kV/ 110 V
Burden: 100 VA
Accuracy: Class 0.5
Voltage Factor: 1.2 continuous and 1.5 for 30 seconds with provision for fuse. Capacitive
voltage transformers are used by utilities for high-voltage (greater than 66 kV) metering.
They have a capacitive voltage divider but also have a dual-winding transformer to couple
the divided voltage to the metering circuit. They tend to have lower allowable burdens than a
wound transformer but can be made economically at higher voltage ratings. Another
difference is that even though they decrease voltage, they do not increase current as found
in wound electromagnetic transformers - an ampere drawn by the load is an ampere drawn
from the primary circuit. And of course they can only reduce voltage, not increase". Capacitor
Voltage Transformers must convert transmission class voltages to
standardized the low and easily measurable values, which will be used for metering,
protection and control of the high voltage system. As such need for accurate and reliable
voltage transformation is essential. Additionally, Capacitor voltage Transformers serve as a
coupling capacitor for coupling high frequency power line carrier signals to the transmission
line.

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power
flowing to the load to the apparent power, and is a number between 0 and 1 (frequently
expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf).
Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent
power is the product of the root mean squared current and root mean squared voltage of the
circuit.

Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that
distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power can be
greater than the real power. In an electric power system, a load with low power factor draws
more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power
transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and
require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and
wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial
customers where there is a low power factor.
Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a
passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the
current drawn from the system. In such cases, active power factor correction is used to
counteract the distortion and raise power factor. The devices for correction of power factor
may be at a central substation, or spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-
consuming equipment.

Power factor in linear circuit

In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase),
changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle. Reactive loads are present, such as with
capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads result in a time difference between the
current and voltage waveforms. This stored energy returns to the
source and is not available to do work at the load. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will
have higher currents to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high
power factor. A linear load does not change the shape of the waveform of the current, but
may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current. Circuits containing
purely resistive heating elements (filament lamps, strip heaters, cooking stoves, etc.) have a
power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive elements (compact
fluorescent lamps, lamp ballasts, motors, etc.) often have a power factor below 1.

Linear loads
Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive
power. The vector sum of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The presence of
reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric
load has a power factor of less than 1.

Non-linear loads
A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power supply),
or some kind of arc discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric
welding machine, or arc furnace. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a
switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power
system frequency.

Importance of power factor in distribution systems

The significance of power factor lies in the fact that utility companies supply customers with
volt-amperes, but bill them for watts. Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate
more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts). This
increases generation and transmission costs. For example, if the load power factor were as
low as 0.7, the apparent power would be 1.4 times the real power used by the load. Line
current in the circuit would also be 1.4 times the current required at 1.0 power factor, so the
losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the
current). Alternatively all components of the system such as generators, conductors,
transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current.
Utilities typically charge additional costs to customers who have a power factor below
some limit, which is typically 0.9 to 0.95. Engineers are often interested in the power factor
of a load as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission

Power Factor Correction Methods

1. Injecting the reactive Power required
2. Filter the Noisy or distorted reactive Power
3. Set the current and voltage in Phase
Power Factor improvement equipments

1. Static Capacitors
2. Synchronous condensers
1. Static Capacitors
This power factor correction is achieved by switching in or out banks of capacitors. For
example the inductive effect of motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors.
When reactive elements supply or absorb reactive power near the load, the apparent power
is reduced. Power factor correction may be applied by an electrical power transmission utility
to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission network. Correction equipment
may be installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the costs charged to them by
their electricity supplier. A high power factor is generally desirable in a transmission system
to reduce transmission losses and improve voltage regulation at the load. Power factor
correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by
supplying reactive power of opposite sign, adding capacitors or inductors which act to cancel
the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively. For example, the inductive effect
of motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors. If a load had a capacitive
value, inductors (also known as reactors in this context) are connected to correct the power
factor. In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and
capacitors are said to supply it, even though the reactive power is actually just moving back
and forth on each AC cycle. The reactive elements can create voltage fluctuations and
harmonic noise when switched on or off. They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of
whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load
losses. In a worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other
to create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage
fluctuations. As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied at will, and power factor
correction is normally subject to engineering analysis.
An automatic power factor correction unit is used to improve power factor. A power factor
correction unit usually consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means of
contactors. These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an
electrical network. To be able to measure power factor, the regulator uses a current
transformer to measure the current in one phase. Depending on the load and power factor of
the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in
steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value (usually demanded by the
energy supplier), say 0.9. Instead of using a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded
synchronous motor can supply reactive power. The reactive power drawn by the synchronous
motor is a function of its field excitation. This is referred to as a synchronous condenser. It is
started and connected to the electrical network. It operates at full leading power factor and
puts vars onto the network as required to support a systems voltage or to maintain the
system power factor at a specified level. The condensers installation and operation are
identical to large electric motors. Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount
of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like an electrically variable capacitor. Unlike
capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square
of voltage; this improves voltage
stability on large networks. Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high
voltage direct current transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills.

Induction motors, transformers and many other electrical loads require magnetizing current
(kVAR) as well as actual power (kW). By representing these components of apparent power
(kVA) as the sides of a right triangle, we can determine the apparent power from the right
triangle rule: kVA2 = kW2 + kVAR2.
To reduce the kVA required for any given load, you must shorten the line that represents the
kVAR. This is precisely what capacitors do. Induction motors, transformers and many other
electrical loads require magnetizing current (kVAR) as well as actual power (kW). By
representing these components of apparent power (kVA) as the sides of a right triangle, we
can determine the apparent power from the right triangle rule: kVA2 = kW2 + kVAR2. To
reduce the kVA required for any given load, you must shorten the line that represents the
kVAR. This is precisely what capacitors do.

1. Shunt capacitor - connected across the inductive circuit to improve its p.f.
2 Series capacitor - connected in series at the far end of a long transmission or HT
distribution line to offset the reactive component of the line impedance, contain the voltage
drop and enhance the receiving-end voltage. It can support a transmission or distribution
system in the following ways:
Improving the regulation of the system at the receiving end
Limiting the system voltage swing during a load rejection or off-peak periods, and protect it
from overvoltage
Enhancing the stability of the system by minimizing the voltage fluctuations caused by load
variations and
Enhancing the power-carrying capacity of the system by reducing the IR losses.
The use of a reactor in series with the capacitors will reduce the harmonic effects in a power
network, as well as their effect on other circuits in the vicinity, such as a telecommunication
network. The choice of reactance should be such that it will provide the required detuning by
resonating below the required harmonic, to provide a least
impedance path for that harmonic and filter it out from the circuit. The basic idea of a filter
circuit is to make it respond to the current of one frequency and reject all other frequency
components. At power frequency, the circuit should act as a capacitive load and improve the
p.f. of the system. For the fifth harmonic, for instance, it should resonate below 5 x 50 Hz for
a 50 Hz system, say at around 200- 220 Hz, to avoid excessive charging voltages which may
lead to
- Overvoltage during light loads
- Overvoltage may saturate transformer cores and
Failure of capacitor units and inductive loads connected generate harmonics in the system. It
should be ensured that under no condition of system disturbance would the filter circuit
become capacitive when it approaches near resonance. To achieve this, the filter circuits may
be tuned to a little less than the defined harmonic frequency.
compensating for the series reactor. When a capacitor circuit is compensated through a
series reactor, either to suppress the system harmonics or to limit the switching inrush
currents or both, it will require suitable adjustment in its voltage and capacitive ratings. The
series reactor will dampen the switching currents but consume an inductively reactive power
and offset an equivalent amount of capacitive kVAr. and require compensation.

Synchronous condenser
Synchronous condenser (sometimes synchronous compensator) is a synchronous motor that
is not attached to any driven equipment. Its field is controlled by a voltage regulator to either
generate or absorb reactive power as
needed to support a system's voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified
level. The condensers installation and operation are identical to large electric motors.
Synchronous motors load the power line with a leading power factor. This is often useful in
cancelling out the more commonly encountered lagging power factor caused by induction
motors and other inductive loads. Originally, large industrial synchronous motors came into
wide use because of this ability to correct the lagging power factor of induction motors.
This leading power factor can be exaggerated by removing the mechanical load and over
exciting the field of the synchronous motor. Such a device is known as a synchronous
condenser. Furthermore, the leading power factor can be adjusted by varying the field
excitation. This makes it possible to nearly cancel an arbitrary lagging power factor to unity
by paralleling the lagging load with a synchronous motor. A synchronous condenser is
operated in a borderline condition between a motor and a generator with no mechanical load
to fulfill this function. It can compensate either a leading or lagging power factor, by
absorbing or supplying reactive power to the line. This enhances power line voltage
regulation. Since a synchronous condenser does not supply a torque, the output shaft may
be dispensed with and the unit easily enclosed in a gas tight shell. The synchronous
condenser may then be filled with hydrogen to aid cooling and reduce windage losses. Since
the density of hydrogen is 7% of that of air, the windage loss for a hydrogen filled unit is
7% of that encountered in air. Furthermore, the thermal conductivity of hydrogen is ten
times that of air. Thus, heat removal is ten times more efficient. As a result, a hydrogen filled
synchronous condenser can be driven harder than an air cooled unit, or it may be physically
smaller for a given capacity. There is no explosion hazard as long as the hydrogen
concentration is maintained above 70%, typically above 91%. The efficiency of long power
transmission lines may be increased by placing synchronous condensers along the line to
compensate lagging currents caused by line inductance. More real power may be
transmitted through a fixed size line if the power factor is brought closer to unity by
synchronous condensers absorbing reactive power. The ability of synchronous condensers to
absorb or produce reactive power on a transient basis stabilizes the power grid against short
circuits and other transient fault conditions. Transient sags and dips of milliseconds duration
are stabilized. This supplements longer response times of quick acting voltage regulation and
excitation of generating equipment. The synchronous condenser aids voltage regulation by
drawing leading current when the line voltage sags, which increases generator excitation
thereby restoring line voltage

The capacity of a synchronous condenser can be increased by replacing the copper wound
iron field rotor with an ironless rotor of high temperature superconducting wire, which
must be cooled to the liquid nitrogen boiling point of 77oK (-196oC). The superconducting
wire carries 160 times the current of comparable copper wire, while producing a flux
density of 3 Teslas or higher. An iron core would saturate at 2 Teslas in the rotor air gap.
Thus, an iron core, approximate r=1000, is of no more use than air, or any other material
with a relative permeability r=1, in the rotor. Such a machine is said to have considerable
additional transient ability to supply reactive power to troublesome loads like metal melting
arc furnaces. The manufacturer describes it as being a reactive power shock absorber.
Such a synchronous condenser has a higher power density (smaller physically) than a
switched capacitor bank. The ability to absorb or produce reactive power on a transient basis
stabilizes the overall power grid against fault conditions.
CALCULATION OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT CAPACITOR BANK

kvar1 = kW x tan1 = kW x sqrt [(1 / cos12 ) - 1]

kvar2 = kW x tan 2 = kW x sqrt [(1 / cos 22 ) -
1] ckvar = kW x (tan1 - tan2 ) = kW x {sqrt
[(1 / cos12 ) - 1] - sqrt [(1 / cos22 ) - 1] }
Expected power factor (P.F): cos = kW / sqrt { kW2 + (kvar1- ckvar)2}

POWER REACTOR
Power reactors are similar to transformers. However, they have only one winding per phase

They are employed to perform a number of functions, primarily to control and regulate the
reactive power of a power system by supplying the inductive and absorbing the capacitive
power. Control can be achieved in different ways as noted later. The reactors depending
upon their design and I-@ characteristics can be classified as
follows: Single- or three-phase Single-phase reactors are used in the neutral circuit either to
limit the ground fault currents or as arc-suppression coils. Similarly, three-phase reactors are
used for three-phase applications.
Air cooled dry type and oil-immersed type. This will depend upon the size of the reactor and
the design of the manufacturer. The latest practice is to use air-cooled dry type, which call
for lesser maintenance and are free from any fire hazards indoor or outdoor types. These
may be designed indoor or outdoor types depending upon the application.
Tap-changing facility Where necessary, the reactance of the coil can be varied by providing
an on- or offload tap-changing gear with the reactor, similar to a power transformer.

Selection of power reactors

When it is required to limit the inrush current a fixed reactance (linear) reactor is more
suitable. A variable type reactor will be necessary when it is to be used for voltage
regulation or load sharing. In circuits where harmonics may be present, saturated type
reactors may be preferred. The harmonic content may be measured through harmonic
analyzers and expressed as a percentage of the fundamental component. The current and
voltage ratings of the reactors will depend upon their application. A series reactor connected
permanently in the circuit, for instance, will be rated continuously and for full system
voltage, whereas a reactor used in the ground circuit may be short-time rated and rated for
the likely maximum ground fault current. The magnetic characteristics of an inductor coil
will vary with the type of its configuration as discussed below. It can have one of the
following shapes:
Linear
Non-linear
Saturated
A reactor can be designed to provide any of these characteristics to meet the different
reactive power needs.

Application

1. Shunt reactors or compensating reactors.

These are meant for parallel connections to absorb the reactive power (capacitive
current) of the system and are generally used on transmission and large distribution
networks. They may have a fixed or variable reactance, rated continuously, and any
of the magnetic characteristics. Broadly speaking, they can perform the following
functions:
1. Limit the switching surges. But they may affect the steady-state power transfer
capability of the system.
2. Adjust the steady-state voltage control by supplying reactive power and compensating
the capacitive content.
3. Suppress the harmonic contents.

2. Current limiting or series reactors

These are connected in series in a circuit, and are meant to limit the high inrush current,
such as during switching of HT capacitor banks. They may also be used to limit the currents
under fault conditions by adding to the circuit impedance to match with the breaking
capacity of the interrupting device when the fault level of the system may exceed this. They
are also used for load sharing of two power systems. They are connected in the circuit
permanently and may have a fixed or variable reactance, rated continuously and can be
made to have linear (fixed reactance) or nonlinear magnetic characteristics as required.
When they are required to limit the inrush currents, fixed reactance, and linear reactors
should be preferred. During a fault condition, the reactance of the reactor should not
diminish due to the saturation effect. This is an essential requirement to limit the short-time
fault currents. Ideally, current limiting reactors must have no-iron circuit (air core or coreless
type). The iron core type provide non-linear saturating type characteristics, and at over
currents have a tendency to diminish their reactance due to the saturation effect, while the
reactors are required to offer high impedances to limit the fault currents. The coreless type
will provide a near constant reactance at all currents due to the absence of an iron core and
hence, their preference over other types for such applications.

3. Dampening reactors
These are meant to limit the inrush currents occurring during a switching operation of a
capacitor. They are connected in series with the capacitors and may be short time rated for
the values of the inrush currents and continuously rated for normal line currents. They are
almost the same as the series reactors with fixed
reactance.

4. Neutral grounding reactors

These are meant to limit the ground fault current and are used between the neutral of the
system and the ground. They are single-phase and may be short-time rated; otherwise they
are the same as the current limiting reactors.

5. Grounding transformer or neutral

These are meant to provide a neutral to an ungrounded system. When the ground
transformer neutral is connected to the ground directly or through a current limiting reactor
its neutral current may be considered for short-time duration only, i.e. until the ground fault
exists assuming that the ground fault protective scheme will
isolate the faulty circuit promptly. But when the neutral is grounded through an arc
suppression coil (reactor) the current through the grounded neutral may be of a limited
amplitude, say, up to its continuous rating and it may exist for longer. These transformers
are three-phase and may be connected for zig-zag or star delta connections. The delta may
also be made open type by inserting a resistor across it to help adjust the zero-sequence
impedance, if required.

6. Arc suppression or Petersen coil (reactor)

These are meant to compensate the ground capacitive current on a ground fault in the
system, which may be grounded naturally or artificially. They are connected between the
neutral of the system and the ground and are single-phase and may be short-time or
continuously rated, depending upon the system requirement. If it is being used as a ground
fault neutralizer it may have to be continuously rated. It may be of variable type to help
tuning with the system ground capacitance.

7. Tuning or filter reactors

These are meant to be used with a capacitor to tune a filter circuit, with resonances in the
audio frequency range for reducing and filtering the harmonics or communication
frequencies. They provide a near short-circuit for the required harmonics to filter them out
of circuit. They may be single-phase or three-phase and connected in series or parallel of
the capacitor circuit and may have a fixed or variable reactance, rated continuously with
saturated magnetic characteristics. They may incur heavy losses.

8. Smoothing reactors
These are meant to provide high impedance to harmonic currents and block their entry or
reduce their amplitudes and are therefore also known as blocking reactors. They may have
any of the magnetic and have a fixed reactance, rated continuously.
SELECTION AND SIZING OF BATTERY AND BATTERY CHARGER
A battery or voltaic cell is a combination of many electrochemical Galvanic cells of identical
type to store chemical energy and to deliver higher voltage or higher current than with
single cells. The battery cells create a voltage difference between the terminals of each cell
and hence to its combination in battery. When an external electrical circuit is connected to
the battery, then the battery drives electrons through the circuit and electrical work is done.
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists
of one or more voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by
a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and
the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode or negative
electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations
(positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode

Batteries are classified into two broad categories:-

Primary batteries
Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries, also
called primary cells, are intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly
used in portable devices that have low current drain, are only used intermittently, or are
used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication
circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells
cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and
active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend
against attempting recharging primary cells. Common types of disposable batteries include
zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline batteries. Generally, these have higher energy densities
than rechargeable batteries, but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain
applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 ).

Secondary batteries
Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active
materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be
recharged by applying electrical current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur
during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery, a type of wet cell. This
battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the
battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the
hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also
very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low
manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where a large
capacity (over approximately 10Ah) is required or where the weight and ease of handling
are not concerns.

Definitions
Battery duty cycle: The loads a battery is expected to supply for specified time periods.
Cell size: The rated capacity of a lead-acid cell or the number of positive plates in a cell.
Equalizing charge: A prolonged charge, at a rate higher than the normal float voltage, to
correct any inequalities of voltage and specific gravity that may have developed between
the cells during service.

Amp Hour or Ampere-Hour: A unit of measurement of a battery's electrical storage capacity.

Current multiplied by time in hours equals ampere-hours.
One amp hour is equal to a current of one ampere flowing for one hour. Also, 1 amp hour is
equal to 1,000 mAh.
Anode - During discharge, the negative electrode of the cell is the anode. During charge,
that reverses and the positive electrode of the cell is the anode. The anode gives up
electrons to the load circuit and dissolves into the electrolyte.

Aqueous Batteries - Batteries with water-based electrolytes. The electrolyte may not appear
to be liquid since it can be absorbed by the batterys separator. Actual Capacity or available
capacity the total battery capacity, usually expressed in ampere-hours or milliamp-hours,
available to perform work. The actual capacity of a particular battery is determined by a
number of factors, including the cut-off voltage, discharge rate, temperature, method of
charge and the age and life history of the battery.

Battery an electrochemical device used to store energy. The term is usually applied to a
group of two or more electric cells connected together electrically. In common usage, the
term battery is also applied to a single cell, such as an AA battery.

Battery Capacity - The electric output of a cell or battery on a service test delivered before
the cell reaches a specified final electrical condition and may be expressed in ampere-hours,
watt- hours, or similar units. The capacity in watt-hours is equal to the capacity in ampere-
hours multiplied by the battery voltage.

Battery Charger: A device capable of supplying electrical energy to a battery.

Battery-Charge Rate - The current expressed in amperes (A) or milli amps (mA) at which a
battery is charged.

Cutoff Voltage, final:The prescribed lower-limit voltage at which battery discharge is

considered complete. The cutoff or final voltage is usually chosen so that the maximum
useful capacity of the battery is realized. The cutoff voltage varies with the type of battery
and the kind of service in which the battery is used. When testing the capacity of a NiMH or
NiCD battery a cutoff voltage of 1.0 V is normally used. 0.9V is normally used as the cutoff
voltage of an alkaline cell. A device that is designed with too high a cutoff voltage may stop
operating while the battery still has significant capacity remaining. C - Used to signify a
charge or discharge rate equal to the capacity of a battery divided by 1 hour. Thus C for a
1600 mAh battery would be 1.6 A, C/5 for the same battery would be 320 mA and C/10
would be 160 mA. Because C is dependent on the capacity of a battery the C rate for
batteries of different capacities must also be different.
Capacity - The capacity of a battery is a measure of the amount of energy that it can deliver
in a single discharge.
Battery capacity is normally listed as amp-hours (or milli amp-hours) or as watt-hours.

Cathode - Is an electrode that, in effect, oxidizes the anode or absorbs the electrons. During
discharge, the positive electrode of a voltaic cell is the cathode. When charging, that
reverses and the negative electrode of the cell is the cathode.

Cell - An electrochemical device composed of positive and negative plates and electrolyte,
which is capable of storing electrical energy. It is the basic building block of a battery.

Charge - The conversion of electric energy, provided in the form of a current, into chemical
energy within the cell or battery.

Charge Rate - The amount of current applied to battery during the charging process. This
rate is commonly expressed as a fraction of the capacity of the battery. for example the C/2
or C/5.

Charging - The process of supplying electrical energy for conversion to stored chemical
energy.

Constant-Current Charge - A charging process in which the current applied to the battery is
maintained at a constant value.

Constant-Voltage Charge - A charging process in which the voltage applied to a battery is

held at a constant value.

Cycle - One sequence of charge and discharge.

Deep Cycle - A cycle in which the discharge is continued until the battery reaches its cut-off
voltage, usually 80% of discharge.

Shallow Cycling - Charge and discharge cycles which do not allow the battery to approach
its cutoff voltage. Shallow cycling of NiCd cells lead to memory effect. Shallow cycling is
not detrimental to NiMH cells and it is the most beneficial for lead acid batteries.

Cycle Life - For rechargeable batteries, the total number of charge/discharge cycles the cell
can sustain before its capacity is significantly reduced. End of life is usually considered to
be reached when the cell or battery delivers only 80% of rated ampere hour capacity. NiMH
batteries typically have a cycle life of 500 cycles, NiCd batteries can have a cycle life of over
1,000 cycles. The cycle of a battery is greatly influenced by the type depth of the cycle
(deep or shallow) and the method of recharging. Improper charge cycle cutoff can greatly
reduce the cycle life of a battery.
Direct Current (DC) - The type of electrical current that a battery can supply. One terminal is
always positive and another is always negative.

Discharge: The conversion of the chemical energy of the battery into electric energy.
Depth of Discharge: The amount of energy that has been removed from a battery (or
battery pack) usually expressed as a percentage of the total capacity of the battery. For
example, 50% depth of discharge means that half of the energy in the battery has been
used. 80% DOD means that eighty percent of the energy has been discharged, so the
battery now holds only 20% of its full charge.

Discharge deep: Withdrawal of all electrical energy to the end-point voltage before the cell
or battery is recharged.

Discharge high-rate: Withdrawal of large currents for short intervals of time, usually at a rate
that would completely discharge a cell or battery in less than one hour.

Discharge low-rate: Withdrawal of small currents for long periods of time, usually longer
than one hour.

Drain: Withdrawal of current from a cell.

Dry Cell: A primary cell in which the electrolyte is absorbed in a porous medium, or is
otherwise restrained from flowing. Common practice limits the term dry cell to the
Leclanch cell, which is the common commercial type.
Electrochemical Couple: The system of active materials within a cell that provides electrical
energy storage through an electrochemical reaction.

Electrode: An electrical conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves a

conducting medium, whether it be an electrolytic solution, solid, molten mass, gas, or
vacuum. For electrolytic solutions, many solids, and molten masses, an electrode is an
electrical conductor at the surface of which a change occurs from conduction by electrons to
conduction by ions. For gases and vacuum, the electrodes merely serve to conduct
electricity to and from the medium.

Electrolyte - A chemical compound which, when fused or dissolved in certain solvents,

usually water, will conduct an electric current. All electrolytes in the fused state or in
solution give rise to ions which conduct the electric current.

Electro positivity: The degree to which an element in a galvanic cell will function as the
positive element of the cell. An element with large electro positivity will oxidize faster than
an element with smaller electro positivity.

End-of-Discharge Voltage: The voltage of the battery at termination of a discharge. Energy -

Output Capability - expressed as capacity times voltage, or watt-hours. Energy Density -
Ratio of cell energy to weight or volume (watt-hours per pound, or watt-hours per cubic
inch). Final Voltage (see Cutoff voltage)

Float Charging - Method of recharging in which a secondary cell is continuously connected

to a constant-voltage supply that maintains the cell in fully charged condition typically
applied to lead acid batteries.

Galvanic Cell - A combination of electrodes, separated by electrolyte, that is capable of

producing electrical energy by electrochemical action.

Gassing: The evolution of gas from one or both of the electrodes in a cell gassing commonly
results from self discharge or from the electrolysis of water in the electrolyte during
charging.

Internal Resistance: The resistance to the flow of an electric current within the cell or
battery.
Memory Effect - A phenomenon in which a cell, operated in successive cycles to less than
full, depth of discharge, temporarily loses the remainder of its capacity at normal voltage
levels (usually applies only to Ni-Cd cells). Note, memory effect can be induced in NiCd cells
even if the level of discharge is not the same during each cycle. Memory effect is reversible.

Negative Terminal - The terminal of a battery from which electrons flow in the external
circuit when the cell discharges. See Positive Terminal.

Nonaqueous Batteries - Cells that do not contain water, such as those with molten salts or
organic electrolytes.
Open Circuit - Condition of a battery which is neither on charge nor on discharge (i.e.,
disconnected from a circuit).

Open-Circuit Voltage: The difference in potential between the terminals of a cell when the
circuit is open (i.e., a no-load condition)

Oxidation - A chemical reaction that results in the release of electrons by an electrodes

active material.

Parallel Connection - The arrangement of cells in a battery made by connecting all positive
terminals together and all negative terminals together. The voltage of the group remains the
same as the voltage of the individual cell. The capacity is increased in proportion to the
number of cells.

Polarity - Refers to the charges residing at the terminals of a battery.

Positive Terminal - The terminal of a battery toward which electrons flow through the
external circuit when the cell discharges. See Negative Terminal.

Primary Battery - A battery made up of primary cells. See Primary Cell.

Primary Cell - A cell designed to produce electric current through an electrochemical

reaction that is not efficiently reversible. The cell, when discharged, cannot be efficiently
recharged by an electric current. Alakline, lithium, and zinc air are common types of primary
cells.

Rated Capacity - The number of ampere-hours a cell can deliver under specific conditions
(rate of discharge, end voltage, temperature); usually the manufacturers rating.

Rechargeable - Capable of being recharged; refers to secondary cells or batteries.

Recombination - State in which the gases normally formed within the battery cell during its
operation, are recombined to form water.

Reduction - A chemical process that results in the acceptance of electrons by an electrodes

active material.

Seal - The structural part of a galvanic cell that restricts the escape of solvent or electrolyte
from the cell and limits the ingress of air into the cell (the air may dry out the electrolyte or
interfere with the chemical reactions).

Secondary Battery - A battery made up of secondary cells. See Storage Battery; Storage
Cell.

Self Discharge - Discharge that takes place while the battery is in an open-circuit condition.

Separator - The permeable membrane that allows the passage of ions, but prevents
electrical contact between the anode and the cathode.

Series Connection: The arrangement of cells in a battery configured by connecting the

positive terminal of each successive cell to the negative terminal of the next adjacent cell so
that their voltages are cumulative.

Shelf Life: For a dry cell, the period of time (measured from date of manufacture), at a
storage temperature of 21 degrees C (69 degrees F), after which the cell retains a specified
percentage (usually 90%) of its original energy content.
Short Circuit: A condition that occurs when a short electrical path is unintentionally created.
Batteries can supply hundreds of amps if short-circuited, potentially melting the terminals
and creating sparks.

Short-Circuit Current: That current delivered when a cell is short-circuited (i.e., the positive
and negative terminals are directly connected with a low-resistance conductor). Starting-
Lighting-Ignition (SLI) Battery - A battery designed to start internal combustion engines and
to power the electrical systems in automobiles when the engine is not running. SLI batteries
can be used in emergency lighting situations.

Stationary Battery: A secondary battery designed for use in a fixed location.

Storage Battery: An assembly of identical cells in which the electrochemical action is

reversible so that the battery may be recharged by passing a current through the cells in
the opposite direction to that of discharge. While many non-storage batteries have a
reversible process, only those that are economically rechargeable are classified as storage
batteries. Synonym: Accumulator; Secondary Battery. See Secondary Cell. Storage Cell - An
electrolytic cell for the generation of electric energy in which the cell after being discharged
may be restored to a charged condition by an electric current flowing in a direction opposite
the flow of current when the cell discharges. Synonym: Secondary Cell. See Storage Battery.

Taper Charge: A charge regime delivering moderately high-rate charging current when the
battery is at a low state of charge and tapering the current to lower rates as the battery
becomes more fully charged.

Terminals: The parts of a battery to which the external electric circuit is connected.

Thermal Runaway: A condition whereby a cell on charge or discharge will destroy itself
through internal heat generation caused by high overcharge or high rate of discharge or
other abusive conditions.

Trickle Charging - A method of recharging in which a secondary cell is either continuously or

intermittently connected to a constant-current supply that maintains the cell in fully charged
condition.

Vent: A normally sealed mechanism that allows for the controlled escape of gases from
within a cell.

Voltage cutoff: Voltage at the end of useful discharge.

Voltage end-point: Cell voltage below which the connected equipment will not operate or
below which operation is not recommended.
Voltage nominal: Voltage of a fully charged cell when delivering rated current.

Watt: A measurement of total power. It is amperes multiplied by volts. 120 volt @ 1 amp =
12 volts @ 10 amps.

Wet Cell: A cell, the electrolyte of which is in liquid form and free to flow and move.

Full float operation: Operation of a dc system with the battery, battery charger, and load all
connected in Parallel and with the battery charger supplying the normal dc load plus any
charging current required by the battery. (The battery will deliver current only when the load
exceeds the charger output.)

Period: An interval of time in the battery duty cycle during which the load is assumed to be
constant for purposes of cell sizing calculations.

Rated capacity (lead-acid): The capacity assigned to a cell by its manufacturer for a given
discharge Rate, at a specified electrolyte temperature and specific gravity, to a given end-
of-discharge voltage.

Vented battery: A battery in which the products of electrolysis and evaporation are allowed
to escape freely to the atmosphere. These batteries are commonly referred to as flooded.

Types of Batteries commonly used for industrial Application:-

1. Lead Acid Battery:
Each cell contains (in the charged state) electrodes of lead metal (Pb) and lead (IV) dioxide
(PbO2) in an electrolyte of about 33.5% v/v (6 Molar) sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In the
discharged state both electrodes turn into lead (II) sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte loses
its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. Due to the freezing-point depression
of water, as the battery discharges and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the
electrolyte is more likely to freeze.

The chemical reactions are (charged to discharge): Cathode (reduction):

Because of the open cells with liquid electrolyte in most lead-acid batteries, overcharging
with excessive charging voltages will generate oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of
water, forming an explosive mix. The acid electrolyte is also corrosive. Practical cells are
usually not made with pure lead but have small amounts of antimony, tin, calcium or
selenium alloyed in the plate material. Generally there are two types of lead-acid storage
batteries, based on their method of construction. These batteries are either called flooded
(or vented) or sealed. Flooded and sealed batteries also differ in their operation. All lead-
acid batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen gas (gassing) at the electrodes during charging
through a process called electrolysis. These gases are allowed to escape a flooded cell,
however the sealed cell is constructed so that the gases are contained and recombined. It
should be noted that hydrogen gas is explosive in air at only 4% by volume. Flooded Lead-
Acid Batteries: - Flooded cells are those where the electrodes/plates are immersed in
electrolyte. Since gases created during charging are vented to the atmosphere, distilled
water must be added occasionally to bring the electrolyte back to its required level. The
most familiar example of a flooded lead-acid cell is the 12-V automobile battery.

Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries

These types of batteries confine the electrolyte, but have a vent or valve to allow gases to
escape if internal pressure exceeds a certain threshold. During charging, a lead-acid battery
generates oxygen gas at the positive electrode. Sealed lead-acid batteries are designed so
that the oxygen generated
during charging is captured and recombined in the battery. This is called an oxygen
recombination cycle and works well as long as the charge rate is not too high. Too high of a
rate of charge may result in case rupture, thermal runaway, or internal mechanical damage.
The valve-regulated battery is the most common type of sealed battery. It was developed
for stationary and telecommunication battery applications. These types of sealed batteries
have a spring-controlled valve that vents gases at a predetermined pressure. Typical
pressure thresholds are from 2 to 5 psig, depending on the battery design. Although the
term "valve- regulated" is often used synonymously to describe sealed lead-acid batteries,
not all sealed batteries are valve-regulated. Some battery designs employ replaceable vent
plugs or other mechanisms to relieve excess pressure. Sealed batteries were developed to
reduce
the maintenance required for batteries in active service. Since electrolyte levels are
preserved by trapping and recombining off-gasses, there should not be any need to add
distilled water over the life of the battery. These batteries are often misnamed
"maintenance free." In fact, all maintenance practices applicable to unsealed type
batteries are applicable to sealed type batteries. The only exception is that electrolyte
levels cannot, and should not need to be, maintained.

Starting batteries
Lead acid batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep
discharge. They have a large number of thin plates designed for maximum surface area,
and therefore maximum current output, but which can easily be damaged by deep
discharge. Repeated deep discharges will result in capacity loss and ultimately in premature
failure, as the electrodes disintegrate due to mechanical stresses that arise from cycling. A
common misconception is that starting batteries should always be kept on float charge. In
reality, this practice will encourage corrosion in the electrodes and result in premature
failure. Starting batteries should be kept open-circuit but charged regularly (at least once
every two weeks) to prevent sulfating.
Deep cycle batteries
Specially designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling,
and are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as
photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles (forklift, golf cart, electric cars and other) and
uninterruptible power supplies. These batteries have thicker plates that can deliver less
peak current, but can withstand frequent discharging.[3] Marine/Motor home batteries,
sometimes called "leisure batteries", are something of a compromise between the two, able
to be discharged to a greater degree than automotive batteries, but less so than deep cycle
batteries.

Fast and slow charge and discharge

The capacity of a lead-acid battery is not a fixed quantity but varies according to how
quickly it is discharged. An empirical relationship exists between discharge rate and
capacity, known as Peukert's law. When a battery is charged or discharged, this initially
affects only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface between the electrodes and
the electrolyte. With time, these chemicals at the interface, which we will call an "interface
charge", spread by diffusion throughout the volume of the active material. If a battery has
been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a
fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it develops only a
charge near the interface. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume
of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an interface charge so low that it may be
insufficient to start the car. On the other hand, if the battery is given a slow charge, which
takes longer, then the battery will become more fully charged, since then the interface
charge has time to redistribute to the volume of the electrodes and electrolyte, and yet is
replenished by the charger.
Similarly, if a battery is subject to a fast discharge (such as starting a car, which is a draw of
some 200 amps) for a few minutes, it will appear to go dead. Most likely it has only lost its
interface charge; after a wait of a few minutes it should appear to be operative. On the
other hand, if a battery is subject to a slow discharge (such as leaving the car lights on,
which is a draw of only 6 amps), then when the battery appears to be dead it likely has been
completely discharged.

The fully charged lead-acid cell has an open circuit voltage of approximately 2.10 V, which
varies as a function of cell specific gravity and temperature. Open circuit voltage increases
with specific gravity and decreases with temperature, and may range from 2.06 to 2.15
V/cell. Float voltages range from 2.15 to 2.40 V/cell, depending on their individual cell
designs, temperature, and manufacturer recommendations.

Design
Lead-acid battery designs are available for the following three standby applications:
1) Long duration (i.e., telecommunications or low rate) batteries are designed for
applications in which the standby loads are relatively small and the battery is required to
supply these loads for a minimum of 3 h. Long duration batteries are characterized by
thicker plates and lower specific gravity electrolytes. The typical discharge duration
is 8 h.

2) General purpose (i.e., switchgear and control) batteries are similar to the long duration
battery, but have additional design features to improve conductivity. In UPS applications,
this design is best suited for discharge times of 1h to 3 h.

3) Short duration (i.e., UPS or high rate) batteries are designed to supply large amounts of
power for a relatively short period of time. Short duration batteries are typically
characterized by thinner plates and higher specific gravity electrolytes. These batteries are
best suited for applications requiring reserve times of 1 h or less. The typical discharge time
is 15 min.

Valve regulated lead acid batteries

VRLA stands for valve regulated lead-acid and is the designation for low maintenance lead-
acid batteries, also called recombinant batteries. VRLA batteries are commonly further
classified as:
Absorbent glass mat battery
Gel battery
These batteries are often colloquially called sealed lead-acid batteries, but this term is
misleading: a sealed battery would be a safety hazard due to overpressure risks when
overcharging, and there is always a safety valve present, hence the name valve-regulated.
Sealed is opposed to vented (also called flooded). Because VRLA batteries use much less
electrolyte (battery acid) than traditional lead-acid batteries, they are also occasionally
referred to as an "acid-starved" design. The name "valve regulated" does not wholly
describe the technology; these are really
"recombinant" batteries, which means that the oxygen evolved at the positive plates will
largely recombine with the hydrogen ready to evolve on the negative plates, creating water
thus preventing water loss. The valve is strictly a safety feature in case the rate of
hydrogen evolution becomes dangerously high. One result of this design is a much higher
ratio of power to "floor space" than large, flooded type battery systems;[citation needed]
another is a high-rate power capacity, though of relatively short duration.[citation needed]
As a result, VRLA batteries are
frequently employed in UPS (uninterruptible power supply) or other high-rate applications.
Long duration applications such as telecommunications are not as well-suited to VRLA
batteries, as there are other, more applicable battery designs available.

Comparison with flooded lead-acid cells compared with flooded lead-acid cells, VRLA
batteries offer several advantages. The battery can be mounted in any position, since the
valves only operate on over pressure faults. Since the battery system is designed to be
recombinant and eliminate the emission of gases on overcharge, room ventilation
requirements are reduced and no acid fume is emitted during normal operation. The volume
of free electrolyte that could be released on damage to the case or venting is very small.
There is no need (nor possibility) to check the level of electrolyte or to top up water lost due
to electrolysis, reducing inspection and maintenance.

Absorbent glass mat (AGM) absorbent glass mat (AGM) is a class of VRLA battery in which
the electrolyte is absorbed into a mat of fine glass fibers. The plates in an AGM battery may
be flat like a wet cell lead-acid battery in a rectangular case. In cylindrical AGMs, the plates
are thin and wound, like most consumer disposable and rechargeable cells, into spirals so
they are also sometimes referred to as spiral wound. Their unique (for lead acid
chemistries) construction also allows for the lead in their plates to be purer as they no
longer need to support their own weight as in traditional cells. Their internal resistance is
lower than traditional cells due to plate proximity and the pure lead plates have lower
resistivity, they handle higher temperatures better, and self discharge more slowly.
Their specific power is very good and they can be charged and discharged quite rapidly,
however their specific energy tends to be lower than traditional flooded batteries. They are
often used in high performance electric vehicles due to their high power density. In high
grade and military spec AGMs the plates are thin and hand wrapped in envelopes to
discourage short circuiting due to vibration.

Gel battery
A gel battery (also known as a "gel cell") is a VRLA battery with a gelified electrolyte; the
sulfuric acid is mixed with a silica fume, which makes the resulting mass gel-like and
immobile. Unlike a traditional wet-cell lead-acid battery, these batteries do not need to be
kept upright (though they cannot be charged inverted). In addition, gel batteries virtually
eliminate the electrolyte evaporation, spillage (and subsequent corrosion issues) common to
the wet-cell battery, and boast greater resistance to extreme temperatures, shock, and
vibration. These batteries are often colloquially referred to as sealed lead-acid (SLA)
batteries due to their non-leaking containers, but they are not completely sealed; the valve
regulation system allows for gas to be expelled. Chemically they are the same as wet (non-
sealed) batteries except that the antimony in the lead plates is replaced by calcium. This
preserves the mechanical characteristics but renders the construction far less prone to
gassing. The battery type is often referred to as a lead-calcium battery.

Applications
Many modern motorcycles on the market utilize AGM or factory-sealed AGM batteries for the
combined benefits of reduced likelihood of acid-spilling during accidents, and for packaging
reasons (lighter, smaller battery to do the same job; the battery can be installed at an odd
angle if needed for the design of the motorcycle). Due to the higher manufacturing costs
compared with flooded lead acid batteries, AGM technology is currently being used on
premium vehicles. As vehicles become heavier and equipped with greater electronic devices
such as navigation, stability control, and premium stereos, AGM batteries are being
employed to lower vehicle weight and provide better electrical reliability compared with
flooded lead acid batteries.
Exploding batteries
Excessive charging of a lead-acid battery will cause emission of hydrogen and oxygen from
each cell, as some of the water of the electrolyte is broken down by electrolysis. This
process is known as "gassing". Wet cells have open vents to release any gas produced, and
VRLA batteries rely on valves fitted to each cell. Wet cells may be equipped with catalytic
caps to recombine any emitted hydrogen. A VRLA cell will normally recombine any hydrogen
and oxygen produced into water inside the cell, but malfunction or overheating may cause
gas to build up. If this
happens (e.g. by overcharging the cell) the valve is designed to vent the gas and thereby
normalize the pressure, resulting in a characteristic acid smell around the battery. Valves
can sometimes fail however, if dirt and debris accumulate in the device, so pressure can
build up inside the affected cell. If the accumulated hydrogen and oxygen within either a
VRLA or wet cell is ignited, an explosion is produced. The force is sufficient to burst the
plastic casing or blow the top off the battery, and can injure anyone in the vicinity and spray
acid and casing shrapnel to the immediate environment; an explosion in one cell may also
set off the combustible gas mixture in remaining cells of the battery. VRLA batteries usually
show swelling in the cell walls when the internal pressure
rises. The deformation of the walls varies from cell to cell, and is greater at the ends where
the walls are unsupported by other cells. Such over-pressurized batteries should be isolated
and discarded, taking great care using protective personal equipment (goggles, overalls,
gloves, etc.) during the handling.

2. Nickel-cadmium battery
The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd is a type of rechargeable battery
using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes.

Applications
Sealed NiCd cells may be used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two
or more cells. Small NiCd dry cells are used for portable electronics and toys, often using
cells manufactured in the same sizes as primary cells. When NiCds are substituted for
primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and smaller ampere-hour capacity may reduce
performance as compared to primary cells. Specialty NiCd batteries have a niche market in
the area of cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting, model airplanes, as well
as power tools. With a relatively low internal resistance, a NiCd battery can supply high
surge currents. This makes them a favorable choice for remote-controlled electric model
aero planes, boats, and cars, as well as cordless power tools and camera flash units. Larger
flooded cells are used for aircraft starting batteries, electric vehicles, and standby power.
Voltage Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2V. This is lower than the
1.5V of many popular primary cells, and consequently they are not appropriate as a
replacement in all applications. Unlike common primary cells, a NiCd cell's terminal voltage
only changes a little as it discharges. Many electronic devices are designed to work with
primary cells that may discharge to as low as 0.90 to 1.0V per cell, the relatively steady
1.2V of a NiCd is enough to allow operation. Some would consider the near-constant voltage
a drawback as it makes it difficult to detect when the battery charge is low.

Advantages
When compared to other forms of rechargeable battery, the NiCd battery has a number of
distinct advantages.
The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries, tolerating deep discharge
for long periods. In fact, NiCd batteries in long-term storage are typically stored fully
discharged. This is in contrast, for example, to lithium ion batteries, which are highly volatile
and will be permanently damaged if discharged below a minimum voltage. In addition, NiCd
batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of charge/discharge cycles, than other
rechargeable batteries, and have faster charge and discharge rates than lead-acid batteries,
with minimal loss of capacity even at high discharge rates.
The most common alternative to NiCd batteries are lead-acid batteries. Compared to these,
NiCd batteries have a much higher energy density. This means that, for a given battery
capacity, a NiCd battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead-acid battery. In cases
where size and weight are important considerations (for example, some transportation
applications), NiCd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead-acid batteries.
In consumer applications, NiCd batteries compete directly with alkaline batteries. A NiCd cell
has a lower capacity than that of an equivalent alkaline cell, and costs slightly more.
However, since the alkaline batteries chemical reaction is typically not reversible, a reusable
NiCd battery has a significantly longer total lifetime. There have been attempts to create
rechargeable alkaline batteries, such as the rechargeable alkaline or specialized battery
chargers for charging single-use alkaline batteries, but none that has seen wide usage. In
addition, a NiCd battery maintains a constant voltage as it discharges. An alkaline batteries
voltage drops as the charge drops, most consumer applications are well equipped to deal
with the slightly lower NiCd voltage with no noticeable loss of performance.

Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries are the newest, and most similar, competitor to NiCd
batteries. Compared to NiCd, NiMH batteries have a higher capacity and are less toxic, and
are now more cost effective. However, a NiCd battery has a lower self-discharge rate (for
example, 20% per month for a NiCd, versus 30% per month for a traditional NiMH under
identical conditions), although low self-discharge NiMH batteries are now available which
have substantially lower self-discharge than either NiCd or traditional NiMH. This results in a
preference for NiCd
over NiMH in applications where the current draw on the battery is lower than the battery's
own self-discharge rate (for example, television remote controls). In both Charging NiCd
batteries can charge at several different rates, depending on how the cell was
manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp-
hour capacity the battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge.
Regardless of the charge speed, more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual
capacity, to account for energy loss during charging, with faster charges being more
efficient. For example, the typical overnight charge, called a C/10 charge, is accomplished
by applying 10% of the battery's total capacity for a period of 14 hours; that is, a 100 mAh
battery takes 140 mAh of energy to charge at this rate. At the fast-charge rate, done at
100% of the rated capacity, the battery holds roughly 80% of the charge, so a 100 mAh
battery takes 120 mAh of energy to charge (that is,
approximately 1 hour and fifteen minutes). The downside to faster charging is the higher
risk of overcharging, which can damage the battery. The safe temperature range for a NiCd
battery in use is between 20C and 45C. During charging, the battery temperature
typically stays low, around 0C (the charging reaction absorbs heat), but as the battery
nears full charge the temperature will rise to 45-50C. Some battery chargers detect this
temperature increase to cut off charging and prevent over-charging. When not under load or
charge, a NiCd battery will self-discharge approximately 10% per month at 20C, ranging up
to 20% per month at higher temperatures. It is possible to perform a trickle charge at
current levels just high enough to offset this discharge rate; to keep a battery fully charged.
However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time, it should be
discharged down to at most 40% of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully
discharging and even short-circuiting once fully discharged), and stored in a cool, dry
environment.

Charge condition
High quality NiCds has a thermal cut-off so if the battery gets too hot the charger stops. If a
NiCd is still warm from discharging and been put on charge, it will not get the full charge
possible. In that case, let the battery cool to room temperature, then charge. Watch for the
correct polarity. Leave charger in a cool place when charging to
get best results.

Charging method
A NiCd battery requires a charger with a slightly different voltage charge level than a lead-
acid battery, especially if the NiCd has 11 or 12 cells. In addition, the charger requires a
more intelligent charge termination method if a fast charger is used. Often NiCd battery
packs have a thermal cut-off inside that feeds back to the charger telling it to stop the
charging once the battery has heated up and/or a voltage peaking sensing circuit. At room
temperature during normal charge conditions the cell voltage increases from an initial 1.2V
to an end-point of about 1.45V. The rate of rise increases markedly as the cell approaches
full charge. The end-point voltage decreases slightly with increasing temperature.

Electrochemistry
A fully charged NiCd cell contains:
Nickel (III) oxide-hydroxide positive electrode plate.
Cadmium negative electrode plate a separator.
And an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). NiCd batteries usually have a metal
case with a sealing plate equipped with a self-sealing safety valve. The positive and
negative electrode plates, isolated from each other by the separator, are rolled in a spiral
shape inside the case. The chemical reactions in a NiCd battery during discharge are:
During recharge, the reactions go from right to left. The alkaline electrolyte (commonly KOH)
is not consumed in this reaction and therefore its Specific Gravity, unlike in lead-acid
batteries, is not a guide to its state of charge.
When Jungner built the first NiCD batteries, he used nickel oxide in the cathode, and iron
and cadmium materials in the anode. It was not until pure cadmium metal and nickel
hydroxide was used. Until about 1960, the reaction in nickel-cadmium batteries was not
completely understood. There were several speculations as to the reaction products. The
debate was finally resolved by spectrometry, which revealed cadmium hydroxide and nickel
hydroxide. Another historically important variation on the basic nickel-cadmium cell is the
addition of lithium hydroxide to the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This was believed to
prolong the service life by making the cell more resistant to electrical abuse. The nickel-
cadmium battery in its modern form is extremely resistant to electrical abuse anyway, so
this practice has been discontinued.

Problems with NiCd

Overcharging
Overcharging must be considered in the design of most rechargeable batteries. In the case
of NiCds, there are two possible results of overcharging:
If the negative electrode is overcharged, hydrogen gas is produced.
If the positive electrode is overcharged, oxygen gas is produced.

For this reason, the anode (negative) is always designed for a higher capacity than the
cathode, to avoid releasing hydrogen gas. There is still the problem of eliminating oxygen
gas, to avoid rupture of the cell casing. NiCd cells are vented, with seals that fail at high
internal gas pressures. The sealing mechanism must allow gas to escape
from inside the cell, and seal again properly when the gas is expelled. This complex
mechanism, unnecessary in alkaline batteries, contributes to their higher cost. NiCd cells
dealt with in this article are of the sealed type (see also vented type). Cells of this type
consist of a pressure vessel that is supposed to contain any generation of
oxygen and hydrogen gasses until they can recombine back to water. Such generation
typically occurs during rapid charge and discharge and exceedingly at overcharge condition.
If the pressure exceeds the limit of the safety valve, water in the form of gas is lost. Since
the vessel is designed to contain an exact amount of electrolyte this loss will rapidly affect
the capacity of the cell and its ability to receive and deliver current. To detect all conditions
of overcharge demands great sophistication from the charging circuit and a cheap charger
will eventually damage
even the best quality cells.
Cell reversal
Another potential problem is reverse charging. This can occur due to an error by the user, or
more commonly, when a battery of several cells is fully discharged. Because there is a slight
variation in the capacity of cells in a battery, one of the cells will usually be fully discharged
before the others, at which point reverse charging begins
seriously damaging that cell, reducing battery life. The by-product of reverse charging is
hydrogen gas, which can be dangerous. Some commentators advise that one should never
discharge multi-cell nickel-cadmium batteries to zero voltage; for example, torches
(BrE)/flashlights (AmE) should be turned off when they are yellow; before they go out
completely.

A common form of this deprecation occurs when cells connected in series develop unequal
voltages and discharge near zero voltage. The first cell that reaches zero is pushed beyond
to negative voltage and gasses generated open the seal and dry the cell. In modern cells,
an excess of anti-polar material (basically active material ballast at
positive electrode) is inserted to allow for moderate negative charge without damage to the
cell. This excess material slows down the start of oxygen generation at the negative plate.
This means a cell can survive a negative voltage of about -0.2 to -0.4 volts. However if
discharge is continued even further, this excess ballast is used up
and both electrodes change polarity, causing destructive gassing (gas generation). Battery
packs with multiple cells in series should be operated well above 1 volt per cell to avoid
placing the lowest capacity cell in danger of going negative. Battery packs that can be
disassembled into cells should be periodically zeroed and charged
individually to equalize the voltages. However, this does not help if old and new cells are
mixed, since their different capacities will result in different discharge times and voltages.

Memory and lazy battery effects

Main article: Memory effect NiCd batteries suffer from a "memory effect" if they are
discharged and recharged to
the same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery
"remembers" the point in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent
use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged.
The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced substantially. Some electronics designed
to be powered by NiCds are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the
voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period
of decreased voltage, the device will be unable to get as much energy out of the battery,
and for all practical purposes, the
battery has a reduced capacity. There is controversy about whether the memory effect
actually exists, or whether it is as serious a problem as is sometimes believed. Some critics
claim it is used to promote competing NiMH batteries, which apparently do not suffer from
it. Many NiCd battery manufacturers either deny the effect exists or are silent on the matter.
There is much evidence that the memory effect story originated from orbiting satellites,
where they were typically charging for twelve hours out of twenty-four for several years.
After this time, it was found that the capacities of the batteries had declined significantly,
but were still perfectly fit for use. It is unlikely that this precise repetitive charging (e.g.,
1000 charges / discharges with less than 2% variability) could ever be reproduced by
consumers using electrical goods. An effect with similar symptoms to the memory effect is
the so-called voltage depression or lazy battery effect. (Some people use this term as a
synonym for "memory effect".) This results from repeated overcharging; the symptom is
that the battery appears to be fully charged but discharges quickly after only a brief period
of operation. Larger cells may benefit from refilling with distilled water, or a complete
electrolyte replacement. In rare cases, much of the lost capacity can be recovered by a few
deep-discharge cycles, a function often provided by automatic NiCd battery chargers.
However, this process may reduce the shelf life of the battery. If treated well, a NiCd battery
can last for 1000 cycles or more before its capacity drops below half its original capacity.

BATTERY CHARGING
Two principal methods of battery charging are used:-Constant-potential charging and
Constant-current charging.
Many variants of these methods exist, such as the float charge regimen and the shallow
charge regimen, which are modifications of the constant-potential method. Also, many
methods of control of the charging process exist. These include charging for a particular
time to a particular end-voltage, charging to a particular end-current,
charging controlled by electrolyte temperature, and charging controlled by the internal
pressure of the battery (in the case of sealed batteries). Another proposal, which has been
tried out for charge control of sealed nickel-cadmium cells, is to incorporate an oxygen-
consuming auxiliary electrode in the cell to consume oxygen gas as it is
evolved towards the end of charge and on overcharge and thus prevent the build-up of
excessive internal gas pressure. This, however, needs extensive modifications of the cell
structure and consequently is expensive and increases the overall cost. When choosing a
charger, it is necessary to consider the type of battery, the way in
which the battery will be discharged, the time available for charge, the temperature
extremes the battery will experience, and the number of cells in the battery (output
voltage). It is important to consult the battery manufacturer at the time of purchase to
determine the appropriate charging method. In general, lead-acid batteries may be
recharged at any rate that does not produce excessive gassing, overcharge, or high
temperatures. Discharged batteries may be recharged at a high current initially. However,
once the battery approaches its full charge the current must be decreased to reduce
gassing and excessive overcharging. A wide variety of schemes exist for charging lead-acid
batteries.

Constant-Voltage Charging: - Constant-voltage (often called constant-potential) chargers

maintain nearly the same voltage input to the battery throughout the charging process,
regardless of the battery's state of charge. Constant-voltage chargers provide a high initial
current to the battery because of the greater potential difference between the battery and
charger. A constant-voltage charger may return as much as 70% of the previous discharge
in the first 30 minutes. This proves useful in many battery applications involving multiple
discharge scenarios. As the battery charges its voltage increases quickly. This reduces the
potential that has been driving the current, with a corresponding rapid decrease in charge
current. As a result, even though the battery reaches partial charge quickly, obtaining a full
charge requires prolonged charging. Given this behavior, constant-voltage chargers are
frequently found in applications that normally allow extended charging periods to attain full
charge. Constant-voltage chargers should not be used where there is frequent cycling of the
battery. Repeated discharges without returning the cell to its full charge will eventually
decrease the battery capacity and may damage individual cells. Constant-voltage chargers
are most often used in two very different modes: as a fast charger to restore a high
percentage of charge in a short time or as a float charger to minimize the effects of
overcharge on batteries having infrequent discharges.

Float Charging: Float charging is most commonly used for backup and emergency power
applications where the discharge of the battery is infrequent. During float charging the
charger, battery, and load are connected in parallel. The charger operates off the normal
power supply which provides current to the load during operation. In the event of normal
power supply failure, the battery provides backup power until the normal power supply is
restored. Since most equipment requires alternating current, a rectifier circuit is usually
added between the battery and the load. Float chargers are typically constant-voltage
chargers that operate at a low voltage. Operating the charger at a low voltage, usually less
than about 2.4 V per cell, keeps the charging current low and thus minimizes the damaging
effects of high-current overcharging. For valve-regulated batteries, an important
consideration when float charging is the possible occurrence of phenomena called "thermal
runaway". The best way of preventing thermal runaway is through the use of a temperature-
compensated battery charger. A temperature-compensated charger adjusts the float
voltage based upon battery temperature. Temperature-compensated chargers will increase
the reliability and prolong the life of the battery/charger system. They are
especially useful for batteries located in areas where temperatures may be significantly
above ambient conditions.

Constant-Current Charging: - Constant-current charging simply means that the charger

supplies a relatively uniform current, regardless of the battery state of charge or
temperature. Constant-current charging helps eliminate imbalances of cells and batteries
connected in series. Single-rate, constant-current chargers are most appropriate for cyclic
operation where a battery is often required to obtain a full charge overnight. At these high
rates of charge there will be some venting of gases. Positive grid oxidation will occur at
elevated temperatures or extended overcharge times. Normally the user of a cyclic
application is instructed to remove the battery from a single-rate, constant-current charger
within a period of time that permits full charge yet prevents excessive grid oxidation.
Another type of constant-current charger is the split-rate charger. A split-rate charger
applies a high initial current to the cell and then switches to a low rate based on time of
charge, voltage, or both. The choice of switching method and switch point may be affected
by the relative priority of minimizing venting (early switching) versus maintaining good cell
balance (later switching). In some split- rate chargers, the charger will alternate between
the
high and low rate as the battery approaches full charge. Split-rate chargers are useful when
the discharge cannot be classified as float or cyclic, but lies somewhere between the two
applications.

Trickle Charging: - A trickle charge is a continuous constant-current charge at a low (about

C/100) rate which is used to maintain the battery in a fully charged condition. Trickle
charging is used to recharge a battery for losses from self-discharge as well as to restore the
energy discharged during intermittent use of the battery. This method is typically used for
SLI and similar type batteries when the battery is removed from the vehicle or its regular
source of charging. Trickle charging is also used widely for portable tools and equipment
such as flashlights and battery powered screwdrivers. Avoiding Over discharge In order to
obtain maximum life from lead-acid
batteries, they should be disconnected from the load once they have discharged their full
capacity. The cutoff voltage of a lead-acid cell is usually around 1.75 V. However, the cutoff
voltage is very sensitive to operating temperature and discharge rate. Like batteries
discharged at a high rate will have a lower cutoff voltage than those discharged at a low
rate. Greater capacities are obtained at higher temperatures and low discharge rates. The
manufacturer should specify cutoff voltages for various operating temperatures and
discharge rates. The difference between a float charger and a trickle charger is that the float
has circuitry to prevent overcharging. It senses when the battery voltage is at the maximum
level and temporarily shuts off the charge (floats voltage at zero or a very minimal charge
until it senses that the battery output voltage has fallen, and then resumes charging). You
can keep it connected indefinitely. A trickle charger, on the other hand, will charge no
matter whether the battery is fully charged or not. So it needs to be connected and
disconnected periodically. If left in place too long it'll eventually boil the electrolyte out of
the cells or damage the plates. Trickle chargers will work to keep the battery charged if used
once a month or so for a day or 2, but the float chargers can be left connected indefinitely
without potential harm to the battery.

CHARGING LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

Constant potential charging, with current limiting, is usually recommended for sealed lead-
acid cells. Due to the sloping volt age profile of a lead-acid battery, the voltage of the
battery is a reliable indicator of its state of charge. Current limiting may be accomplished
through the use of a current-limiting resistor. One manufacturer uses a miniature light bulb
as a current-limiting resistor. The brightness of the bulb will provide a visual indication of the
state of charge of the battery. In modern practice, however, current limiting is accomplished
with integrated circuits.

CHARGING NI-CD BATTERIES

During their recharge cycle, nickel-cadmium batteries react in a manner different from other
batteries. Nickel-cadmium batteries will actually absorb heat during the first 25% of the
charge cycle (as opposed to most secondary batteries, which generate heat all through their
recharge cycle). Beyond that first quarter of the charge cycle, a Ni-Cd battery will generate
heat. If constant current is applied past the point when the battery reaches approximately
85% of its fully charged state, the excess heat will cause thermal runaway to occur. Under
thermal runaway conditions, the excess heat in the battery will cause its voltage to drop.
The drop in voltage will cause the charge rate to increase (according to Ohms Law),
generating more heat and accelerating the cycle. The temperature and internal pressure of
the battery will continue to rise until permanent damage results. When using trickle or slow
chargers to charge Ni-Cd batteries, the heat build-up is minimal and is normally dissipated
by atmospheric convection before thermal runaway can occur. Most chargers supplied with,
or as a part of, rechargeable devices (sealed flashlights, mini vacuums, etc.) are slow
chargers. Quick or fast battery chargers, designed especially for Ni-Cd batteries, will usually
have a temperature sensor or a voltage sensor that can detect when the battery is nearing
thermal-runaway conditions. When near runaway conditions are indicated, the charger will
reduce or shut off the current entering the battery.

Defining loads

General considerations
The duty cycle imposed on the battery by any of the conditions described herein will depend
on the dc system design and the requirements of the installation. The battery must supply
the dc power requirements when the following conditions occur:
a) Load on the dc system exceeds the maximum output of the battery charger;
b) Output of the battery charger is interrupted;
c) AC power is lost [may result in a greater dc power demand than b) above].
The most severe of these conditions, in terms of battery load and duration, should be used
to determine the battery size for the installation.

Load classification
The individual dc loads supplied by the battery during the duty cycle may be classified as
continuous or non-continuous.
Non-continuous loads lasting 1 min or less are designated momentary loads and should
be given special consideration.

Continuous loads
Continuous loads are energized throughout the duty cycle. These loads are those normally
carried by the battery charger and those initiated at the inception of the duty cycle. Typical
continuous loads are as follows:
a) Lighting
b) Continuously operating motors
c) Converters (e.g., inverters)
d) Indicating lights
e) Continuously energized coils
f) Annunciator loads
g) Communication systems

Non-continuous loads
Non-continuous loads are energized only during a portion of the duty cycle. These loads
may come on at any time within the duty cycle and may be on for a set length of time, be
removed automatically or by operator action, or continue to the end of the duty cycle.
Typical non continuous loads are as follows:
a) Emergency pump motors
b) Critical ventilation system motors
c) Fire protection systems actuations
d) Motor-driven valve operations (stroke time > 1 min)

Momentary loads
Momentary loads can occur one or more times during the duty cycle but are of short
duration, not exceeding 1 min at any occurrence. Although momentary loads may exist for
only a fraction of a second, it is common practice to consider each load will last for a full
minute because the battery voltage drop after several seconds often determines the
batterys 1 min rating. When several momentary loads occur within the same 1 min period
and a discrete sequence cannot be established, the load for the 1 min period should be
assumed to be the sum of all momentary loads occurring within that minute. If a discrete
sequence can be established, the load for the period
should be assumed to be the maximum load at any instant. Sizing for a load lasting only a
fraction of a second, based on the batterys 1 min performance rating, results in a
conservatively sized battery. Consult the battery manufacturer for ratings of discharge
durations less than 1 min typical momentary loads are as follows:
a) Switchgear operations
b) Motor-driven valve operations (stroke time<1 min)
c) Isolating switch operations
d) Field flashing of generators
e) Motor starting currents
f) Inrush currents
When evaluating or justifying the size of an existing battery by means of a service test, the
momentary loads actual duration and sequence should be duplicated as accurately as
practical.

Other considerations
The above lists of typical loads are not a full catalog of the dc loads at any one installation.
Loads applied to the battery are normally typed as constant power, constant resistance, or
constant current. However, for sizing purposes, loads are treated as constant power or
constant current. The designer should review each system carefully to be sure all possible
loads and their variations are included.

Duty cycle diagram

A duty cycle diagram showing the total load at any time during the cycle is an aid in the
analysis of the duty cycle. To prepare such a diagram, all loads (expressed in either current
or power) expected during the cycle are tabulated along with their anticipated inception and
shutdown times. The total time span of the duty cycle is determined by the requirements of
the installation.

Defined loads
Loads whose inception and shutdown times are known are plotted on the diagram as they
would occur. If the inception (beginning) time is known, but the shutdown time is indefinite,
it should be assumed that the load will continue through the remainder of the duty cycle.

Random loads
Loads that occur at random should be shown at the most critical time of the duty cycle in
order to simulate the worst-case load on the battery. These may be non continuous or
momentary loads. To determine the most critical time, it is necessary to size the battery
without the random load(s) and to identify the section of the duty cycle that controls battery
size. Then the random load(s) should be superimposed on the end of that controlling section
as shown in Figure

L1 40 A for 3 h, continuous load;

L2 280 A for the 1st min, momentary load, actually 5 s starting current to load L3;
L3 60 A from the 1st min through the 120th min, non-continuous load;
L4 100 A from the 30th min through the 120th min, non-continuous load;
L5 80 A from the 30th min through the 60th min, non-continuous load;
L6 80 A for the last minute, momentary load, actually a known sequence of:
40 A for the first 5 s,
80 A for the next 10 s,
30 A for the next 20 s;
L7 100 A for 1 min, random load (Actually this consists of four 25 A momentary
loads that can occur at any time within the duty cycle. Therefore, the assumption is
that they all occur simultaneously) When the duty cycle includes constant power and
constant current loads it is usually more convenient to convert the constant power load
values to constant current values for sizing calculations .
Cell selection
This summarizes some factors that should be considered in selecting a cell design for a
particular application. Various cell designs have different charge, discharge, and aging
characteristics. Refer vendor literature for a discussion of cell characteristics. The following
factors should be considered in the selection of the cell.
a) Physical characteristics, such as dimensions and weight of the cells, container material,
intercell connectors, and terminals;
b) Planned life of the installation and expected life of the cell;
c) Frequency and depth of discharge;
d) Ambient temperature (Note that sustained high ambient temperatures result in reduced
battery life.
e) Charging characteristics;
f) Maintenance requirements;
g) Cell orientation requirements (VRLA);
h) Ventilation requirements (VRLA);
i) Seismic characteristics.

Temperature correction factor

The available capacity of a cell is affected by its operating temperature. The standard
temperature for rating cell capacity is 25 C (77 F). If the lowest expected electrolyte
temperature is below this standard temperature, select a cell large enough to have the
required capacity available at the lowest expected temperature. If the lowest
expected electrolyte temperature is above 25 C (77 F), it is a conservative practice to
select a cell size to match the required capacity at the standard temperature and to
recognize the resulting increase in available capacity as part of the overall design margin.
Vendor will lists cell size correction factors for various temperatures for vented lead acid
cells with nominal of 1.215 specific gravity.

Design margin
It is prudent to provide a capacity margin to allow for unforeseen additions to the dc system
and less-than optimum operating conditions of the battery due to improper maintenance,
recent discharge, or ambient temperatures lower than anticipated, or a combination of
these factors. A method of providing this design margin is to add 10-15% to the cell size
determined by calculations. If the various loads are expected to grow at different rates, it
may be more accurate to apply the expected growth rate to each load for a given time and
to develop a duty cycle from the results. The cell size calculated for a specific application
will seldom match a commercially
available cell exactly, and it is normal procedure to select the next higher capacity cell. The
additional capacity obtained can be considered part of the design margin.

Aging factor
As a rule, the performance of a lead-acid battery is relatively stable throughout most of its
life, but begins to decline with increasing rapidity in its latter stages, with the knee of its
life versus performance curve occurring at approximately 80% of its rated performance.
IEEE Std 450-1995 recommends that a battery be replaced when its actual performance
drops to 80% of its rated performance because there is little life to be gained by allowing
operation beyond this point. Therefore, to ensure that the battery is capable of meeting its
design loads throughout its service life, the batterys rated capacity should be at least 125%
(1.25 aging factor) of the load expected at the end of its service life. Exceptions to this rule
exist. For example, some manufacturers recommend that vented batteries with Plant
modified Plant and round plate designs be replaced when their measured capacity drops
below 100% of their rated capacity (1.00 aging factor). These designs maintain a fairly
constant capacity throughout their life.

Initial capacity
Batteries may have less than rated capacity when delivered. Unless 100% capacity upon
delivery is specified, initial capacity can be as low as 90% of rated capacity. This will rise to
rated capacity in normal service after several charge-discharge cycles or after several years
of float operation. If the designer has provided a 1.25 aging factor, there is no need for the
battery to have full rated capacity upon delivery because the capacity normally available
from a new battery will be above the duty cycle requirement. When a 1.00 aging factor is
used, the designer should ensure that the initial capacity upon delivery is at least 100%, or
that there is sufficient margin in the sizing calculation to accommodate a lower initial
capacity.
SIZING OF BATTERY AND BATTERY CHARGER
PROCEDURE
For battery backup time required, the customers design basis shall be referred. In the
absence of any specific customer requirements, the backup time can be considered as 1
hour. The battery sizing shall be done on the basis of the following loads.

a) Total continuous load

b) Total 1st minute load
c) Total 60th minute load

STEPS FOR BATTERY SIZING

Step-1 -Calculation of Total Continuous Load

The total continuous load is the summation of the loads mentioned below: -
a) Continuous load for HT Switch boards for indicating lamps shall
b) Continuous load for LT Switchboards (PCC)
c) Continuous load for MCCs, if applicable
d) DC Lighting loads
e) Other miscellaneous loads

a) Continuous load for HT Switchboards the following loads shall be calculated:-

i) Total VA load of indicating lamps
ii) Total auxiliary load in VA (This includes trip circuit supervision relay, protection relay,
timer, under voltage relay, auxiliary supply supervision relay.
i) Total VA load of the indicating lamps= (Total number of H.T. Breakers)
*(Number of the indicating lamps for each breaker) *(VA load for each indicating lamp) VA
load be obtained from manufacturers data. If no data is available, then the load per lamp
shall be assumed as 2 VA.
ii) Total auxiliary load= (Total number of H.T. Breakers) *(Auxiliary load of each breaker)

Auxiliary loads of each breaker can be assumed as 50 VA.

b) Continuous load for LT Switchboards (PCC)

Same procedure as mentioned for HT Switchboards shall be followed

c) Continuous load for MCCS

Same procedure as mentioned above for LT Switchboards shall be followed, if applicable

d) DC Lighting load
The wattage of all the lamps operating on DC shall be added to obtain the total DC lighting
load.

e) Other miscellaneous load

The wattage of all other miscellaneous load operating on DC shall be added to obtain the
total miscellaneous load.

Step-2 Calculation of Total 1st Minute Load the total 1st minute load is the summation of the
following loads:-
a) 1st minute load for HT Switchboards
b) 1st minute load for LT Switchboards
c) 1st minute load for MCCS
a) 1st minute load for HT Switchboards

The total 1st minute load is the summation of the following loads:-
i) Total VA loads of trip coils of all the breakers
ii) Total VA load of Lock out relay
iii) Total auxiliary load in VA
iv) Total continuous load
i) Total VA load of trip coils of all the breakers =(Number of breakers)*(VA load of trip
coil of each
individual breaker) VA load of trip coil shall be obtained from manufacturers data. In
the absence of any
Data, the load may be assumed as 250 VA.

ii)Total VA load of Lock out relay of the breakers= (Number of breakers) * (VA load of the
relay)VA load of lockout relay shall be obtained from manufacturers data. In the
absence of any data, the load may be taken as 150
VA. The number of breakers shall be 3 incoming and approximately 3outgoing feeders.

iii) Total auxiliary load i.e. VA, may include load for relay, for auxiliary relays, timers etc.
Total auxiliary load = Total number of breakers * auxiliary load for each breaker feeder.
Auxiliary load of each breaker feeder can be taken as 15 VA.

iv) Total Continuous load is obtained in Step-1 above.

b) 1st minute load for LT Switch boards (PCC) Same procedure as mentioned above for HT
Switchboards shall be followed.
c) 1st minute load for MCCs the procedure is the same as mentioned above for LT
Switchboards, if applicable.

Step-3 - Calculation of Total 60th Minute Load

The total 60th minute load is the summation of the following loads:-
i) Total 60th minute load for HT switchboards
ii) Total 60th minute load for LT switchboards (PCC)
iii) Total 60th minute load for MCCs.
iv) Total 60th minute load for HT switchboards

The total 60th minute load is the summation of the following loads:-
a) Total VA loads of closing coils of the number of breakers which will close at a time.
b) Total VA load of Spring Charging motors of all the breakers, if DC operated
c) Total continuous load.
a) Total VA loads of closing coils = (Number of breakers which will close at a time)
*(VA load of closing coil of each individual breaker)
Number of breakers which will close at a time will depend on the operating philosophy of the
plant (2 Incomer, 1 Bus coupler, & 2 to 4 Outgoing feeders). The VA load of closing coils
of each individual breaker will be obtained from manufacturers data.
b) Total VA load of the Spring Charging Motors =(Number of breakers)
*(VA load of spring charging motor of each individual breaker)
The VA load of spring charging motor of each individual breaker shall be obtained from
manufacturers data.

c) Total Continuous load is obtained in Step 3.1 above.

ii) Total 60th minute load for LT Switchboards (PCC)

Same procedure as mentioned above for HT Switchboard shall be followed. Total 60th
minute load for MCCs
The procedure is the same as mentioned above for LT Switchboards.

Step-4 -Calculation of Load Cycle Currents

Nominal DC Voltage = V
Considering 10 % voltage variation minimum DC voltage = 0.9 V N = Number of Cells.
Therefore,
End Cell Voltage = (Minimum DC Voltage) / (Number of Cells) = (0.9 V) /( N )

Calculation of total 1st minute load cycle current total 1st minute load (in VA) is obtained in
clause 3.2 above.
Total 1st minute load current = (Total 1st minute load in VA)/ (Minimum DC Voltage) = (Total
1st minute load in VA)/ (0.9 V)

Calculation of total Continuous load current

Total Continuous load (in VA) is obtained in clause 3.1 above.
Total continuous load current = (Total continuous load in VA ) / (Minimum DC Voltage )
=(Total continuous load in VA) / (0.9 V )

Calculation of 60th minute load cycle current

Total 60th minute load (in VA) is obtained in clause 3.3 above Total 60th minute load current
= (Total 60th minute load in VA) / (Minimum DC Voltage) = (Total 60th minute load in VA) /
(0.9 V)

Step-5 Calculation For Battery Sizing

The following factors are to be considered for battery sizing:
a) Performance factor
This factor is considered to estimate the performance of the battery at a discharge rate
other than the nominal rate. The performance factor is defined as the ratio of the amperes
that can be drawn from the battery fort minutes to the rated capacity (AH), for a particular
end cell voltage. Performance factor = Amperes (int minutes) / (Rated AH)

b) Temperature Correction Factor

This factor is considered to take care of the variations in performance of the battery at
different temperatures. While high temperature results in higher performance, lower than
nominal temperature (27C) lead to lower
performance due to sluggish chemical activities. The performance factor is divided by the
temperature correction factor to obtain the corrected performance factor.

c) Aging factor
The performance of a battery comes down with the time of usage. The battery reaches the
end of its useful life when it fails to deliver 80% of its rated capacity. In order to deliver its
rated capacity even at the end of the estimated life of the battery, a correction factor of
1.25 (= 1 / 0.8) is taken as aging factor. However, customers design basis shall also be
referred for any specific requirements regarding aging factor.

d) Spare capacity factor

A spare capacity factor shall be considered to take care of any future additional load.
Customers design basis shall be referred for any customer requirements regarding spare
capacity. In the absence of any specific customer requirements, a spare capacity factor of
1.2 (20% additional capacity) can be considered.

Calculation of Ampere Hour requirement for the first minute

i) Total time duration = 1 min
ii) The 1st minute load current is obtained from calculation in clause 3.4.1above
iii) The end cell voltage is obtained in clause 3.4 above.
iv) For the value of end cell voltage, the performance factor corresponding to the
value of load current shall be obtained from manufacturers data. Typically for an
end cell voltage of 1.14 volts per cell, corresponding to a load of 212A for 1 min,
the performance factor = 212 / 145 = 1.46

v) Let the minimum ambient temperature = t C. Corresponding to the minimum

ambient temperature, the temperature correction factor is obtained from
manufacturers data. Typically for a minimum ambient temperature of 10
C, the temperature correction factor is 1.11

vi) The performance factor is divided by the temperature correction factor to obtain
the corrected performance factor Corrected performance factor= (Performance
factor ) / (Temperature correction
 factor) here in our case, the corrected performance factor = 1.46 / 1.11 =
1.31
vii) Ampere Hour Opening Balance = 0
viii) Ampere Hour Capacity required for the 1st minute shall be calculated from the
formula mentioned below.
AH capacity required = (Load current) / (Corrected Performance Factor)
ix) Ampere Hour Capacity Drained shall be calculated from the formula mentioned
below: -
AH capacity drained = (Load Current) * (Time Duration in mins) / (60)
x) AH Balance = AH Required - AH Drained
xi) AH to be added = AH required - AH Opening Balance.

For the 1st minute, AH Opening Balance = 0

Therefore AH to be added = AH Required

Calculation of Ampere Hour Requirement from the first minute to the 60th minute
Total time duration = 58 min
AH Opening Balance = AH balance at the end of 1st minute obtained from calculation in
clause 3.5.1 x) above.

The value of end cell voltage is the same as obtained in clause 3.5.1above.
The load current drawn from the battery during this time duration is the total continuous
load current. The value of continuous load current is obtained from calculation in clause
3.4.2 above.
For the value of end cell voltage, the performance factor corresponding to the value of load
current shall be obtained from manufacturers data. For the determination of performance
factor, even through the actual time duration is 58 min, the time duration shall be
considered as 60 min. From the attached manufacturers data, for an end cell voltage of
1.14 Volts per cell, corresponding to load current of 129A for 60 min,
Performance factor = 129 / 285 = 0.45
The value of temperature correction factor is obtained in clause 3.5.1 x) above.
The performance factor is divided by the temperature correction factor obtain the corrected
performance factor.
In this case, corrected performance factor = 0.45 / 1.11 = 0.4
AH Capacity required shall be calculated from the formula mentioned in clause 3.5.1 viii)
above.
AH capacity drained shall be calculated from formula mentioned in clause 3.5.1 ix) above.
AH Balance = AH required - AH drained.
AH to be added = AH required - AH opening Balance.
AH opening balance is already obtained in 3.5.2 ii) above.2.5.3. Calculation of Ampere Hour
Requirement for the 60th minute
Total time duration = 1 min AH Opening Balance = AH Balance at the end of 58th minute as
obtained from calculation in clause 3.5.2 x) above. The value of end cell voltage is same as
obtained in clause 3.5.1 above.
The value of current drawn from the battery during this period is obtained in clause 3.4.3
above.
The value of performance factor shall be obtained by the method shown in clause 3.5.2 v)
above.
The value of temperature correction factor is already obtained in clause3.5.1 v) above.
The value of corrected performance factor is obtained by the method shown in clause
3.5.2vii) above.
AH capacity required shall be calculated from the formula mentioned in clause 3.5.1 viii)
above.
AH capacity drained shall be calculated from formula mentioned in clause 3.5.1 ix) above.
AH Balance = AH required - AH drained
AH to be added = AH required - AH Opening Balance. AH Opening Balance is already
obtained in clause 3.5.3 ii) above.

Calculation of Battery AH capacity

Minimum AH capacity required = (AH to be added for 1st minute) + (AH to be added from
1st minute to 60th minute) + (AH to be added for 60th minute)

Aging Factor = 1.25 or as specified in customers design basis

Spare Capacity Factor = 1.2 or as specified in customers design basis
Hence battery AH capacity required = (Minimum AH Capacity) * (Aging factor) * (Spare
Capacity Factor)
The nearest battery AH capacity as per manufacturers rating shall be selected. For
example, if the calculated value of AH Capacity is 645 AH & the nearest rating as per
manufacturer is 690 AH, then 690 AH shall be selected.

STEPS FOR BATTERY CHARGER SIZING

The customers design basis shall be referred for any customer requirements regarding
battery charger sizing. In the absence of any specific customer requirements, the method
mentioned below shall be followed: -

Sizing of Boost Charger

Battery Boost Charger Current Rating = 1.15 * 0.14 * AH rating of battery
AH capacity of battery is obtained from calculation in clause 3.5.4 above.

Sizing of Float Charger

Battery Float Charger Current Rating = 1.15 * Average DC load+ float charge current
Average DC load = (Area under the battery duty cycle curve) / (Battery duty cycle duration)

In this case,
Average DC load = (1 / 60) * {(Total 1st minute load current) * 1 + (Total continuous load
current) * 58
+ (Total 60th minute load current) * 1}
Float charger Current = (Float Charge factor) * (Battery AH Capacity)
The value of float charge factor shall be obtained from battery charger manufacturer.
However, for preliminary battery charger sizing calculation it can be assumed as 0.01 (1 %
max) batteries AH capacity.
However, the same shall be checked & confirmed with charger manufacture.

Selection of Battery Charger Current Rating

The battery charger current rating shall be selected based on Boost charge current or float
charge current, whichever is higher. A spare capacity factor, on the basis of customer design
basis, shall be considered for future use. In the absence of any specific customer
requirements, a spare capacity factor of 1.25 (25 % spare capacity) can be considered.
Battery Charger rating = (Float charge current or Boost charge current whichever is
higher*(Spare capacity factor)

UNITERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS), also known as a battery back-up, provides

emergency power and, depending on the topology, line regulation as well to
connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility
power is not available. It differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or
standby generator, which does not provide instant protection from a momentary
power interruption. A UPS, however, can be used to provide uninterrupted power to
equipment, typically for 5-15 minutes until an auxiliary power supply can be turned
on, utility power restored, or
equipment safely shut down. While not limited to safeguarding any particular type
of equipment, a UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers,
telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected
power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data
loss. UPS units come in sizes ranging from units which will back up a single
computer without monitor (around 200 VA) to units which will power entire data
centers or buildings (several megawatts).
Types of UPS
1. STATIC UPS
2. DYNAMIC UPS

STATIC UPS
A static UPS is a solid-state system relying solely on battery power as an
emergency source. A static UPS consists of a rectifier, inverter, a static bypass
switch (SBS) and an energy storage device, i.e., one or more batteries. The inverter
in the static UPS also includes components for power conditioning. Modern static
UPS systems are constructed with ratings ranging from about 220 VA to over 1
MVA. Static UPSs ranging from 220 VA to 1 MVA are constructed without paralleling
internal components. UPS with output higher than 1 MVA are built with some
parallel internal components, which result in decreasing reliability. Figure shows a
simple static UPS. Design, installation, and maintenance requirements should
follow the latest version of applicable codes and standards from recognized
industry and commercial groups.

Static UPS systems are employed where a reliable high-quality power supply is
necessary for sensitive loads, Static UPS systems have a high efficiency, compact
dimensions, low maintenance requirements and are highly reliable. Available in
single or three phase input - single phase output, and three phase input - three
phase output typically from 350VA to 500KVA. Due to the modular construction of
static UPS units, additional capacity, or redundancy as a means of increasing
reliability can be achieved at relatively low costs. Under mains power interruption,
power supply is fed by the battery to the static inverter system to facilitate
continuous operation. Continuous operation implies that, with the mains supply
healthy, the power is supplied continuously to the load through the rectifier and
the inverter. In this mode of operation, the rectifier fulfills two functions:
Supply of power to the inverter;
Charging or float-charging of the battery.
The battery is used in the standby parallel mode - i.e. in normal operation it is in
the floating condition and on failure of the mains supply it supplies the inverter
without break and without any switching operation. To perform this function, it is
permanently connected to a D.C. link. The static bypass is a facility whereby the
frequency and voltage are the same at the input and the output terminals. It
converts the mains supply to the secure bus, with due regard to permissible
tolerances, if;
The inverter is overloaded;
Short circuits occur in the load circuit;
Excessive inrush currents are drawn by transformers downstream of the inverter;
 Switch-on peak currents occur;
The inverter fails.

RECTIFIER
Rectifier is a device which converts AC power into DC power.
Rectification- Rectification is the conversion of ac power to dc power. Rectification
is accomplished by using unidirectional devices such as SCRs or IGBTs. Rectifiers
can be built to convert single-phase or three-phase ac power to controlled or
uncontrolled dc power. In a controlled rectifier, the output dc voltage can be
continuously maintained at any desired level whereas in an uncontrolled rectifier
the output dc voltage (at no load) is a fixed ratio of the input ac voltage. Moreover,
the output dc voltage of an uncontrolled rectifier varies with the load level due to
voltage drops in the various circuit elements.
Generally, single-phase rectifiers may be used in ratings up to 5 kilowatt (kW)
whereas three-phase rectifiers are used in higher ratings. When controlled dc
voltage is required, SCRs are normally used.
SCR based 6 pulse phase controlled rectifiers. These are the lowest cost, have
severe waveform notching, high distortion (30%) at full load, even higher at light
load and are slow, 6 decisions per cycle. Filters are required to reduce distortion.
SCR based 12 pulse phase controlled rectifiers. These are low cost, have severe
waveform notching, lower but still high distortion (12%) at full load, higher at light
load and are slow, 12 decisions per cycle. Filters are required to reduce distortion
IGBT rectifiers. These are highest cost, no waveform notching, have low distortion
(3% at full load, 5% at 50% load), 30 to 100 decisions per cycle no filters required
Diode Bridge/IGBT rectifiers. These are hybrid design with high cost, no waveform
notching, low distortion (6% at full load, 9% at 50% load) (small filter is generally
included). Diode bridge portion just operates without decisions required and IGBT
portion operates at 30 to 100 decisions per cycle.
INVERTER
Inverter is a device which converts DC power into AC power.
Inversion inversion is the conversion of dc power to ac power. Inversion can be
accomplished using SCRs or IGBTs. In high power applications, IGBTs have been
used. Inverters for static UPS systems can be single-phase or three-phase. Single-
phase inverters are used in ratings up to approximately 75 kVA; at higher ratings
three-phase inverters are used Inverter voltage control. The common methods of
inverter output voltage control are pulse width control, PWM, and use of a
ferroresonant transformer. Any of these methods may be used for output voltage
control. In some designs a combination of pulse width control and modulation is
used. However, a ferroresonant transformer is never used in combination with
either of the other two methods. The pulse width control technique has become
less common than the PWM technique and the use of ferroresonant transformers.
Also, some manufacturers advocate the use of PWM while others favor the use of
ferroresonant transformers. Although each method may have some advantages
over the others, the voltage control method is normally not specified when
specifying UPS systems. Either type may be used provided it meets the
performance requirements.
6 step SCR similar to 6 pulse rectifiers, low cost, largest filter required.
12 step SCR similar to 12 pulse rectifier, low cost, still filtered
IGBT similar to, often identical to, IGBT rectifier, no filter required.
In the early 1980s most UPS were 12 pulse rectifiers and 12 step inverters. The
IGBT rectifiers with IGBT inverters have the following benefits, Rectifier speed
matches with inverter needs
Handles high step loading without using battery or bypass
Maximizes battery life as battery is not required to support inverter for harmonic
and step load needs
Eliminates transfers to bypass for step loading
Rectifier puts out low ripple which maximizes battery life
well suited for high performance in parallel UPS design
Only design that should be selected for isolated redundant designs

Use of a ferroresonant transformer

A ferroresonant transformer connected across the inverter's output can be used to
regulate the output voltage and reduce its harmonic content. The ferroresonant
transformer is basically a two-winding transformer with an additional small
secondary compensating winding and a series low pass filter connected across part
of the main secondary winding. The filter presents low impedance to the lower
order harmonics and reduces their amplitude in the output to a low acceptable
value. The compensating winding voltage is added to the secondary output voltage
180 out-of-phase thus maintaining the output voltage within a narrow regulation
band. However, with the use of a ferroresonant transformer, the output voltage is
not continuously adjustable as in the previous techniques

Three-phase inverters
Three-phase inverters are commonly made up of three single phase inverters
connected to the same dc supply. The secondaries of the three single phase
inverter output transformers are connected in wye configuration. To generate a
three-phase output, the firing signals for phase B inverter SCRs are delayed 120
from those of phase A inverter. Similarly the firing signals for phase C inverter SCRs
are delayed 120 from those of phase B inverter. The resulting phase-to-neutral
voltages for 180 pulses and the line-to line secondary voltages
EA-B = EA-N - EB-N
EB-C = EB-N - EC-N
EC-A = EC-N - EA-N
In this case as with the single-phase inverter, the output wave shape is a square
wave and means for conditioning the output to a sinusoidal waveform is required.
The three-phase inverter output voltage control can be accomplished by the same
techniques used for single-phase inverters. However, the use of ferroresonant
transformers is not feasible in many three-phase applications. This is due to the
fact that a slight load current unbalance can cause substantial phase shifts in the
ferroresonant transformers output voltages. With substantial voltage phase shift,
the three lines to neutral voltages may have the same magnitude but the line-to-
line voltages may be extremely unbalanced. However, PWM technique can also be
used as in the case of single-phase inverters.

UPS static switch

A static transfer switch, like an electromechanical transfer switch, is used to
transfer loads from one power source to another, manually or automatically.
However, unlike an electromechanical transfer switch, the static transfer switch
total transfer time is in the order of one fourth of a cycle which will provide power
to the loads without interruption. When an UPS equipment problem occurs, the
load is automatically transferred by the static switch bypass to an alternate power
source to prevent power interruption to the loads. The static switch is also useful in
clearing load faults downstream of the UPS. The static switch will transfer to the
alternate power source on a setting of 110 to 125 percent of rated load. Without
this feature, the inverter would be driven to current limit on a fault. The inverter
would not supply sufficient current to trip the breaker and would continue to feed
the fault causing a potential hazard. The transfer of the fault to the alternate power
source by the static switch allows full short circuit current to pass through, thus
tripping the circuit breaker. The static switch will then transfer back to the UPS for
normal operation. Because the circuit cannot differentiate between an inrush and a
fault current, it is common for the initial energization of a load to cause a
temporary transfer to the alternate source power. When the inverter logic drops
below a predetermined value, the bypass SCRs are gated-on by the static switch
logic board and the UPS bypass line will supply the load. Retransfer to the UPS
module can occur automatically when the logic senses that the UPS output
problem has been eliminated. The logic system circuitry maintains the inverter
output in synchronization with the UPS bypass power.

Introduction
The static transfer switch (STS) is an electrical device that allows instantaneous
transfer of power sources to the load. This superior switching time means that if
one power source fails, the STS switches to the back-up power source so quickly
that the load never recognizes the transfer made. The STS is classified as low
voltage STS (voltages up to 600V, current ratings from 200 amps to 4,000 amps)
and medium voltage STS (voltages from 4.16KV to 34.5KV).
Fast-acting STS's that can transfer between two power sources in four to 20
milliseconds are increasingly being applied to protect large loads and entire
facilities from short-duration power disturbances. These products use solid-state
power electronics or "static" switching as compared to electromechanical switches,
which are too slow for the application. Electromechanical switches are found in
automatic transfer switches (ATS) for transferring building loads to emergency or
stand-by generators.

The basic STS unit consists of three major parts:

Controls and metering
Silicon-controlled rectifiers
Breaker/bus assembly
The STS monitors two power sources and automatically shifts to the better one on
sensing the failure or degradation of either source. There is no wear and tear
associated with this process.

Low Voltage Static Transfer Switch (LV-STS)

ALV-STS can transfer at a low voltage (less than 600V) between two power sources
in four to 20 milliseconds. LV-STSs are applied to protect large loads and entire
facilities. LV-STS includes both static and hybrid types. LV-STS can be used as a
stand-alone system or in conjunction with power distribution units or
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). These low voltage switches are available in
voltages up to 600V in current ratings from 200 amps to 4,000 amps. LV-STS are
applied to the critical equipment or to groups of loads or at the service entrance of
a building. A LV-STS is often employed synergistically with UPSs. However, it also
competes with UPSs and other power quality equipment types for applications.
For example
Data centers typically isolate the critical load and may employ LV-STS with dual-
redundant UPSs as
the power sources
An industrial plant may choose to use LV-STS with dual-redundant UPS's as the
power sources
An industrial plant may choose to use LV-STS on isolated groups of critical
process equipment
The same industrial user may instead choose a facility-scale system (medium-
voltage STS, custom power, micro SMES, or BESS) to protect the entire plant,
particularly if the critical process cannot be easily isolated from other independent
manufacturing steps. Capital cost for LV-STS equipment is typically lower than it is
for a UPS, provided two independent power sources are available. From an
operating expense point of view, LV-STS has lower costs over continuously
operating UPSs because there is no large rectifier/inverter subsystem to power. LV-
STS takes less real estate than a UPS, and at least the transformer components of
LV-STS are capable of outdoor installation.

Some application areas where LV-STS are used:

Critical IT operations
Telecommunication
Network operations centers
Fiber optic nerve center
Process control
Data centers
Airport security system
Commercial buildings
Power generation plants
Utilities

The demand for LV-STS will depend on the growth in end-user application areas.
The data centers, telecommunication, airport security system, banks and financial
institutions, manufacturing and service industry among others will contribute to
the growth of the LVSTS market. Some of the major manufacturers of the LV-STS
include Liebert Corporation, Cyberex, MGE UPS, Socomec, Level 3 Communication
(Power Paragon), Piller, Inc., Chloride Power, GE Zenith, PDI, and Silicon Power
Corporation.
Medium Voltage Static Transfer Switch (MV-STS)
The MV-STS, which was introduced in the market in 1995, can transfer at a medium
voltage (4.16 kV to 34.5 kV) between two power sources in four milliseconds or
less. MVSTS and custom power products are applied at the substation or service
entrance of large facilities. The MV-STS is increasingly being applied to protect
large loads and entire facilities by rapidly transferring to a second power source
upon detection of a power disturbance on the primary supply. A typical application
of the MV-STS would be at the substation or service entrance of a large industrial
plant.
Some applications of the MV-STS are:
Automated manufacturing
Automotive assembly lines
Telecommunication centers
Computer networks
 E-commerce businesses
R&D labs
Commercial buildings
Power quality and industrial parks
Commercial printing machines
Internet data centers
Semiconductor industry
MV-STS have the design goal of protecting an entire building or facility from power
disturbances originating from utility feeders. Nationwide surveys have
demonstrated that the greatest number of power disturbances is the result of
faults on utility systems that are cleared in less than 10 seconds. Fast switching of
MV-STS to an alternate feeder will solve many of these problems especially if the
alternate feeder is on a different substation transformer. MV-STS is technically
unique in their ability to protect at the facility, campus, or wide-area level. The
demand for MV-STS will depend on the growth in end-user application areas. The
semiconductor automated manufacturing, car assemblers, telecommunication;
pharmaceuticals among others will contribute to the growth of the MV-STS market.
Some of the major manufacturers of the MV-STS include S&C Electric, Silicon Power

Corporation, SatCon Power Systems (Invert power Controls), ABB, and Cutler-
Hammer.

UPS static switch with circuit breaker (SS-CB) - A hybrid UPS system uses an
electromechanical switch in the inverter output with the reverse parallel SCRs
provided only in the UPS bypass line. With an UPS output malfunction, the UPS
bypass static switch will be turned on before the inverter output circuit breaker
automatically opens. This type of hybrid switching will need only a short-term
static switch current carrying (heat) rating and provides a normally reliable
configuration if there are no problems with the circuit breaker closing in the static
switch's 300 milliseconds (ms) rating. Figure 2-4 shows a SS-CB configuration
where circuit breaker SS-CB closes after the UPS bypass static switch closes. The
circuit breaker SSCB provides a bypass for the static switch and therefore allows for
the use of a short-term static switch current carrying (heat) rating. To prevent any
damage to the static switch the circuit breaker must be able to close within the
static switch's short time rating. There have been problems even though
manufacturers quote a 450,000-hour mean-time-before-failure, so this system
cannot be considered as reliable as a fully rated UPS bypass static switch. Hybrid
switching is used as a method of combining the merits of both a static switch and a
circuit breaker, that is, both speed and economy.

Maintenance by pass circuit breaker A bypass circuit breaker is provided to bypass

the complete UPS system when maintenance of the UPS system is required. The
UPS bypass line provides power continuity during UPS module malfunction periods.
If the malfunction is such as to require UPS maintenance, then the load must be
shifted to a maintenance bypass line. An explanation as to why such a transfer is
needed and the how such a transfer is configured is basic to comprehending UPS
maintenance procedures.

(a) Purpose of maintenance bypass switch. It is unsafe to work on an energized

UPS system. The complete system must be isolated from ac inputs, ac outputs, and
the dc link whenever maintenance requires that the cabinet doors be opened
and/or protective panels be removed. There are lethal voltages present in UPS
cabinetry, resulting from the ac power applied to the converter or the dc power
available from the battery. When energized, these circuits provide high voltage.
Any portions of the system providing a redundant path, such as more than one UPS
module or the static bypass, are tied together by the system logic so partial
system shut down for maintenance is not acceptable. Shutting off the battery for
maintenance and running the UPS portion as a power conditioner should not be
attempted since this also impacts on the system logic. After shutdown, all UPS
systems should be load tested off-line. Approximately 85 percent of system failures
occur after maintenance shutdowns which were not off-line load tested to assure
proper operation. In order to shut down the complete UPS system, the load must
be transferred to a line which is isolated electrically from the power and logic
circuitry of the entire UPS installation.
(b) Operation of maintenance bypass switch. Close the UPS static bypass, which
automatically opens the UPS module output circuit breaker (UPS-CB), allowing
closing of the maintenance bypass circuit breaker (MBP-CB) before opening the
UPS output circuit breaker (OUTPUT-CB). A closed transition has been made to an
alternate supply for input to the critical load with no interruption. Now the UPS
system as a whole can be reenergized for maintenance and off-line load testing.
This is the basis for the interlocking requirements.

c. Test mode. Off-line load testing of UPS systems after installation and scheduled
maintenance is always necessary. A permanent load test tap or a circuit breaker
and interlocking circuitry may be provided as part of the installation. Otherwise a
temporary connection must be provided.

d. Characteristics and limitations. To avoid drawing heavy inrush currents from the
power source upon initial energization, the battery charger is designed to assume
the load gradually. Normally, the start-up current is limited to a maximum of 25
percent of the full load current. The current is then automatically increased
gradually to the full load value in 15 to 30 seconds; this time is termed the "walk-
in" time. For this reason all loads cannot be switched simultaneously if the battery
has been fully discharged. Upon sudden application or removal of a load, the
inverter's output voltage will drop or rise beyond the
steady-state level. The voltage then returns to the steady-state condition after
some short time which depends on the inverter's voltage control circuit design.
These voltage variations are termed "transient voltage response" and the time
required to return to steady-state conditions is termed the "recovery time.
Generally, due to the absence of feedback regulating circuits in inverters with a
ferroresonant transformer, the transient response is slower than that of inverters
with pulse width or pulse width
modulation (PWM) control techniques. SCRs have a limited overload capability.
Also, heavy load currents may cause commutation failures. Therefore, the rectifier
and inverter are designed to be self protected from overloads. The self protection
circuit reduces the output voltage at currents exceeding the full load current.
Normally, the inverter is designed to reduce the output voltage to zero at
overloads of 115 to 135 percent rated load. The value of over current at which the
voltage is reduced to zero is termed "current limit. The inverter may reach the
current limit condition when energizing a load with a high inrush current or during
a load branch circuit fault.
e. Basic static UPS system without a dedicated battery. The basic system discussed
above utilizes a dedicated battery as a backup source. The UPS system is provided
with a controlled rectifier to supply the inverter and float/equalize charge the
battery. In other applications, a large battery bank may be available for supplying
the UPS system as well as other loads. In such applications, a separate battery
charger is provided to supply the connected load and float/equalize the battery. In
this case, the UPS system is provided with a rectifier that only supplies the inverter
and is isolated from the battery and other loads by a blocking diode. The blocking
diode allows current to flow from the battery to the
inverter while blocking the flow of current from the rectifier to the battery. Upon
failure of the ac input power, the battery supplies the inverter as discussed above.

Operation
Normal operation: During normal operation, the rectifier converts the ac input
power to dc power with regulated voltage. The rectifier output is normally set at
the battery float voltage to charge the battery while supplying dc power to the
inverter. The rectifier output voltage is periodically set at the battery equalize
voltage to maintain the battery capacity.
The dc filter (inductor) is provided for smoothing out the rectifier output current to
reduce the current ripple content. The battery acts as a capacitor and in
conjunction with the filter, smoothes out the output voltage and reduces the dc
voltage ripple content. The inverter converts the dc power to ac power with
regulated voltage and frequency. An internal oscillator maintains the inverter
frequency by controlling the timing of the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) firing
signals and matches the ac input frequency. The filters at the output transformer
secondary are provided to filter out the harmonics in the inverter output. Tuned L-C
filters are used - when required - to filter out the 5th and 7th harmonics
while a capacitor is adequate for filtering out the higher order harmonics.

(1) Loss of normal power. Upon loss of ac power supply or upon failure of the
rectifier, the battery maintains the dc supply to the inverter. The battery can
maintain the dc supply to the inverter until the ac supply is restored or to the end
of the battery duty cycle. Under this condition, the inverter continues to supply the
connected loads without interruption. This mode of operation continues until the
system is shut down if the battery reaches the discharged state before the charger
output is restored. A system shutdown may be initiated manually or automatically
by a dc under-voltage sensing device.
(2) Restoration of power. Upon restoration of the ac supply after extended outage
while the battery has been discharged, the rectifier output voltage is set at the
equalizing voltage to recharge the battery. This can be done manually or
automatically. The charger will also supply the inverter while recharging the
battery. At the end of the battery recharging time the battery charger returns to
the floating mode and the system returns to normal operation.
(3) Momentary loss of power. During momentary ac power interruptions or when
the ac supply voltage sags below acceptable limits, the battery maintains the dc
supply to the inverter. Under this condition, the inverter continues to supply the
connected loads with regulated power without interruption.
Bypass mode. The static UPS systems may have three bypass switching
arrangements: the UPS static switch (SS) the UPS static switch circuit breaker (SS-
CB), and the maintenance circuit breaker. Harmonic correction techniques. The
measurements of harmonic currents and voltages require special techniques. The
inductive and capacitive impedance is variable because of harmonic variations;
therefore, its effects are usually unpredictable. More and more the power system is
becoming susceptible to the operation of the sensitive electronic equipment, as
much as or more than the sensitive electronic device is susceptible to the power
source. If harmonic problems have been identified as causing problems, certain
procedures are recommended. The following are some of the
procedures. Provide oversized neutral conductors. Derated transformers,
generators, motor, and UP if necessary. Insure all controls, especially those
involving generator speed and paralleling, are properly shielded and filtered and
are designed to respond as quickly as is necessary. Use of unfiltered voltage
regulators and non-electronic governors will probably cause problems, especially
for generators supplying more than a 25- percent non-linear load. Provide line
filters to suppress the harmonics
emanating from the power source. Increase power source capacities so as to lower
output impedance and minimize voltage distortion. Use UPS outputs which have no
neutrals.
Where neutral voltages are required, provide isolation transformers as close to
their loads as possible to shorten oversized neutral installations. Use true RMS
sensing for circuit breaker trip units, relays, meters, and instruments.
Advantages and disadvantages of static UPS systems
Static UPS systems have several advantages. They provide disturbance free
uninterrupted power, operate at low sound levels, have high reliability and short
repair times, require minimal maintenance, simple installation, and lend
themselves to future expansion and reconfiguration. However, they also have
some disadvantages. Some of the disadvantages are that they introduce
harmonics into the power supply system, have a high initial cost to purchase,
require large space, require regulated environment, require skilled technicians for
trouble shooting and repairs, and have a somewhat low efficiency.

TYPES OF STATIC UPS

The general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive, and
standby. An on-line UPS uses a "double conversion" method of accepting AC input,
rectifying to DC for passing through the battery (or battery strings), then inverting
back to AC for powering the protected equipment. A line-interactive UPS maintains
the inverter in line and redirects the battery's DC current path from the normal
charging mode to supplying current when power is lost. In a standby ("off-line")
system the load is powered directly by the input power and the backup power
circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails. Most UPS below 1 kVA are of
the line-interactive or standby variety which is usually less expensive.

1. Offline / standby
The Offline / Standby UPS (SPS) offer only the most basic features, providing surge
protection and battery backup. Usually the Standby UPS offers no battery capacity
monitoring or self-test capability, making it the least reliable type of UPS since it
could fail at any moment without warning. These are also the least expensive. The
SPS may be worse than using nothing at all, because it gives the user a false sense
of security of being assured protection that may not work when needed the most.
With this type of UPS, a user's equipment is normally connected directly to
incoming utility power with the
same voltage transient clamping devices used in a common surge protected plug
strip connected across the power line. When the incoming utility voltage falls
below a predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry,
which is powered from an internal storage battery. The SPS then mechanically
switches the connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output.
The switchover time is stated by most manufacturers as being less than 4
milliseconds, but typically can be as long as 25 milliseconds depending on the
amount of time it takes the Standby UPS to detect the lost utility voltage

Line-interactive
The Line-Interactive UPS is similar in operation to a Standby UPS, but with the
addition of a multi-tap variable-voltage autotransformer. This is a special type of
electrical transformer that can add or subtract powered coils of wire, thereby
increasing or decreasing the magnetic field and the output voltage of the
transformer. This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous under voltage
brownouts and overvoltage surges without consuming the limited reserve battery
power. It instead compensates by auto-selecting different power taps on the
autotransformer. Changing the autotransformer tap can cause a very brief output
power disruption, so the UPS may chirp for a moment, as it briefly switches to
battery before changing the selected power tap. Autotransformers can be
engineered to cover a wide range of varying input voltages, but this also increases
the number of taps and the size, weight, complexity, and expense of the UPS. It is
common for the autotransformer to only cover a range from about 90v to 140v for
120v power, and then switch to battery if the voltage goes much higher or lower
than that range.
In low-voltage conditions the UPS will use more current than normal so it may need
a higher current circuit than a normal device. For example to power a 1000 watt
device at 120 volts, the UPS will draw 8.32 amps. If a brownout occurs and the
voltage drops to 100 volts, the UPS will draw 10 amps to compensate. This also
works in reverse, so that in an overvoltage condition, the UPS will need fewer amps
of current.
Double-conversion / online
The Online UPS is ideal for environments where electrical isolation is necessary or
for equipment that is very sensitive to power fluctuations. Although once
previously reserved for very large installations of 10kW or more, advances in
technology have permitted it to now be available as a common consumer device,
supplying 500 watts or less. The Online UPS is generally more expensive but may
be necessary when the power environment is "noisy" such as in industrial settings,
for larger equipment loads like data centers, or when operation from an extended-
run backup generator is necessary. The basic technology of the online UPS is the
same as in a Standby or Line-Interactive UPS. However it typically costs much
more, due to it having a much greater current AC-to-DC battery-charger/rectifier,
and with the rectifier and inverter designed to run continuously with improved
cooling systems. It is called a Double-Conversion UPS due to the rectifier directly
driving the inverter, even when powered from normal AC current. In an Online UPS,
the batteries are always connected to the inverter, so that no power transfer
switches are necessary. When power loss occurs, the rectifier simply drops out of
the circuit and the batteries keep the power steady and unchanged. When power is
restored, the rectifier resumes carrying most of the load and begins charging the
batteries, though the charging current may be limited to prevent the high-power
rectifier from overheating the batteries and boiling off the electrolyte. The main
advantage to the on-line UPS is its ability to provide an electrical firewall between
the incoming utility power and sensitive electronic equipment. While the Standby
and Line- Interactive UPS merely filter the input utility power, the Double-
Conversion UPS provides a layer of insulation from power quality problems. It
allows control of output voltage and frequency regardless of input voltage and
frequency.
The Standby-Ferro UPS
The Standby-Ferro UPS was once the dominant form of UPS in the 3-15kVA range.
This design depends on a special saturating transformer that has three windings
(power connections). The primary power path is from AC input, through a transfer
switch, through the transformer, and to the output. In the case of a power failure,
the transfer switch is opened, and the inverter picks up the output load. In the
Standby-Ferro design, the inverter is in the standby mode, and is energized when
the input power fails and the transfer switch is opened. The transformer has a
special "Ferro-resonant" capability, which provides limited voltage regulation and
output waveform "shaping". The isolation from AC power transients provided by
the Ferro transformer is as good as or better than any filter available. But the Ferro
transformer itself creates severe output voltage distortion and transients, which
can be worse than a poor AC connection. Even though it is a standby UPS by
design, the Standby-Ferro generates a great deal of heat because the Ferro-
resonant transformer is inherently inefficient. These transformers
are also large relative to regular isolation transformers; so standby-Ferro UPS are
generally quite large and heavy. Standby-Ferro UPS systems are frequently
represented as On-Line units, even though they have a transfer switch, the inverter
operates in the standby mode, and they exhibit a transfer characteristic during an
AC power failure.

High reliability and excellent line filtering are this designs strengths. However, the
design has very low efficiency combined with instability when used with some
generators and newer power-factor corrected computers, causing the popularity of
this design to decrease significantly. The principal reason why Standby-Ferro UPS
systems are no longer commonly used is that they can be fundamentally unstable
when operating a modern computer power supply load. All large servers and
routers use Power Factor Corrected power supplies which draw only sinusoidal
current from the utility, much like an incandescent bulb. This smooth current draw
is achieved using capacitors, devices which lead' the applied voltage, Ferro
resonant UPS system utilize heavy core transformers which have an inductive
characteristic, meaning that the current 'lags' the voltage. The combination of
these two items form which is referred to as a 'tank' circuit? Resonance or 'ringing'
in a tank circuit can cause high currents, which jeopardize the connected load.

The Delta Conversion On-Line UPS

This UPS design, illustrated in Figure 5, is a newer, 10 year old technology
introduced to eliminate the drawbacks of the Double Conversion On-Line design
and is available in sizes ranging from 5kVA to 1.6MW. Similar to the Double
Conversion On-Line design, the Delta Conversion On-Line UPS always has the
inverter supplying the load voltage. However, the additional Delta Converter also
contributes power to the inverter output. Under conditions of AC failure or
disturbances, this design exhibits behavior identical to the Double Conversion On-
Line. A simple way to understand the energy efficiency of the delta conversion
topology is to consider the energy required to deliver a package from the 4th floor
to the 5th floor of a building as shown in Figure 6. Delta Conversion technology
saves energy by carrying the package only the difference (delta) between the
starting and ending points. The Double Conversion On-Line UPS converts the power
to the battery and back again whereas the Delta Converter moves components of
the power from input to the output. In the Delta Conversion On-Line design, the
Delta Converter acts with dual purposes. The first is to control the input power
characteristics.
This active front end draws power in a sinusoidal manner, minimizing harmonics
reflected onto the utility. This ensures optimal utility and generator system
compatibility, reducing heating and system wear in the power distribution system.
The second function of the Delta Converter is to control input current in order to
regulate charging of the battery system. The Delta Conversion On-Line UPS
provides the same output characteristics as the Double Conversion On-Line design.
However, the input
characteristics are often different. Delta conversion on-line designs provide
dynamically-controlled, power factor corrected input, without the inefficient use of
filter banks associated with traditional solutions. The most important benefit is a
significant reduction in energy losses. The input power control also makes the UPS
compatible with all generator sets and reduces the need for wiring and generator
over sizing. Delta Conversion On-Line technology is the only core UPS technology
today protected by patents and is therefore not likely to be available from a broad
range of UPS suppliers. During steady state conditions the Delta Converter allows
the UPS to deliver power to the load with much greater efficiency than the Double
Conversion design.

RATING OF UPS UNIT

In selecting the size of a UPS unit, the electrical load and supply characteristics
should initially be considered:
Steady load
The total load requirement, P, is the sum of the individual loads to be supplied
divided by the power factor, Total load (P) KVA = sum of individual loads, kW power
factor
To allow for future additions, it is advisable to apply a factor of between 1.2 to 2.0
to obtain maximum steady load, Pu = Px (1.2 to 2) Inrush currents should be
specified for each load in peak amperes and related duration. The UPS should be
capable of switching an agreed inrush current onto a steady load (e.g. 25% of the
total defined load starting coincidentally on to the 75% load already operating).
Transient load fluctuations
When the UPS with its rated voltage and at no load is switched onto blocks of
symmetrical loads, the voltage regulation under transient conditions should be
acceptable to the loads. Otherwise, the UPS would have to be oversized to cater for
such conditions. Similar considerations should be taken into account in unloading
the UPS.
Voltage Tolerance
The UPS input should be between +15% and -20%; narrower limits are needed for
some applications. If the input voltage strays beyond these limits, the UPS should
step in with the output voltage limited to between 1percent in a steady state. On
connection or withdrawal of full load to/from the UPS, an output voltage deviation
of up to 20% is generally acceptable provided that the voltage can recover to
within typically 96% to 105% of the nominal value within 20ms.
Harmonics
Harmonics fed back to the power supply system due to the rectification of the AC
quantities to the DC quantities for the purposes of inversion back to the AC
quantities should be investigated. High contents of harmonics fed back to the
power supply system may not be accepted by other connected loads, and will
affect the sizing of any standby generator upstream of the UPS. Typical acceptable
values of Harmonic Distortion Output are: 3% maximum for single harmonics, 5%
maximum for total harmonic distortion.
Frequency Tolerance
Output frequency should be synchronized to the input frequency within 0.5Hz of
the nominal value and at a rate of change of frequency of 0.2Hz/s.

2. Rotary UPS (Dynamic UPS)

A Rotary UPS uses the inertia of a high-mass spinning flywheel to provide short-
term ride-through in the event of power loss. The flywheel also acts as a buffer
against power spikes and sags, since such short-term power events are not able to
appreciably affect the rotational speed of the high-mass flywheel. It is also one of
the oldest designs, predating vacuum tubes and integrated circuits.

It can be considered to be online since it spins continuously under normal

conditions. However, unlike a battery-based UPS, flywheel based UPS systems
typically provide 10 to 20 seconds of protection before the flywheel has slowed and
power output stops. It is traditionally used in conjunction with standby diesel
generators, providing backup power only for the brief period of time the engine
needs to start running and stabilize its output. The Rotary UPS is generally
reserved for applications needing more than 10,000 watts of protection, to justify
the expense of an extremely large and heavy power system that can only be
transported by forklift or crane. A larger flywheel or multiple flywheels operating in
parallel will increase the reserve running time or capacity. Because the flywheels
are a mechanical power source, it is not necessary to use an electric motor or
generator as an intermediary between it and a diesel engine designed to provide
emergency power. By using a transmission gearbox, the rotational inertia of the
flywheel can be used to directly start up a diesel engine, and once running, the
diesel engine can be used to directly spin the flywheel. Multiple flywheels can
likewise be connected in parallel through mechanical countershafts, without the
need for separate motors and generators for each flywheel.

They are normally designed to provide very high current output compared to a
purely electronic UPS, and are better able to provide inrush current for inductive
loads such as motor startup or compressor loads, as well as medical MRI and catch
lab equipment. It is also able to tolerate short-circuit conditions up 17 times larger
than an electronic UPS, permitting one device to blow a fuse and fail while other
devices still continue to be powered from the Rotary UPS. Its life cycle is usually far
greater than a purely electronic UPS, up to 30 years or more. But they do require
periodic downtime for mechanical maintenance, such as ball bearing replacement.
Battery-based designs do not require downtime if the batteries can be hot-
swapped, which is usually the case for larger units. Newer Rotary units use
technologies such as Magnetic bearings and air-evacuated enclosures to increase
standby efficiency and reduce maintenance to very low levels. Typically, the high-
mass flywheel is used in conjunction with a motor-generator system. These units
can be configured as:
1. A motor driving a mechanically connected generator,
2. A combined synchronous motor and generator wound in alternating slots of a
single rotor and stator
3. A Hybrid Rotary UPS, designed similar to an Online UPS, except that it uses the
flywheel in place of batteries. The rectifier drives a motor to spin the flywheel,
while a generator uses the flywheel to power the inverter.

In case #3 the motor generator can be synchronous/synchronous or

induction/synchronous. The motor side of the unit in case #2 and #3 can be driven
directly by an AC power source (typically when in inverter bypass), a 6-step
double-conversion motor drive, or a 6 pulse inverter. Case #1 uses an integrated
flywheel as a short-term energy source instead of batteries to allow time for
external, electrically coupled gensets to start and be brought online.
Case #2 and #3 can use batteries or a free-standing electrically coupled flywheel
as the short-term energy source.
Typical protection time: 20 - 60 seconds
Capacity expansion: Several seconds
Advantages and disadvantages of rotary UPS systems: The rotary UPS system has
both advantages and disadvantages that should be considered at the time of
selection.
(1) Rotary advantages. There are many advantages to a rotary UPS system. The
rotary system low output impedance makes it able to supply higher fault currents
to operate a circuit breaker during fault conditions. They provide total isolation of
sensitive loads from power supply system transients. They provide disturbance
free uninterrupted power. Systems without storage batteries have a low initial cost.
Efficiency is higher than comparable static UPS systems. The rotary UPS systems
have higher tolerance to adverse environments. Some require small space,
especially systems without a storage
battery. They do not cause power supply system voltage distortion. High ratings,
e.g., above 1000 kVA can be built in the rotary UPS design. A rotary system has a
lower number of components than a comparable static system and hence has a
lower failure rate. It has low output impedance which makes its output voltage less
susceptible to harmonic distortion as may be caused by non-linear loads.
(2) Disadvantages. While there are several advantages to the rotary UPS, it does
have some short comings. Some of them are that they operate at high sound
levels unless equipped with special silencing enclosures. They require more
maintenance and long repair times. Also, they require special foundations. Their
installation is more complex. They do not easily lend themselves to future
expansion, paralleling, or reconfiguration. Their performance requirements and
configurations are not commonly standardized. Fewer manufacturers produce
rotary UPS systems as compared to static UPS systems. The rotary UPS has a short
backup time and requires either a battery or backup diesel generator for longer
backup power.

Applications of AC power capacitors in UPS

There are two principal applications of AC power capacitors employed in most UPSs
today. AC capacitors using a wrapped metalized film construction are used for
input and output filters as well as controlling power factor. A UPS may contain
hundreds of AC and DC capacitors in various internal applications like snubbers and
DC electrolytic capacitors.

Difficulties faced with generator use

The voltage and frequency of the power produced by a generator depends on the
engine speed. The speed is controlled by a system called a governor. Some
governors are mechanical, some are electronic. The job of the governor is to keep
the voltage and frequency constant, while the load on the generator changes. This
may pose a problem where, for example, the startup surge of an elevator can
cause short "blips" in the frequency of the generator or the output voltage, thus
affecting all other devices powered by the generator. Many transmission sites will
have backup diesel generators - in the case of AM, the load presented by the
transmitters changes in line with the signal level. This leads to the scenario where
the generator is constantly trying to correct the output voltage and frequency.
It is possible for a UPS unit to be incompatible with a generator or a poor mains
supply; in the event that its designers had written the microprocessor code to
require need exactly a 50.0Hz (or 60.0Hz) supply frequency in order to operate;
with this condition not met the UPS could remain on battery power, being unable to
reconnect the unsuitable supply voltage. This problem of input frequency
requirements should not be an issue through the use of a Double Conversion /
online UPS. A UPS of this topology should be able to adapt to any input frequency,
using its own internal clock source to generate the required 50 or 60Hz supply
frequency. A problem in the combination of a "double conversion" UPS and a
generator is the voltage distortion created by the UPS. The input of a double
conversion UPS is essentially a big rectifier. The current drawn by the UPS is non-
sinusoidal. This causes the voltage from the generator also to become non-
sinusoidal. The voltage distortion then can cause problems in all electrical
equipment connected to the generator, including the UPS itself! This level of
"noise" is measured as a percentage of "Total Harmonic Distortion of the current"
(THD (i)) Classic UPS rectifiers have a THD (i) level of around 25-30%. To prevent
voltage distortion, this requires generators more than twice as big as the UPS.
There are several solutions to reduce the THD(i) in a double conversion UPS:
Classic solutions such as passive filters reduce THD(i) to 5-10% at full load. They
are reliable, but big and only work at full load, and present their own problems
when used in tandem with generators. An alternative solution is an active filter.
Through the use of such a device, THD(i) can drop to 5% over the full power range.
The newest technology in double conversion UPS units is a rectifier that doesn't
use classic rectifier components (Thyristors and Diodes) but high frequency
components (IGBTs).
SIZING OF UPS
The maximum current to be supplied by the battery is determined as follows:
Max.1Bat (A) = (UPS power in kVA) x (Power factor 0.8) x (Rectifier efficiency =
0.97)(1) (overall UPS efficiency) x (minimum DC voltage)
Battery tables are available which give the maximum current supplied by the
selected battery in
function of the requested discharge time and end voltage per cell. Discharge
curves are also available. The battery type which can supply a maximum current
equal or higher than the current calculated by the formula (1) is selected. If the
closest battery type is higher than (1), then a higher discharging time at same
ends voltage or higher voltage at same discharging time will be the outcome.
Number of cells = minimum DC voltage of UPS end voltage of one battery The
maximum number of cells = maximum DC voltage of UPS Charging voltage of one
battery cell Nickel-cadmium batteries are the most reliable and robust but
expensive. Other choices are plate type batteries and low maintenance sealed type
batteries.

POWER SYSTEM STUDIES

The planning, design, and operation of industrial and commercial power systems
require several studies to assist in the evaluation of the initial and future system
performance, system reliability, safety, and the ability to grow with production
and/or operating requirements. The studies most likely to be needed are load flow
studies, cable amp-city studies, short-circuit studies, coordination studies, stability
studies, and routine motor-starting studies. Additional studies relating to switching
transients, reliability, grounding, harmonics, and special motor-starting
considerations may also be required. The
engineer in charge of system design must decide which studies are needed to
ensure that the system will operate safely, economically, and efficiently over the
expected life of the system. For a plant engineer to solve a power system analysis
problem, he or she must be thoroughly familiar with the fundamentals of power
electrical engineering. He or she can then analyze the problem, prepare the
necessary equivalent circuits, and obtain appropriate system data before using a
computer program to perform repetitive calculations. Failure to use a valid
analytical procedure to establish a sound basic
approach to the problem could lead to disastrous consequences in both the design
and operation of a system. Furthermore, a basic understanding of power
engineering is essential to correctly interpret the results of computer calculations.
It is important to emphasize the need for a thorough foundation and base of
experience in power system engineering in addition to modern, effective computer
software. Power system analysis engineering software is an excellent tool for
studying power systems, but it cannot be used as a substitute for knowledge and
experience. To set up a computer program for
system analysis, certain basic data must be gathered with accuracy and proper
presentation. The extent of system representation, restrictions in terms of nodes
(buses) and branches (lines and transformers), balanced three-phase network and
single-line diagram, impedance diagram, etc., are all important inputs to a
meaningful system study.

The following chapters address the most common studies for the design or
operation of an industrial or commercial power system:
Load flow studies determine the voltage, current, active, and reactive power and
power factor in a power system. Load flow studies are an excellent tool for system
planning. A number of operating procedures can be analyzed, including
contingency conditions, such as the loss of a generator, a transmission line, a
transformer, or a load. These studies will alert the user to conditions that may
cause equipment overloads or poor voltage levels. Load flow studies can be used
to determine the optimum size and location of capacitors for power factor
improvement. Also, they are very useful in determining system voltages under
conditions of suddenly applied or disconnected loads. The results
of a load flow study are also starting points for stability studies. Digital computers
are used extensively in load flow studies due to the complexity of the calculations
involved.

Short-circuit studies
Short-circuit studies are done to determine the magnitude of the prospective
currents flowing throughout the power system at various time intervals after a fault
occurs. The magnitude of the currents flowing through the power system after a
fault varies with time until they reach a steady-state condition. This behavior is due
to system characteristics and dynamics. During this time, the protective system is
called on to detect, interrupt, and isolate these faults. The duty imposed on this
equipment is dependent upon the magnitude of the current, which is dependent on
the time from fault inception. This is done for various types of faults (three phase,
phase-to-phase, double-phase-to-ground, and phase-to-ground) at different
locations throughout the system. The information is used to select fuses, breakers,
and switchgear ratings in addition to setting protective relays.

Stability studies
The ability of a power system, containing two or more synchronous machines, to
continue to operate after a change occurs on the system is a measure of its
stability. The stability problem takes two forms: steady-state and transient. Steady-
state stability may be defined as the ability of a power system to maintain
synchronism between machines within the system following relatively slow load
changes. Transient stability is the ability of the system to remain in synchronism
under transient conditions, i.e., faults, switching operations, etc. In an industrial
power system, stability may involve the power company system and one or more
in-plant generators or synchronous motors. Contingencies, such as load rejection,
sudden loss of a generator or utility tie, starting of large motors or faults (and their
duration), have a direct impact on system stability. Load-shedding schemes and
critical fault-clearing times can be determined in order to select the proper settings
for protective relays. These types of studies are probably the single most complex
ones done on a power system. A simulation will include synchronous generator
models with their controls, i.e., voltage regulators, excitation systems, and
governors. Motors are sometimes represented by their dynamic characteristics as
are static var compensators and protective relays.
Motor-starting studies
The starting current of most ac motors is several times normal full load current.
Both synchronous and induction motors can draw five to ten times full load current
when starting them across the line. Motor-starting torque varies directly as the
square of the applied voltage. If the terminal voltage drop is excessive, the motor
may not have enough starting torque to accelerate up to running speed. Running
motors may stall from excessive voltage drops, or under voltage relays may
operate. In addition, if the motors are started frequently, the voltage dip at the
source may cause objectionable flicker in the lighting system. By using motor-
starting study techniques, these problems can be predicted before the installation
of the motor. If a starting device is needed, its characteristics and ratings can be
easily determined. A typical digital computer program will calculate speed, slip,
electrical output torque, load current, and terminal voltage data at discrete time
intervals from locked rotor to full load speed. Also, voltage at important locations
throughout the system during start-up can be monitored. The study can help select
the best method of starting, the proper motor design, or the required system
design for minimizing the impact of motor starting on the entire system.

Harmonic analysis studies

A harmonic-producing load can affect other loads if significant voltage distortion is
caused. The voltage distortion caused by the harmonic-producing load is a function
of both the system impedance and the amount of harmonic current injected. The
mere fact that a given load current is distorted does not always mean there will be
undue adverse effects on other power consumers. If the system impedance is low,
the voltage distortion is usually negligible in the absence of harmonic resonance.
However, if harmonic resonance prevails, intolerable harmonic voltage and
currents are likely to result.

Some of the primary effects of voltage distortion are the following:

a) Control/computer system interference
b) Heating of rotating machinery
c) Overheating/failure of capacitors
When the harmonic currents are high and travel in a path with significant exposure
to parallel communication circuits, the principal effect is telephone interference.
This problem depends on the physical path of the circuit as well as the frequency
and magnitude of the harmonic currents. Harmonic currents also cause additional
line losses and additional stray losses in transformers. Watt hour meter error is
often a concern. At harmonic frequencies, the meter may register high or low
depending on the harmonics present and the response of the meter to these
harmonics. Fortunately, the error is usually small. Analysis is commonly done to
predict distortion levels for addition of a new harmonic producing load or capacitor
bank. The general procedure is to first develop a model that can accurately
simulate the harmonic response of the present system and then to add a model of
the new addition. Analysis is also commonly done to evaluate alternatives for
correcting problems found by measurements. Only very small circuits can be
effectively analyzed without a computer program. Typically, a computer program
for harmonic analysis will provide the engineer with the capability to compute the
frequency response of the power system and to display it in a number of useful
graphical forms. The programs provide the capability to predict the actual
distortion based on models of converters, arc furnaces, and other nonlinear loads.

Switching transient studies

Switching transients severe enough to cause problems in industrial power systems
are most often associated with inadequate or malfunctioning breakers or switches
and the switching of capacitor banks and other frequently switched loads. The arc
furnace system is most frequently studied because of its high frequency of
switching and the related use of capacitor banks. By properly using digital
computer programs or a TNA, these problems can be detected early in the design
stage. In addition to these types of switching transient problems, digital computer
programs and the TNA can be used to analyze other system anomalies, such as
lightning arrester operation, Ferro resonance, virtual current chopping, and breaker
transient recovery voltage.

Reliability studies
When comparing various industrial power system design alternatives, acceptable
system performance quality factors (including reliability) and cost are essential in
selecting an optimum design. A reliability index is the probability that a device will
function without failure over a specified time period. This probability is determined
by equipment maintenance requirements and failure rates. Using probability and
statistical analyses, the reliability of a power system can be studied in depth with
digital computer programs. Reliability is most often expressed as the frequency of
interruptions and expected number of hours of interruptions during one year of
system operation. Momentary and sustained system interruptions, component
failures, and outage rates are used in some reliability programs to compute overall
system reliability indexes at any node in the system, and to investigate sensitivity
of these indexes to parameter changes. With these results, economics and
reliability can be considered to select the optimum power system design.

Cable Ampacity studies

Cable ampacity studies calculate the current-carrying capacity (ampacity) of power
cables in underground or above ground installations. This ampacity is determined
by the maximum allowable conductor temperature. In turn, this temperature is
dependent on the losses in the cable, both I2R and dielectric, and thermal coupling
between heat-producing components and ambient temperature. The ampacity
calculations are extremely complex. This is due to many considerations, some
examples of which are heat transfer through the cable insulation and sheath, and,
in the case of underground installations, heat transfer to duct or soil as well as
from duct bank to soil. Other considerations include the effects of losses caused by
proximity and skin effects. In addition, depending on the installation, the cable-
shielding system may introduce additional losses. The analysis involves the
application of thermal equivalents of Ohms and Kirchoffs laws to a thermal circuit.

Ground Mat studies

Under ground-fault conditions, the flow of current will result in voltage gradients
within and around the substation, not only between structures and nearby earth,
but also along the ground surface. In a properly designed system, this gradient
should not exceed the limits that can be tolerated by the human body. The purpose
of a ground mat study is to provide for the safety and well-being of anyone that
can be exposed to the potential differences that can exist in a station during a
severe fault. The general requirements for industrial power system grounding are
similar to those of utility systems under similar service conditions. The differences
arise from the specific requirements of the manufacturing or process operations.
Some of the factors that are considered in a ground-mat study are the following:
a) Fault-current magnitude and duration
b) Geometry of the grounding system
c) Soil resistivity
d) Probability of contact
e) Human factors such as
f) Body resistance
g) Standard assumptions on physical conditions of the individual

Coordination studies
The objective of a protection scheme in a power system is to minimize hazards to
personnel and equipment while allowing the least disruption of power service.
Coordination studies are required to select or verify the clearing characteristics of
devices such as fuses, circuit breakers, and relays used in the protection scheme.
These studies are also needed to determine the protective device settings that will
provide selective fault isolation. In a properly coordinated system, a fault results in
interruption of
only the minimum amount of equipment necessary to isolate the faulted portion of
the system. The power supply to loads in the remainder of the system is
maintained. The goal is to achieve an optimum balance between equipment
protection and selective fault isolation that is consistent with the operating
requirements of the overall power system. Short-circuit calculations are a
prerequisite for a coordination study. Short-circuit results
establish minimum and maximum current levels at which coordination must be
achieved and which aid in setting or selecting the devices for adequate protection.
Traditionally, the coordination study has been performed graphically by manually
plotting time-current operating characteristics of fuses, circuit breaker trip devices,
and relays, along with conductor and transformer damage curvesall in series
from the fault location to the source. Log-log scales are used to plot time versus
current magnitudes. These coordination curves show graphically the quality of
protection and coordination possible
with the equipment available. They also permit the verification/confirmation of
protective device characteristics, settings, and ratings to provide a properly
coordinated and protected system. With the advent of the personal computer, the
light-table approach to protective device coordination is being replaced by
computer programs. The programs provide a graphical representation of the
device coordination as it is developed. In the future, computer programs are
expected to use expert systems based on practical coordination algorithms to
further assist the protection engineer.

DC auxiliary power system analysis

The need for direct current (dc) power system analysis of emergency standby
power supplies has steadily increased during the past several years in data
processing facilities, long distance telephone companies, and generating stations.
DC emergency power is used for circuit breaker control, protective relaying,
inverters, instrumentation, emergency lighting, communications, annunciators,
fault recorders, and auxiliary motors. The introduction of computer techniques to
dc power systems analysis has allowed a more rapid and rigorous analysis of these
systems compared to earlier manual techniques.
Fundamentals
The following list identifies the more important analytical solution methods that are
either available as, or is the basis for, valid techniques in solving power system
network circuit problems:
a) Linearity
b) Superposition
c) Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits
d) Sinusoidal forcing function
e) Phasor representation
f) Fourier representation
g) Laplace transforms
h) Single-phase equivalent circuit
i) Symmetrical component analysis
j) Per unit method
Linearity
Probably the simplest concept of all, linearity is also one of the most important
because of its influence on the other principles. Linearity is best understood by
examination of the simplified network represented by the single-impedance
element Z. Linear for the chosen excitation and response functions, if a plot of
response magnitude (current) versus source excitation magnitude (voltage) is a
straight line.

When linearity exists, the plot applies either to the steady state value of the
excitation and response
functions or to the instantaneous value of the functions at a specific time. When
linear dc circuits are involved, the current doubles if the voltage is doubled. The
same holds for linear ac circuits if the frequency of the driving voltage is held
constant. In a similar manner, it is possible to predict the response of a constant
impedance circuit (that is, constant R,L, and (elements) to any magnitude of dc
source excitation or fixed frequency sinusoidal excitation based on the known
response at any other level of excitation. For the chosen excitation function of
voltage and the chosen response function of current, both dotted curves B and C
are examples of the response characteristic of a nonlinear element. With the circuit
element represented by any of the response curves (including the linear element
depicted by curve A), the circuit will, in general, become nonlinear for a different
response functionfor example, power. If, for example, the element was a
constant resistance (which would have a linear voltage-current relationship), the
power dissipated would increase by a factor of 4 if voltage were
doubled (P=I2R). An important limitation of linearity, therefore, is that it applies
only to responses that are linear for the circuit conditions described (that is, a
constant impedance circuit will yield a current that is linear with voltage). This
restraint must be recognized in addition to the previously mentioned limitations of
constant source excitation frequency for ac circuits and constant circuit element
impedances for ac or dc circuits. Excitation sources, if not independent, must be
linearly dependent. This restraint forces a source to behave just as would a linear
response (which, by definition, is also linearly dependent).
Superposition
This very powerful principle is a direct consequence of linearity and can be stated
as in any linear network containing several dc or fixed frequency ac excitation
sources (voltages), the total response (current) can be calculated by algebraically
adding all the individual responses caused by each independent source acting
alone, i.e., all other sources inactivated (voltage sources shorted by their internal
impedances, current sources opened) The equation written is for the sum of the
currents from each individual source V1andV2 although Figure also illustrates a
way this principle might actually be used, more often its main application is in
support of other calculating methods. The only restraint
associated with superposition is that the network should be linear. All limitations
associated with linearity apply.

The non applicability of superposition is why all but the very simplest nonlinear
circuits are almost impossible to analyze using hand calculations. Although most
real circuit elements are nonlinear to some extent, they can often be accurately
represented by a linear approximation. Solutions to network problems involving
such elements can be readily obtained. Problems involving complex networks
having substantially nonlinear elements can practically be solved only through the
use of certain simplification procedures, or through the adjustment of calculated
results to correct for nonlinearity. But both of these approaches can potentially lead
to significant inaccuracy. Tiresome iterative calculations performed in an instant by
the digital computer make more accurate solutions possible when the nonlinear
circuit elements can be described mathematically.
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is a powerful analysis tool based on the fact that
any active linear network, however complex, can be represented by a single
voltage source, VOC, equal to the open-circuit voltage across any two terminals of
interest, in series with the equivalent impedance, ZEQ of the network viewed from
the same two terminals with all sources in the network inactivated (voltage sources
shorted by their internal impedances, current sources opened). Validity of this
representation requires only that the network be linear. Existence of linearity is a
necessary restraint. Application of the Thevenin equivalent circuit can be
appreciated by referring to the simple circuit of Figure and developing the

Thevenin equivalent for the network with the switch in the open position

After connecting the 6 ohm load to the Thevenin equivalent network by closing the
switch, the solution for IL is the same as before, 1 A. Use of the simple Thevenin
equivalent shown for the entire left side of the network makes it easy to examine
circuit response as the load impedance value is varied. The Thevenin equivalent
circuit solution method is equally valid for complex impedance circuits. It is the
basis for making per unit short-circuits calculations, although the actual values for
the source voltage and branch impedances would be substantially different from
those used in this case. (The circuit property of linearity would, incidentally, allow
them to be scaled up or down.) The network shown in, with the 6 ohm resistance
shorted and the other resistances visualized as reactances, might well serve as an
oversimplified representation of a power system about to experience a bolted fault
with the closing of the switch.
The V1 branch of the circuit would correspond to the utility supply while the V2
branch might represent a large motor running unloaded, immediately adjacent to
the fault bus, and highly idealized so as to have no rotor flux leakage. For such a
model, the 5 V source corresponds to the pre-fault, air-gap voltage behind a stator
leakage (sub transient) reactance of 3 ohm
In a more realistic situation where rotor leakage is evident, a model that accurately
describes the V2 branch in detail before and after switch closing is much more
difficult to develop, because the air-gap voltage decreases (exponentially) with
time and varies (linearly) with the steady-state rms magnitude of the motor stator
current following application of the fault. The problem of accounting for motor
internal behavior is avoided altogether by use of a Thevenin equivalent. This
permits theV2 branch to be represented by the apparent motor impedance
effective at the time following switch closure. In shunt with the equivalent
impedance for the remainder of the network, the Thevenin equivalent impedance,
ZEQ, for the motor (at any point in time of interest) is simply connected in series
with the pre-fault open-circuit voltage, VOC , to obtain the corresponding current
response to switch closing. The current response obtained in each branch of a
network using a Thevenin equivalent circuit solution represents the change of
current in that branch. The actual current that flows is the vector sum of currents
before and after the particular switching event being considered.

The current flowing in the V 2 branch circuit is shown to be 1/3 A. A more detailed
representation of the Thevenin equivalent circuit previously examined. Here, the
solution for the same current IV2
is determined by subtracting the current flowing in theV2 branch prior to closing
the switch [5/6 A from inspection from the current I V2= 1/2 A, calculated to be
flowing in the Thevenin equivalent for thisV2 branch. In the branch of the circuit
defined by the switch itself, the change of current due to closing is normally the
response of interest. This means the solution to the Thevenin equivalent is
sufficient.
The resultant current in the other branches, however, cannot be determined by the
solution to the Thevenin equivalent network alone. In the case where theV2 branch
represents a motor switched onto a bolted fault, the motor contribution is the
locked-rotor current minus the pre-fault current as illustrated in Figure and not just
the locked-rotor current as it is so often carelessly described.

As a rule, this effect is never as significant as the example suggests, even when
the motor is loaded prior to the fault; the load current is much smaller than the
locked-rotor current and almost 90 out of phase with it. A Norton equivalent
circuit, which can be developed directly from the Thevenin equivalent circuit,
consists of a current source of magnitude, VOC, /, ZEQ, to account for the voltage
sources in each separate branch of the network in parallel with the same
equivalent impedance for that branch, ZEQ. This representation of circuits can be
useful in power system analysis work if some of
the sources are true current sources, as is often the case when performing
harmonic studies.
Sinusoidal forcing function
It is a most fortunate truth in nature that the excitation sources (driving voltage)
for electrical networks, in general, have a sinusoidal character and can be
represented by a sine wave plot of the type. There are two important
consequences of this circumstance. First, although the response (current) for a
complex R,L,C network represents the solution to at least one second order
differential equation, the result will also be a sinusoid of the same frequency as the
excitation and different only in magnitude and phase angle. The relative character
of the current with respect to the voltage for simple R, L, and C
The second important concept is that when the sine wave shape of current is
forced to flow in a general impedance network of R, L, and C elements, the voltage
drop across each element will always exhibit a sinusoidal shape of the same
frequency as the source. The sinusoidal character of all the circuit responses
makes the application of the superposition technique to a network with multiple
sources surprisingly manageable. The necessary manipulation of the sinusoidal
terms is easily accomplished using the laws of vector algebra, which evolve from
the next technique to be reviewed. The only restraint associated with the use of
the sinusoidal forcing function concept is that the circuit must be comprised of
linear elements, that is, R,L, and C are constant as current or voltage varies.

Phasor representation
Phasor representation allows any sinusoidal forcing function to be represented as a
phasor in a complex coordinate system. As indicated, the expression for the phasor
representation of a sinusoid can assume any of the following shorthand forms:
Exponential: Eej
Rectangular: Ecos + jEsin
Polar: E L
For most calculations, it is more convenient to work in the frequency domain where
any angular velocity associated with the phasor is ignored, which is equivalent to
assuming the coordinate system rotates at a constant angular velocity of. The
impedances of the network can likewise be represented as phasor using the
vectorial relationships shown. As illustrated, the circuit responses (current) can be
obtained through the simple vector algebraic manipulation of the quantities
involved. The need for solving complex differential equations to determine the
circuit responses is completely eliminated. The restraints that apply are as follows:
a) Sources must all be sinusoidal
b) Frequency must remain constant
c) Circuit R, L, and C elements must remain constant (that is, linearity must exist)

Fourier representation
This powerful tool allows any non-sinusoidal periodic forcing function, of the type
plotted in Figure, to be represented as the sum of a dc component and a series
(infinitely long, if necessary) of ac sinusoidal forcing functions. The ac components
have frequencies that are integral multiples of the periodic function fundamental
frequency. The general mathematical form of the
The importance of the Fourier representation is immediately apparent. The
response to the original driving function can be determined by first solving for the
response to each Fourier series component forcing function and summing all the
individual solutions to find the total superposition. Since each component response
solution is readily obtained, the most difficult part of the problem becomes the
determination of the component forcing function. The individual harmonic voltages
can be obtained, occasionally in combination with numerical integration
approximating techniques through several well-established mathematical
procedures. There are several abstract mathematical conditions that must be
satisfied to use a Fourier representation. The only restraints of practical interest to
the power systems analyst are that the original driving function must be periodic
(repeating) and the network must remain linear.

Laplace transform
In the solution of circuit transients by classical methods, the models of circuit
elements are represented with sets of differential equations. In addition, for a
specific problem, a set of initial conditions must be known in order to solve the
differential equations for the unknown quantity. An alternative technique for
solving a transient problem is by the use of the Laplace transform. The proper use
of this technique eliminates the need for the solution of the differential equations
and simplifies all mathematical manipulations to elementary algebra. It is helpful
to keep in mind that the concept of mathematical transformations to simplify the
solution to a problem is not new. For example, the mathematical operations of
multiplication and division are transformed into the simpler operations of addition
and subtraction by means of the logarithm transform. Once the
addition/subtraction is performed, the solution to the problem is obtained by using
the inverse transform, or antilog operation. The transformation is designed to
create a new domain where the mathematical manipulations are easier to carry
out. Once the unknown is found in the new domain, it can be inverse-transformed
back to the original domain .In circuit analysis, the Laplace transform is used to
transform the set of differential equations from the time domain (t) to a set of
algebraic equations in the new domain called the complex frequency domain or,
alternatively, the s -domain. The Laplace transform is also denoted by the notation
F (s) This notation emphasizes that once the above integral has been evaluated,
the resulting expression is a function of s . Since the exponent of the e in Equation
must be dimensionless, s must have the units of reciprocal time, hence the use of
the alternate terms frequency domain and s -domain to describe the realm of
the transformed function. It can be shown that the transformation (or, more
briefly, transform) described by Equation has special mathematical properties.
Given an original expression involving both an unknown function (i.e., current,
voltage, etc.), and operations on that function (i.e., derivatives, integrals, etc.), the
s -domain expression that results when each term is transformed according to
Equation can be manipulated by ordinary algebraic procedures to yield a solution
for the unknown function. The solution for the unknown function in the s-domain
can then be transformed back to the time domain to produce the desired result.
These mathematical methods can be used to greatly simplify the solution of
complex differential equations.

Transient analysis by Laplace transforms

The transient analysis of a circuit using Laplace transforms is a straightforward
application of elementary algebra. Both the excitation sources and the impedance
elements of the system under study must be replaced with their s -domain
equivalent circuits. The Laplace transform of the driving voltages and/or currents in
the studied circuit must be determined for use in the s-domain equivalent circuit.
Using, one of two possible s-domain equivalent circuits ust be chosen for each
impedance element in the circuit. Once the s -domain network has been
developed, the circuit equations can be solved algebraically.

Single-phase equivalent circuit

The single-phase equivalent circuit is a powerful tool for simplifying the analysis of
balanced three-phase circuits, yet its restraints are probably most often
disregarded. Its application is best understood by examining a three-phase
diagram of a simple system and its single-phase equivalent, as shown in Figure.
Also illustrated is the popular single-line diagram representation commonly used to
describe the same three-phase system on engineering drawings. If a three-phase
system has a perfectly balanced symmetrical source excitation (voltage) and load,
as well as equal series and shunt system and line
impedances connected to all three phases [, imagine a conductor (shown as a
dotted line) carrying no current connected between the effective neutrals of the
load and the source. Under these conditions, the system can be accurately
described by either Figure 3-14(b) or Figure. The single-phase equivalent circuit is
particularly useful since the solution to the classical loop equations is much easier
to obtain than for the more complicated three-phase network .To determine the
complete solution, it is only
necessary to realize that the other two phases will have responses that are shifted
by 120 and 240 but are otherwise identical to the reference phase. Anything that
upsets the balance of the network renders the model invalid. A subtle way this
might occur is illustrated in Figure. If the switching devices operate independently
in each of the three poles, and for some reason the device in phase A becomes
opened, the balance or symmetry of the circuit is destroyed. Neither the single-
phase equivalent nor the single-line diagram representation is valid. Even though
the single-phase and the single-line diagram representations would imply that the
load has been disconnected, it continues to be energized by single-phase power.
This can cause serious damage to motors and result in unacceptable operation of
certain load apparatus.

Single-line impedance diagram

More importantly, if only one switching device operates in response to a fault
condition in the same phase, as depicted at location X, the system sources would
continue to supply fault current from the other unopened phases through the
impedance of the load. The throttling effect of the normally substantial load
impedance, possibly in combination with additional arc impedance, can reduce the
level of the current to a point where detection may not occur in phases B and C.
Needless to say, substantial damage can result before the fault finally burns
enough to involve the other phases directly and accomplish complete interruption.
Meanwhile, both of the single-line representations fail to recognize the problem,
and in fact, suggest that the condition has been safely disconnected. Therefore,
the restraints of this calculating aid are as follows:
a) Symmetry of the electrical system, including all switching devices and applied
load.
b) Any of the other previously described restraints that apply to the analytical
technique being used in combination with the single-phase equivalent.

Symmetrical component analysis

This approach comes to the analysts rescue when he or she is confronted with an
unbalance, the most common circuit condition that invalidates the single-phase
equivalent circuit solution method. The symmetrical component analysis allows the
response to any unbalanced condition in a three-phase power system to be
investigated and correctly synthesized by the sum of the responses to as many as
three separate balanced system conditions. The application of an unbalanced set
of voltage phasors,
such as those displayed in Figure, to a balanced downstream load is the sum of the
responses of the balanced components that vectorially add to form the original
unbalanced set. Similar conclusions apply when the voltages are balanced, but the
connected phase impedances and/or loads and the line currents are unbalanced.
Here, the unbalanced current phasors are the sum of up to three balanced sets
that flow through the balanced system impedances on either or both sides of the
unbalance, producing voltage drops that
satisfy the needs of the applied voltages and the boundary conditions at the point
of unbalance. The mathematical expression for three unbalanced phasors as a
function of the balanced phasor components is as follows:
A=A0+A1+A2
B=B0+B1+B2
C=C0+C1+C2
The positive (1), negative (2), and zero (0) sequence vector components of any
phase always have the angular relationship with respect to one another as
described by the vector diagram. The operator a causes a counterclockwise
rotation through an angle of 120 and is defined as a=1L20=- 0.5 + j0.866 These
are assigned a counterclockwise direction of rotation in the time domain as
illustrated. In the space domain, the negative sequence phasors will produce exact
l y the same results as a set of equal magnitude phasors that are displaced from
one another by 120 and that rotate clockwise with time. The proof that a set of
unbalanced vectors can be completely represented by N sets of balanced vectors
is seldom presented in texts dealing with the subject of symmetrical components.
The derivation of symmetrical component analysis is most meaningful when
applied to three-phase systems, that is, systems where N = 3. First, it is postulated
that it might be possible to describe three arbitrary but defined vectors, A, B, andC,
by summing their respective symmetrical components (as previously shown).
Using the vector identities of Figure, the set of equations for the unbalanced
vectors, A,B, and C, can be simplified into the linear set of three equations
involving three unknowns as follows:
A=A0+A1+A2
B A0 + a2= A1 + aA2
C=A0+aA1+aA2
Rearranging, as shown in the following three equations, produces three
independent equations for three unknowns (A0, A1, andA2), which is everything
required to uniquely and completely describe A0,A1, and A2, and therefore
substantiate their existence A0 13-- = A+B+C
The merit of the symmetrical component analysis is that a relatively complicated
and often unwieldy problem can be solved by simply vectorially summing the
solution to no more than three balanced, independent networks. The three
independent networks are referred to as the positive, negative, and zero sequence
networks and are illustrated in Figure for the system shown in Figure prior to
application of the line to ground fault. It should be noted in these diagrams that the
system voltage source (EL-N) and the load pre-fault open-circuit voltage (VD) are
both balanced, positive sequence voltages, and they appear only in the positive
sequence network. Also, the impedance elements the load (RD, XD) and the
remainder of the system in each network are, as discussed in 3.2.3, intended to
represent the Thevenin equivalent impedances at the point in time of interest after
the (unbalanced) event. Typically, the three impedance networks are symbolically
represented in shorthand fashion by an empty block diagram for the phase most
definitive of the condition being studied up to the unbalance or other point of
interest, as shown in Figure. Here, the final interconnections of the networks are
shown that satisfy the necessary boundary conditions describing the system at the
point of concern in this case, the line-to-ground fault on phase A. In all cases, the
analyst can fill the block diagrams with the proper sources and impedances,
including loads, in each sequence network, properly connect any fault or other
impedance involved with the imbalance, and solve the single-phase loop
equations. The three current or voltage sequence responses are produced in each
of the respective networks, which then add vectorially to produce the resultant
responses in the phase represented. The other phase responses then can be
obtained by adding vectorially the individual sequence solutions shifted by the
appropriate multiple of 120.

Per-unit method
The per-unit method of calculation and its close companion, the percentage
method, are well documented. As a result, they will only be mentioned in passing
here. Fundamentally, the per-unit method and the percentage method amount to a
shorthand calculating procedure for which all equivalent system and circuit
impedances are converted to a common kVA and kV base. This permits the ready
combination of circuit elements in a network where different system voltages are
present without the need to convert impedances each time responses are to be
determined at a different voltage level. Associated with each impedance element
and its kVA base is a line-to-line kV base
(Usually the nominal line voltage at which the element is connected to the
system), along with the resulting base impedance and base current related by the
following expressions:

NOTE: Each of the above relationships involving kVA base are sometimes
expressed in terms of the corresponding MVA base, where MVA base = kVA
base/1000. This results in the convenient expression of /MVA base for Z base for
both three-phase and single-phase networks. To illustrate the use of the per-unit
method, consider the example in Figure 3-19. The first step in a per-unit calculation
is the arbitrary selection of the system base kVA. Second, the choice of base kV
must be made at one voltage level from which the base value at the other voltage
level is dictated by the turns ratios of the transformers in the network.
Per-unit representations
In power system calculations, variables are routinely expressed using the per-unit
system instead of actual quantities such as ohms, volts, etc. While both
representations will yield identical results, the per-unit method is generally
preferred for hand calculations because it will do the job much more conveniently,
especially if the system being studied has several different voltage levels. Also, the
impedances of electric apparatus are usually given in per unit or percent by
manufacturers. The per-unit value of any quantity is its ratio to the chosen base
quantity of the same dimensions, expressed as a dimensionless number. For
example, if base voltage is taken to be 4.16 kV, voltages of 3 740 V, 4 160 V, and 4
330 V will be 0.9, 1.00, and 1.04, respectively, when expressed in per unit on the
given base voltage. The chosen base voltage, 4.16 kV, is referred to as base
voltage, 100% voltage, or unit voltage.
There are four base quantities in the per-unit system: base kVA, base volts, base
ohms, and base amperes. They are so related that the selection of any two of them
determines the base values of the remaining two. It is a common practice to assign
study base values to kVA and voltage. Base amperes and base ohms are then
derived for each of the voltage levels in the system. In power system studies, the
base voltage is usually selected as the nominal system voltage at one point of the
system, such as the voltage rating of a generator or the nominal voltage at the
delivery point of the utility supply. The
base kVA can be similarly taken as the kVA rating of one of the predominant pieces
of system equipment, such as a generator or a transformer; but usual practice is to
choose a convenient round number such as 10 000 for the base kVA. The latter
selection has some advantage of commonality when several studies are made,
while the former choice means that at least one significant component will not
have to be converted to a new base.
The basic relationships for the electrical per unit quantities are as follows: per-unit
volts

For three-phase systems, the nominal line-to-line system voltages

are normally used as the base voltages. The base kVA is assigned the three-phase kVA
value. The derived values of the remaining two quantities are as follows:

It is convenient in practice to convert directly from ohms to per-

unit ohms without first determining base ohms according to the following expression
For a three-phase system, the impedance is in ohms per phase, the base kVA is the three
phase value, and the base kV is line-to-line. Where two or more systems with different
voltage levels are interconnected through
transformers, the kVA base is common for all systems; but the base voltage of each system
is determined by the turns ratio of the transformer connecting the systems, starting from
the one point for which the base voltage has been declared. Base ohms and base amperes
will thus be correspondingly different for systems of different voltage
levels. Once the system quantities are expressed as per-unit values, the various systems
with different voltage levels can be treated as a single system during the solution for the
unknown variables. Ideal transformers are typically eliminated from the circuit model by a
prudent choice of voltage bases. Only when reconverting the per-unit values to actual
voltage and current values is it necessary to recall that different base voltages exist
throughout the system. When impedance values of devices are expressed in terms of their
own kVA and voltage
ratings, which differ from the base values of a circuit, it is necessary to refer these values to
the system base values. This typically happens due to equipment kVA bases being different
from the chosen system kVA base. In such cases, the per-unit impedance of the device must
be changed to either a new base kVA or new base voltage, or both, by the following
equation:

Short Circuit Currents General

The amount of current available in a short circuit fault is determined by the capacity of the
system voltage sources and the impedances of the system, including the fault. Voltage
sources include the power supply (utility or on-site generation) plus all rotating machines
connected to the system at the time of the fault. A fault may be either an arcing or bolted
fault. In an arcing fault, part of the circuit voltage is consumed across the fault and the total
fault current is somewhat smaller than for a bolted fault, so the latter is the worst condition,
and therefore is the value sought in the fault calculations. Basically, the short circuit current
is determined by applying Ohms Law to an equivalent circuit consisting of a constant
voltage source and time varying impedance. Time varying
impedance is used in order to account for the changes in the effective voltages of the
rotating machines during the fault. In an ac system, the resulting short circuit current starts
out higher in magnitude than the final steady state value and asymmetrical (due to the dc
offset) about the X-axis. The current then decays toward a lower symmetrical steady-state
value. The time varying characteristic of the impedance accounts for the symmetrical decay
in current. The ratio of the reactive and resistive components (X/R ratio) accounts for the dc
decay,

The fault current consists of an exponentially decreasing direct current component

superimposed upon a decaying alternating-current. The rate of decay of both the dc and ac
components depends upon the ratio of reactance to resistance (X/R) of the circuit. The
greater this ratio, the longer the current remains higher than the steady-state value which it
would eventually reach. The total fault current is not symmetrical with respect to the time-
axis because of the direct-current component; hence it is called asymmetrical current. See
Table

The dc component depends on the point on the voltage wave at which the fault is initiated
for multiplying factors that relate the rms asymmetrical value of Total Current to the rms
symmetrical value, and the peak asymmetrical value of Total Current to the rms
symmetrical value. The ac component is not constant if rotating machines are connected to
the system because the impedance of this apparatus is not constant. The rapid variation of
motor and generator impedance is due to these factors: Sub transient Reactance (x "d ),
determines fault current during the first cycle, and after about 6 cycles this value increases
to the transient reactance. It is used for the
calculation of the momentary interrupting and/or momentary withstand duties of equipment
and/or system. Transient Reactance (x 'd), which determines fault current after about 6
cycles and this value in 1/2 to 2 seconds increases to the value of the synchronous
reactance. It is used in the setting of the phase OC relays of generators and medium voltage
circuit breakers. Synchronous Reactance (x d ), which determines fault current after steady
state condition is reached. It has no effect as far as short circuit calculations are concerned
but is useful in the determination of relay settings. Transformer Impedance, in percent, is
defined as that percent of rated primary voltage that must be applied to the transformer to
produce rated current flowing in the secondary, with secondary shorted through zero
resistance. Therefore, assuming the primary voltage can be sustained (generally referred to
as an infinite or unlimited supply), the maximum current a transformer can deliver to a fault
condition is the quantity of (100 divided by percent impedance) times the transformer rated
secondary current. Limiting
the power source fault capacity will thereby reduce the maximum fault current from the
transformer. The electric network which determines the short circuit current consists of an
ac driving voltage equal to the prefault system voltage and impedance corresponding to
that observed when looking back into the system from the fault location. In medium and
high voltage work, it is generally satisfactory to regard reactance as the entire impedance;
resistance may be neglected. However, this is normally permissible only if the X/R ratio of
the medium voltage system is equal to or more than 25. In low voltage (1000 volts and
below) calculations, it is usually worthwhile to attempt greater accuracy by including
resistance with reactance in dealing with impedance. It is for this
reason, plus ease of manipulating the various impedances of cables and buses and
transformers of the low voltage circuits, that computer studies are recommended before
final selection of apparatus and system arrangements.

When evaluating the adequacy of short circuit ratings of medium voltage circuit breakers
and fuses, both the rms symmetrical value and asymmetrical value of the short circuit
current should be determined. For low voltage circuit breakers and fuses, the rms
symmetrical value should be determined along with either: the X/R ratio of the fault at the
device or the asymmetrical short circuit current.
 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS/STUDY
Introduction

One of the most common computational procedures used in power system analysis is the
load flow calculation. The planning, design, and operation of power systems require such
calculations to analyze the steady-state (quiescent) performance of the power system under
various operating conditions and to study the effects of changes in equipment configuration.
These load flow solutions are performed using computer programs designed specifically for
this purpose. The basic load flow question is this: Given the load power consumption at all
buses of a known electric power system configuration and the power production at each
generator, find the power flow in each line and transformer of the interconnecting network
and the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus. Analyzing the solution of this
problem for numerous conditions helps ensure that the power system is designed to satisfy
its performance criteria while incurring the most favorable investment and operation costs.
Some examples of the uses of load flow studies are to determine the following:

Component or circuit loadings

Steady-state bus voltages
Reactive power flows
Transformer tap settings
System losses
Generator exciter/regulator voltage set points
Performance under emergency conditions

Modern systems are complex and have many paths or branches over which power can flow.
Such systems form networks of series and parallel paths. Electric power flow in these
networks divides among the branches until a balance is reached in accordance with
Kirchoffs laws. Computer programs to solve load flows are divided into two typesstatic
(offline) and dynamic (real time). Most load flow studies for system analysis are based on
static
network models. Real time load flows (online) that incorporate data input from the actual
networks are typically used by utilities in automatic Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) systems. Such systems are used primarily as operating tools for
optimization of generation, var control, dispatch, losses, and tie line control. This
discussion is concerned with only static network models and their analysis. Because the load
flow problem pertains to balanced, steady-state operation of power systems, a single-phase,
positive sequence model of the power system is used. Three phase load flow analysis
software is available; but it is not normally needed for routine industrial power system
studies. A load flow calculation determines the state of the power system for a given load
and generation distribution. It represents a steady-state condition as if that condition had
been held fixed for some time. In actuality, line flows and bus voltages fluctuate constantly
by small amounts because loads change constantly as lights, motors, and other loads are
turned on and off. However, these small fluctuations can be ignored in calculating the
steady-state effects on system equipment.

As the load distribution, and possibly the network, will vary considerably during different
time periods, it may be necessary to obtain load flow solutions representing different
system conditions such as peak load, average load, or light load. These solutions will be
used to determine either optimum operating modes for normal conditions, such as the
proper setting of voltage control devices, or how the system will respond to abnormal
conditions, such as outages of lines or transformers. Load flows form the basis for
determining both when new equipment additions are needed and the effectiveness of new
alternatives to solve present deficiencies and meet future system requirements. The load
flow model is also the basis for several other types of studies such as short circuit, stability,
motor starting, and harmonic studies. The load flow model supplies the network data and an
initial steady-state condition for these studies. Under steady state conditions, a load flow
study determines real and reactive power flow and bus voltages in all power system circuits.
The load flow solution gives the nodal voltages and phase

System representation
Utility and industrial plant electrical systems can be extensive. A simplified visual means of
representing the complete system is essential to understanding the operation of the system
under its various possible operating modes. The system single-line diagram serves this
purpose. The single-line diagram consists of a drawing identifying buses and interconnecting
lines. Loads, generators, transformers, reactors, capacitors, etc., are all
shown in their respective places in the system. It is necessary to show equipment
parameters as well as their relationship to each other. It shows the operating condition to be
studied in terms of which breakers are open or closed. Buses may be named, numbered, or
both. Interconnecting lines are usually shown with their impedance values entered or cross-
referenced with tables of values. Equipment associated with a bus is shown connected to
that bus. For instance, generators are shown connected to their bus with their equipment
parameters specified, as illustrated in Figure. Similarly, a load is shown connected to bus.
Motor loads are often indicated separately to aid in their modeling in short circuit and other
studies. Each line originates on a bus and terminates on a different bus.

Transformers, like lines, are shown between two buses with the primary connected to one
bus and the secondary to the other. Information to convey an off-nominal turns ratio should
be given when applicable. Drawing format will vary depending on the computer programs
used and the preference of the users, but the single-line diagram should give the necessary
network information in a clear, concise manner.

Input data
The system information, shown on the single-line diagram, defines the system configuration
and the location and size of loads, generation, and equipment. It is organized into a list of
data that defines the mathematical model for each power system component and how the
components are connected together. The preparation of this data file is the foundation of all
load flow analysis, as well as other analysis requiring the network model such as short-
circuits and stability analysis. It is therefore essential that the data preparation be
performed in a consistent, thorough manner. Data values must be as accurate as possible.
Rounding off includes enough decimal places in certain parameters, can lead to erroneous
results. Influential parameters must not be ignored. The data is divided into the following
categories, as this organization is typical of most load flow analysis software: system data,
bus data, generator data, branch data, and transformer data. In order to illustrate the
approach required when using a typical program, the details of one such system will be
described.

System data
Most load flow programs perform their calculations using a per unit representation of the
system rather than working with volts, amperes, and ohms. The input of data to the
program may either be in per unit or in physical units, depending on program convention.
Converting the system data to a per unit representation requires the selection of a base kVA
and base voltage. Selection of the base kVA and base voltage specifies the base impedance
and current. The system data specifies the base kVA (or MVA) for the entire system. A base
kVA of 10 000 kVA (10 MVA) is often used for industrial studies. For utility systems, the
accepted convention is a base of 100 MVA.
The base kV is chosen for each voltage level. Selecting the nominal voltage to be the base
voltage simplifies the analyses and reduces the chance of errors in interpretation of results.

Bus data
The bus data describes each bus and the load and shunts connected to that bus. The data
includes the following:
Bus number
Bus name
Bus type
Load
Shunt
Per unit voltage and angle
Bus base kV
The bus number is normally the primary index to the information about the bus. For
example, it is used to define the line connections in the line data and will be used to get
output about a bus during program execution. The bus name is normally used only for
informational purposes, allowing the user to give a descriptive name to the bus to make
program output more easily understood. Some programs allow the use of the bus name as
the primary index
The bus type is a program code to allow the program to properly organize the buses for load
flow solution. This organization varies among programs and may be handled internally by
the program. Typically, the four bus types are as follows:
a) Load buses
b) Generator buses
c) Swing buses
d) Disconnected buses
The terms load bus and generator bus should not be taken literally. A load bus is any
bus that does not have a generator. A load bus need not have load; it may simply be an
interconnection point for two or more lines. A generator bus could also have load connected
to it. The swing or slack bus is a special type of generator bus that is needed by the
solution process. The swing generator adjusts its scheduled power to supply the system MW
and MVar losses that are not otherwise accounted for. This is explained in more detail in the
section on load flow solution. There is normally only one swing bus. In utility studies, a large
generator is picked as the swing bus. In industrial studies, the utility supply is usually
represented as the swing bus. A disconnected bus is a bus that is temporarily reenergized.
It is not included in the load flow solution and must not have in-service lines connected to it.
The data is retained so the bus could be reenergized (connected to the system) later in the
studies. Load is normally entered in
MW and Mvar at nominal voltage Normally, the load is treated as a constant MVA, that is,
independent of voltage. In some cases, a constant current or constant impedance
component of load will also be entered so that the load is a function of voltage as explained
in 4.9. Shunts generally are entered in Mvar at nominal voltage. Care must be
taken to ensure the proper sign convention is used to distinguish reactors from capacitors as
defined for the particular load flow program being used. The bus base kV is often entered to
allow output reports to show voltages in kV and currents in amperes.

Generator data
Generator data is entered for each generator in the system including the system swing
generator. The data defines the generator power output and how voltage is controlled by
the generator. The data items normally entered are as follows: Real power output in MW
Maximum reactive power output in Mvar (i.e., machine maximum reactive limit)
Minimum reactive power output in Mvar (i.e., machine minimum reactive limit)
Scheduled voltage in per unit
Generator in-service/out-of-service code
Other data items that may be included are the generator MVA base and the generators
internal impedance for use in short-circuit and dynamic studies. The use of the above data
items to determine the generator voltage and reactive power output is discussed in 6.4.
Some programs may allow a generator to regulate a remote bus voltage.
Branch data
Data is also entered for each branch in the system. Here the term branch refers to all
elements that connect two buses including transmission lines, cables, series reactors, series
capacitors, and transformers. The data items include the following:
Resistance
Reactance
Charging susceptance (shunt capacitance) Line ratings
Line in-service/out-of-service code
Line-connected shunts
Lines are represented by a model with series resistance and reactance and one-half of the
charging susceptance placed on each end of the line. The resistance, reactance, and
susceptance are usually input in either per unit or percent, depending on program
convention. Line rating is normally input in amperes or MVA. Current ratings can be
converted to

MVA with the formula:

ratingMVA 3 X kVBASE XratingA

= -------------------------------------------------------
1000
A series reactor, series capacitor, or transformer would not have a charging susceptance
term. The modeling of the charging susceptance is often ignored for short overhead lines
and industrial plant systems.

Transformer data
Additional data is required for transformers. This can either be entered as part of the branch
data or as a separate data category depending on the particular load flow program being
used. This additional data usually includes the following: Tap setting in per unit
Tap angle in degrees
Maximum tap position
Minimum tap position
Scheduled voltage range with tap step size or a fixed scheduled voltage using a
continuous tap approximation
The last three data items are needed only for load tap changing (LTC) transformers that
automatically vary their tap setting to control voltage on one side of the transformer. The
organization of transformer tap data requires an understanding of the tap convention used
by the load flow program to ensure the representation gives the correct boost or buck in
voltage. Transformers whose rated primary or secondary voltages do not match the system
nominal (base kV) voltages on the terminal buses will require an off-nominal tap
representation in the load flow (and possibly require corresponding adjustment of the
transformer impedance).
LOAD FLOW CALCULATION METHOD
The load flow calculation allows the determination of the voltages, currents, active and
reactive powers established and flowing on the electrical system, starting from the absorbed
power on each bus bar. In addition the calculation gives the power losses in system
components (cables and transformers). The load flow study of a power system can be
performed as follows: given the desired power at each bus in the system

P (desired) = PG - PL
Q (desired) = QG - QL
Where PG, QG are generations, PL, QL are loads, find the bus voltages V such that the
desired power is matched by the power absorbed by the power network allowing an error
(or mismatch) within a certain, specified range.
A power network in the load flow study is represented by its Y-matrix:

I = YV
or Ii=YijV
(i = 1, n ).j=1

[I] is the vector of total positive sequence currents flowing into the network nodes (buses)
[V] is the vector of positive sequence voltages at the network nodes (buses) [Y] is the
network admittance matrix. Above Equation is a linear algebraic equation with complex
coefficients. If either [I] or [V] were known, the solution for the unknown quantities could be
obtained by application of widely used numerical solution techniques for linear equations.
Partly because of tradition and partly because of the physical characteristics of generation
and load, the terminal conditions at each bus are normally described in terms of active and
reactive power (P and Q). The bus current at bus i is related to these quantities as follows:

where * designates the conjugate of a complex quantity. Combining both Equations

Equation is nonlinear and cannot be readily solved by closed-form matrix

techniques. Because of this, load flow solutions are obtained by procedures involving
iterative
techniques.
Iterative solution algorithms the Gauss-Seidel technique and the Newton-Raphson technique
are the widely used techniques. The preferred techniques used by most commercial load
flow software are variations of the Newton technique. All of these techniques solve bus
equations in admittance form, as described in the previous section. This system of
equations has gained widespread application because of the simplicity of data preparation
and the ease with which the bus admittance matrix can be formed and changed in
subsequent cases.
In a load flow study, the primary parameters are as follows:

P is the active power into the network

Q is the reactive power into the network |V | is the magnitude of bus voltage
is the angle of bus voltage referred to a common reference
In order to define the load flow problem to be solved, it is necessary to specify two of the
four quantities at each bus. For generating units, it is reasonable to specify P and |V |
because these quantities are controllable through governor and excitation controls,
respectively. For loads, one generally specifies the real power demand P and the
reactive power Q. Since there are losses in the transmission system and these losses are
not known before the load flow solution is obtained, it is necessary to retain one bus where
P is not specified. At this bus, called a swing bus, |V | as well as are specified. Since
is specified (that is, held constant during the load flow solution), it
is the reference angle for the system. The swing bus is therefore also called the reference
bus. Since the real power, P, and reactive power, Q, are not specified at the swing bus, they
are free to adjust to cover transmission losses in the system. The classifications
generator bus and load bus should not be taken as absolute. There will, for example, be
occasions where a pure load bus may be specified by P and |V |. Bus specification is the tool
with which the engineer manipulates the load flow solution to obtain the desired
information. The objective of the load flow solution is to determine the two quantities at
each bus that are not specified. The generator specification of holding the bus voltage
constant and calculating the reactive power output will be overridden in the load flow
solution if the generator reactive output reaches its maximum or minimum var limit. In this
case, the generator reactive power will be held at the respective limit, and the bus voltage
will be allowed to vary. Gauss-Seidel iterative technique Descriptions of load flow solution
techniques can become rather complicated, due more
to the notation required for complex arithmetic rather than the basic concepts of the
solution method. In the following sections, therefore, the basic techniques are developed by
The Gauss-Seidel solution algorithm, although not the most powerful, is the easiest to
understand. Accelerated gauss-seidel Method. It is found in practice that the process of
convergence due to G-S method is slow i.e , it requires a large number of iterations before a
solution is obtained. The process of convergence can be speeded up if the voltage
correction during consecutive iteration is
modified. A suitable value of for a particular system can be obtains by running trial load
flows. = 1.6 for general recommended value for most of the systems.
Newton-Raphson iterative technique
Not all load flow problems can be solved efficiently using the Gauss-Seidel technique. For
some problems, this scheme converges rather slowly. For others, it does not converge at all.
Problems that cannot be solved using the Gauss-Seidel technique may often be solved using
the Newton-Raphson technique. This approach utilizes the partial derivatives of the load
flow relationships to estimate the changes in the independent variables required to find the
solution. In general, the Newton- Raphson technique achieves convergence using less
iteration than the
Gauss-Seidel technique. However, the computational effort per iteration is somewhat
greater. The Newton-Raphson method is considered to be the most useful of all methods
proposed so far. Load flow analysis by Newton-Raphson method begins with the linearization
of the nonlinear system of equations. The coefficients of these linear equations are arranged
in a matrix form known as Jacobian matrix.

The absorbed power can be calculated by the following equation:

where is the tolerance or deviance defined by the user, the load flow problem has
converged. For generator buses, instead of Q, the bus voltage is checked against the
desired bus voltage. The tolerance can be defined in %, pu or kVA, and the relationship
among them is as follows:

pu = % / 100 = kVA / base kVA

As the accuracy and the convergence of a load flow study are directly controlled by the
tolerance, it is very important to choose the proper values for them. If the load at a bus is
too small compared to the others, the load flow results may be inaccurate even if they are
converging. The value of base power used in simulations is 100,000 kVA. The used tolerance
value is 0.01% (10 kVA).

Comparison of load flow solution techniques

The techniques described in the previous sub-clauses are the basic load flow solution
techniques. There are many variations and improvements to these techniques that have
been developed and incorporated into load flow programs to improve the starting or
convergence characteristics. Although it is useful to understand how load flow solution
techniques work, it is more important to understand the characteristics they exhibit.
Because their convergence characteristics are dependent upon network, load, and
generator conditions, each of the
iterative techniques discussed has its own strengths and weaknesses. Gauss-Seidel
methods generally exhibit poor convergence characteristics when compared to Newton
methods and thus are no longer widely used for load flow studies. Most of the research into
load flow solution techniques has centered on Newton methods. Variations of the Newton
methods have been developed to overcome the weaknesses of the original methods,
especially the ability to converge from a poor initial voltage estimate. The modified Newton
methods employed by commercial load flow programs combine good convergence
characteristics and solution algorithm robustness. Details on such algorithms are available
in the references.

APPROXIMATION TO NEWTON-RAPHON METHOD

A small change in phase angle changes the flow of active power and does not affect much
the flow of reactive power. Similarly a small change in nodal voltage affects the flow of
reactive power whereas active power practically doesnt change
[P] = [J1 0 ][ ]
[ Q] [0 J4][I V I]

Fast-Decoupled Load Flow

This is an extension of Newton-raphon method formulated in polar coordinates with certain
approximation which results into a fast algorithm for load flow solution.

Load flow analysis

A load flow solution determines the bus voltages and the flows in all branches for a given
set of conditions. A load flow study is a series of such calculations made when certain
equipment parameters are set at different values, or circuit configuration is changed by
opening or closing breakers, adding or removing a line, etc. Load flow studies are performed
to check the operation of an existing system under normal or outage conditions, to see if
the existing system is capable of supplying planned additional loads, or to check and
compare new alternatives for system additions to supply new load or improve system
performance. Generally, the study engineer has a predefined set of criteria that the system
must meet. These include the following:
Voltage criteria, such as defined in IEEE Std 141-19932
Flows on lines and transformers must be within defined thermal ratings
Generator reactive outputs must be within the limits defined by the generator capability
curves
The voltage criteria are usually divided into an acceptable voltage range for normal
conditions and a wider range of acceptable voltage under outage conditions. The thermal
criteria for lines and transformers may also have such a division, allowing for a temporary
overload capability due to the thermal time constant of the equipment or additional forced
cooling capabilities of transformers. A study normally begins with the preparation of base
cases to represent the different operating modes of the system or plant. The operating
condition normally chosen is
maximum load. (Here maximum load refers to the maximum amount of coincident loaded,
not the sum of all the loads. See 4.9 for an explanation of load diversity and load modeling.)
When maximum load occurs at different times on different parts of the system, several base
cases may be needed. The base cases should represent realistic operating conditions.
Abnormal conditions and worst-case scenarios will be addressed later in the study. The base
cases are analyzed to determine if voltages and flows are within acceptable ranges. Sample
outputs are shown in 6.6. If voltages or overload problems are noted, system changes can
be made to the load flow data and the case resolved to see if the changes are effective in
remedying the problem. To remedy low voltage problems, possible changes include the
following:

Change in transformer tap positions

Increase in generator schedule voltage
Addition of shunt capacitors
System reconfiguration to shift load to less heavily loaded lines
Disconnection of shunt reactors
Addition of lines or transformers
To remedy heavy line or transformer loadings, most of the same remedies apply. In general,
the first two of the above remedies will not help heavy loadings due to large real power
(watt) flows. Real power flows from the generators to the loads. Real power flow is
determined by the phase angle of the supply bus leading the phase angle of the load bus,
with voltage magnitudes having a secondary effect. However, reactive power flow is
primarily determined by the voltage magnitude with reactive power flowing from the higher
voltage bus to the lower voltage bus. Real and reactive power flow, being primarily
influenced by different constraints, can flow in different directions on the same line.
Transformer off-nominal taps can change the relative relationship of the voltage on the
primary and secondary bus and thus can change the reactive power flow, while the real
power flow is largely unaffected by a change in tap position. When the base case voltages
and flows are in the desired range, the system must be examined to check operation under
abnormal conditions (contingency analysis). These conditions include the following:
Loss of a transmission line or cable
Loss of a transformer
Loss of a generator
Abnormal supply conditions

When the load flow model is changed, for example, to represent a line outage, a new
solution is obtained. The voltage and flows are checked against their respective criterion. If
necessary, further system changes are made to correct the problems noted. In contingency
analysis, it is important to note that several outages may cause system
problems; but the different remedies applied may not help equally for all outages. To
minimize the number and cost of the remedies, it is necessary to choose those remedies
that have the most beneficial effects for the most outages. The load flow analysis is used to
design a system that has a good voltage profile and acceptable line loadings during normal
operation and that will continue to operate acceptably when one or more lines
become inoperative due to line damage, lightning strokes, failure of transformers, etc.
Performing a series of load flow cases and analyzing the results provides operating
intelligence in a short time that might take years of actual operating experience to obtain. In
addition to the benefits described above, a study of reactive power flows on the
branches can lead to reduced line losses and improved voltage distribution. Reduction in
kVA demand due to power factor correction can lead to lower utility bills for an industrial
plant. The size and placement of power factor correction capacitors and the setting of
generator scheduled voltages and transformer tap positions can be studied with load flows.
Knowledge of branch flows supplies the protection engineer with requirements for proper
relay settings. The load flow studies can also provide data for automatic load and demand
control, if needed.
The load flow is also used to check the effects of future load growth and the effectiveness of
planned additions. These studies are performed in the same way as studies of the present
system. The future loads are determined and entered into the model. Base case conditions
are studied and additions made, if necessary, to get the system to meet the performance
criteria. Then outage conditions are studied and again system changes may be required.
Studies of future systems vary in that there are usually more alternative ways of solving the
problems encountered. The load flow is the tool that allows the alternatives to be compared
in terms of their effectiveness under normal and contingency conditions. Coupled with other
studies as well as cost and reliability data, the results lead to the selection of the best
alternative.

Motor starting Study (Voltage Dip Study)

Motors on modern industrial systems are becoming increasingly larger. Some are considered
large even in comparison to the total capacity of large industrial power systems. Starting
large motors, especially across-the-line, can cause severe disturbances to the motor and
any locally connected load, and also to buses electrically remote from the point of motor
starting. Ideally, a motor-starting study should be made before a large motor is purchased. A
starting voltage requirement and preferred locked rotor current should be stated as part of
the motor specification. A motor-starting study should be made if the motor horsepower
exceeds approximately 15-30% of the supply transformer(s) base kVA rating, if no
generators are present. If generation is present, and no other sources are involved, a study
should be considered whenever the motor horsepower exceeds 10-15% of the generator
kVA rating, depending on actual generator characteristics. The study should also recognize
contingent condition(s), i.e., the loss of a source (if applicable). It may be necessary to make
a study for smaller horsepower sizes depending on the daily fluctuation of nominal voltage,
voltage level, size and length of the motor feeder
cable, amount of load, regulation of the supply voltage, the impedance and tap ratio of the
supply transformer(s), load torque versus motor torque, and the allowable starting time.
Finally, some applications may involve starting large groups of smaller motors of sufficient
collective size to impact system voltage regulation during the starting interval. A brief
discussion of major problems associated with starting large motors, or groups of motors,
and therefore, of significance in power system design and evaluation follows.

Voltage dips
Probably the most widely recognized and studied effect of motor-starting is the voltage dip
experienced throughout an industrial power system as a direct result of starting large
motors. Available accelerating torque drops appreciably at the motor bus as voltage dips to
a lower value, extending the starting interval and affecting, sometimes adversely, overall
motor-starting performance. Acceptable voltage for motor-starting depends on
motor and load torque characteristics. Requirements for minimum starting voltage can vary
over a wide range, depending on the application. (Voltages can range from 80% or lower to
95% or higher.) During motor-starting, the voltage level at the motor terminals should be
maintained, as a minimum, at approximately 80% of rated voltage or above for a standard
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) design B motor (as specified in NEMA
MG 1-1993) having a standard 150% starting torque and with a constant torque load
applied. This value results from examination of speed-torque characteristics of this type
motor (150% starting torque at full voltage) and the desire to successfully accelerate a fully
loaded motor at reduced voltage (that is, torque varies with the square of the voltage When
other motors are affected, or when lower shaft loadings are involved, the minimum
permissible voltage may be either higher or lower, respectively. The speed-torque
characteristics of the starting motor along with any other affected motors and all related
loads should be examined to specifically determine minimum acceptable voltage. Assuming
reduced voltage permits adequate accelerating torque, it should also be verified that the
longer starting interval required at reduced torque caused by a voltage dip does not result in
the I2t damage limit of the motor being exceeded. Several other problems may arise on the
electrical power system due to the voltage dips caused by motor-starting. Motors that are
running normally on the system, for example,
will slow down in response to the voltage dip occurring when a large motor is started. The
running machines must be able to reaccelerate once the machine being started reaches
operating speed. When the voltage depression caused by the starting motor is severe, the
loading on the running machines may exceed their breakdown torque (at the reduced
voltage), and they may decelerate significantly or even stall before the starting interval is
concluded. The decelerating machines all impose heavy current demands that only
compound the original distress caused by the machine that was started. The result is a
dominoing voltage depression that can lead to the loss of all load. In general, if the motors
on the system are standard NEMA design B, the speed-torque characteristics (200%
breakdown torque at full voltage) should prevent a stall, provided the motor terminal
voltage does not drop below about 71% of motor nameplate voltage. This is a valid
guideline to follow anytime the shaft load does not exceed 100% rated, since the developed
starting torque is again proportional to the terminal voltage squared
(V2), and the available torque at 71% voltage would thus be slightly above 100%. If motors
other than NEMA design B motors are used on the system, a similar criterion can be
established to evaluate reacceleration following a motor-starting voltage dip based on the
exact speed-torque characteristics of each particular motor. Other types of loads, such as
electronic devices and sensitive control equipment, may be adversely effected during
motor-starting. There is a wide range of variation in the amount of voltage drop that can be
tolerated by static drives and computers. Voltage fluctuations may also cause objectionable
fluctuations in lighting. Tolerable voltage limits should be obtained from the specific
equipment manufacturers. By industry standards (see NEMA ICS 1-1993, NEMA ICS 2-1993,
NEMA ICS 3-1993, NEMA ICS 4-1993, NEMA ICS 6-1993), ac control devices are not required
to pick-up at voltages below 85% of rated nameplate voltage, whereas dc control devices
must operate dependably (i.e., pick-up) at voltages above 80% of their rating. Critical
control operations may, therefore, encounter difficulty during motor-starting periods where
voltage dips are excessive. A motor-starting study might be required to determine if this is
a problem with thoughts to using devices rated at 110 V rather than the normal 115 V
nominal devices. Contactors are required to hold-in with line voltage as low as 80% of their
rating (NEMA Standards).
The actual dropout voltages of contactors used in industrial applications commonly range
between 60-70% of rated voltage, depending on the manufacturer. Voltages in this range,
therefore, may be appropriate and are sometimes used as the criteria for the lower limit
that contactors can tolerate. Depending on where lighting buses are located, with respect to
large starting motors, this may be a factor requiring a motor-starting study. Table
summarizes some critical system voltage levels of interest when performing a motor-
starting study for the purpose of evaluating the effects of voltage dips.
Weak source generation
Smaller power systems are usually served by limited capacity sources, which generally
magnify voltage drop problems on motor-starting, especially when large motors are
involved. Small systems can also have on-site generation, which causes an additional
voltage drop due to the relatively higher impedance of the local generators during the
(transient) motor-starting interval. The type of voltage regulator system applied with the
generators can dramatically influence motor-starting. A motor-starting study can be useful,
even for analyzing the performance of small systems. Certain digital computer programs
can accurately model generator transient behavior and exciter/regulator response under
motor starting conditions, providing meaningful results and conclusions.

Special torque requirements

Sometimes special loads must be accelerated under carefully controlled conditions without
exceeding specified torque limitations of the equipment. An example of this is starting a
motor connected to a load through gearing. This application requires a special period of low
torque cushioned acceleration to allow slack in the gears and couplings to be picked up
without damage to the equipment. Certain computer-aided motor-starting studies allow an
instant-by-instant shaft output torque tabulation for comparison to allowable torque limits of
the equipment. This study can be used for selecting a motor or a starting method, or both,
with optimum speed-torque characteristics for the application. The results of a detailed
study are used for sizing the starting resistors for a wound rotor motor, or in analyzing
rheostat control for a starting wound rotor motor that might be used in a cushioned starting
application involving mechanical gearing or a coupling system that has torque transmitting
limitations. High-inertia loads increase motor-starting time, and heating in the motor due to
high currents drawn during starting can be intolerable. A computer-aided motor-starting
study allows accurate values of motor current and time during acceleration to be calculated.
This makes it possible to determine if thermal limits of standard motors will be exceeded for
longer than normal starting intervals. Other loads have special starting torque requirements
or accelerating time limits that require special high starting torque (and inrush) motors.
Additionally, the starting torque of the load or process may not permit low inrush motors in
situations where these motors might reduce the voltage dip caused by starting a motor
having standard inrush characteristics. A simple inspection of the motor and load speed
torque curves is not sufficient to determine whether such problems exist. This is another
area where the motor torque and accelerating time study can be useful.

Recommendations Voltage dips

A motor-starting study can expose and identify the extent of a voltage drop problem. The
voltage at each bus in the system can, for example, be readily determined by a digital
computer study. Equipment locations likely to experience difficulty during motor-starting can
be immediately determined. In situations where a variety of equipment voltage ratings are
available, the correct rating for the application can be selected. Circuit changes, such as off-
nominal tap settings for distribution transformers and larger than standard conductor-sized
cable, can also be readily evaluated. On a complex power system, this type of detailed
analysis is very difficult to accomplish with time-consuming hand solution methods. Several
methods of minimizing voltage dip on starting motors are based on the fact that during
starting time, a motor draws an inrush current directly proportional to terminal voltage;
therefore, a lower voltage causes the motor to require less current, thereby reducing the
voltage dip. Autotransformer starters are a very effective means of obtaining a reduced
voltage during starting with standard taps ranging from 50% to 80% of normal rated
voltage. A motor starting study is used to select the proper voltage tap and the lower line
current inrush for the electrical power system during motor start. Other special reduced-
voltage starting methods include resistor or reactor starting, part-winding starting, and wye
(Y)-start delta ( D) -run motors. All are examined by an appropriate motor-starting study,
and the best method for the particular application involved can be selected. In all reduced
voltage starting methods, torque available for accelerating the load is a very critical
consideration once bus voltage levels are judged otherwise acceptable. Only 25% torque
is available, for example, with 50% of rated voltage applied at the motor terminals. Any
problems associated with reduced starting torque imposed by special starting methods are
automatically uncovered by a motor starting study. Another method of reducing high inrush
currents when starting large motors is a capacitor starting system. This maintains
acceptable voltage levels throughout the system. With this method, the high inductive
component of normal reactive starting current is offset by the addition, during the starting
period only, of capacitors to the motor bus. This differs from the practice of applying
capacitors for running motor power factor correction. A motor-starting study can provide
information to allow optimum sizing of the starting capacitors and determination of the
length of time the capacitor must be energized. The study can also establish whether the
capacitor and motor can be switched together, or because of an excessive voltage drop that
might result from the impact of capacitor transient charging current when added to the
motor inrush current, the capacitor must be energized momentarily ahead of the motor. The
switching procedure can appreciably affect the cost of final installation.
Use of special starters or capacitors to minimize voltage dips can be an expensive method
of maintaining voltage at acceptable levels (see Harbaugh and Ponsting [B6]). Where
possible, off-nominal tap settings for distribution transformers are an effective, economical
solution for voltage dips. By raising no-load voltage in areas of the system experiencing
difficulties during motor-starting, the effect of the voltage dip can often be minimized. In
combination with a load flow study, a motor-starting study can provide information to assist
in selecting proper taps and ensure that light load voltages are not excessively high. The
motor-starting study can be used to prove the effectiveness of several other solutions to the
voltage dip problem as well. With a wound rotor motor,
differing values of resistance are inserted into the motor circuit at various times during the
starting interval to reduce maximum inrush (and accordingly starting torque) to some
desired value. Figure 9-2 shows typical speed-torque characteristic curves for a wound rotor
motor. With appropriate switching times (dependent on motor speed) of resistance values,
practically any desired speed-torque (starting) characteristic can be obtained. A
motor-starting study aids in choosing optimum current and torque values for a wound rotor
motor application whether resistances are switched in steps by timing relays or continuously
adjusted values obtained through a liquid rheostat feedback starting control. For small
loads, voltage stabilizers are sometimes used. These devices provide essentially
instantaneous response to voltage fluctuations by stabilizing line voltage variations of as
great as 15% to within 1% at the load. The cost and limited loading capability of these
devices, however, have restricted their use mostly to controlling circuit power supply
applications. Special inrush motors can be purchased for a relatively small price increase
over standard motors. These motors maintain nearly the same speed-
torque characteristics as standard machines, but the inrush current is limited (usually to
about 4.6 times full load current compared with 6 times full load current for a standard
motor).

Analyzing starting requirements

A speed-torque and accelerating time study often in conjunction with the previously
discussed voltage dip study permits a means of exploring a variety of possible motor speed
torque characteristics. This type of motor-starting study also confirms that starting times are
within acceptable limits. The accelerating time study assists in establishing the necessary
thermal damage characteristics of motors or verifies that machines with locked-rotor
protection supervised by speed switches will not experience nuisance tripping on starting.
The speed torque/accelerating time motor-starting study is also used to verify that special
motor torque and/or inrush characteristics specified for motors to be applied on the system
will produce the desired results. Mechanical equipment requirements and special ratings
necessary for motor-starting auxiliary equipment are based on information developed from
a motor-starting study.

Types of studies
From the previous discussion, it is apparent that, depending on the factors of concern in any
specific motor-starting situation, more than one type of motor-starting study can be
required.

The voltage drop snapshot

One method of examining the effect of voltage dip during motor-starting is to ensure the
maximum instantaneous drop that occurs leaves bus voltages at acceptable levels
throughout the system. This is done by examining the power system that corresponds to the
worst-case voltage. Through appropriate system modeling, this study can be
performed by various calculating methods using the digital computer. The so-called voltage
drop snapshot study is useful only for finding system voltages. Except for the recognition of
generator transient impedances when appropriate, machine inertias, load characteristics,
and other transient effects are usually ignored. This type of study, while certainly an
approximation, is often sufficient for many applications.

The detailed voltage profile

This type of study allows a more exact examination of the voltage drop situation. Regulator
response, exciter operation, and, sometimes, governor action are modeled to accurately
represent transient behavior of local generators. This type of study is similar to a simplified
transient stability analysis and can be considered a series of voltage snapshots throughout
the motor-starting interval including the moment of minimum or worst-case voltage.

The speed-torque and acceleration time analysis

Perhaps the most exacting analysis for motor-starting conditions is the detailed
speed-torque analysis. Similar to a transient stability study (some can also be used
to accurately investigate motor-starting), speed-torque analysis provides electrical
and accelerating torque calculations for specified time intervals during the motor-
starting period. Motor slip, load and motor torques, terminal voltage magnitude and
angle, and the complex value of motor current drawn are values to be examined at
time zero and at the end of each time interval. Under certain circumstances, even
across-the-line starting, the motor may not be able to break away from standstill, or
it may stall at some speed before acceleration is complete. speed- torque analysis,
especially when performed using a computer program, and possibly in combination
with one or more previously discussed studies, can predict these problem areas and
allow corrections to be made before difficulties arise. When special starting
techniques are necessary, such as autotransformer reduced voltage starting,
speed-torque analysis can account for the autotransformer magnetizing current and
it can determine the optimum time to switch the transformer out of the circuit. The
starting performance of wound rotor motors is examined through this type of study.
 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION
General Purpose

Hazardous area classification applies to those locations where flammable gases or

vapors, flammable liquids, or combustible liquids are processed or handled and
where their release into the atmosphere may result in their ignition by electrical
systems or equipment. Areas in which combustible material is or may be present in
the atmosphere in sufficient concentration to produce an ignitable mixture such as
to require special precautions for the construction and use of electrical equipment
and materials shall be defined as hazardous. A flammable atmosphere is a mixture
of flammable gas, vapor or dust with air in such proportion that, without any further
admixture, it will burn when ignited.

The flammable atmosphere concerned in this manual for the Refinery and/or
Chemical Process Project is from petroleum fluids or other flammable fluids, which
are similar in physical characteristics to petroleum fluids, and is defined as Class I
by NEC Standards and Codes. Areas within the battery limits shall be classified for
the degree and the extend of hazard from flammable material in accordance with
API RP 500 and/or 505 Classification of Location for Electrical Installations at
Petroleum Facilities and for the purpose of selecting type of electrical equipment in
hazardous areas shall follow IEC 60079 Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas
Atmospheres or NEC.

The following National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) bulletins and IEC standards
may be referred to in the manner and to the extent indicated in NEC and API RP 500
and/or 505.

No. 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

No. 321 Standard on Basic Classification of Flammable and Combustible
Liquids
No. 325 Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases and Volatile Solids
No. 496 Standard for Purged and Pressurized Enclosures for Electrical Equipment
No. 497 Recommended practice for Classification of Flammable Liquids, Gases,
or Vapor and of

Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Area

No. 499 Recommended practice for Classification of Combustible Dusts and of
Hazardous
Classified Locations for Electrical

Installations in Chemical Process Area

IEC 60079-10 Classification of Hazardous Area
IEC 61241-1 Electrical Apparatus for Use in the Presence of Combustible Dust
DEFINITIONS

Definitions which are more frequently used have been listed below for ease of
reference:
Explosive Gas Atmosphere: A mixture with air of flammable materials in the
form of gas, vapour, or mist, in which, after ignition, combustion spreads
throughout the unconsummated mixture.

Flammable material: Material consisting of flammable vapor, liquid and/or mist.

Combustible Liquids - A liquid having a flash point at or above 38C (100F)

Flammable (explosive) limits: The lower and upper percentages by volume of

concentration of gas in a gas-air mixture that will form an ignitable mixture.

Flammable (explosive) Range: Flammable vapor or gas and air mixture

concentrations between the upper and lower explosive limits.

Lower flammable limit (LFL): It is the lowest percentage by volume of gas or Vapor
in a gas-air mixture below which the mixture is too lean to be ignited.

Upper Flammable Limit (UFL): It is the highest percentage by volume of gas or

Vapor in a gas-air mixture above which the mixture is too rich to ignite.

Flammable Liquid - Liquids with a flash point below 38C(100F ) and have a
vapor pressure not exceeding 276kPA (40 paisa)at 38C(100F).

Flame Propagation - The spread of a flame in a combustible environment outward

from the point at which the combustion starts.

Flash Point: It is minimum temperature of Liquid at which vapor in sufficient

concentration is given off to form an ignitable mixture with air, near the surface of a
liquid, which gives a momentary flash on application of a small pole flame under
specified conditions of test as per IS:1448 (Part-1)

Hazardous (Flammable) Atmosphere: An atmosphere containing any flammable

gas or vapor in a concentration capable of ignition.

Lighter than air: Gases with a vapor density less than 1.0 in process industries, the
boundary between compounds which may be considered lighter-than-air is set at a
relative vapor density of 0.75.

Heavier than air gas: Gases with a vapor density greater than 1.0.
 Ignition Temperature: The lowest temperature at which ignition occurs in a
mixture of explosive gas and air when the method specified in IS: 7820 is followed.

Ignitable Mixture: A mixture that is between the upper and lower limits of the
flammable range and is capable of propagating flame away from the source of
ignition.

Flame proof Apparatus: Apparatus in an enclosure that is capable of

withstanding 4 times the explosion pressure of an internal gas or vapor
developed during an internal explosion and which prevents transmission of the
explosion to the surrounding external atmosphere thereby preventing ignition of
surrounding flammable atmosphere.

Increased Safety Apparatus:

Intrinsically Safe Apparatus: Apparatus that ensure the maximum level of current
and voltage measured as energy is about 1Watts or less.

Intrinsically Safe Circuit - A circuit in which any spark or thermal effect is incapable
of causing ignition of a mixture of flammable or combustible material in air.

Non classified Location - A location that is not classified as Class I,II or III.

Non incendive System: A system not capable of causing ignition under normal
conditions of operation.

Pressurizing: The process of supplying an enclosure or building with clean air or

inert gas at sufficient positive pressure to prevent the entrance of hazardous dusts
(Class II hazardous areas).

Purging: The process of supplying an enclosure with clean air or inert gas or a
room/building with clean air at a sufficient flow rate and positive pressure to reduce,
to an acceptably safe level, the concentrations of any flammable gas or vapor
initially present, and to maintain the safe level by positive pressure with or without
continuous flow (Class I hazardous areas).

Temperature Identification Number (T-Rating): A number proceeded by the letter

"T" designating the maximum surface temperature of a piece of equipment.

Source and Grade of Release: A point or location from which a flammable gas,
vapor, mists or liquid may be released into the atmosphere so that a hazardous
atmosphere could be formed.

Ventilation, Adequate: Ventilation (natural or artificial) that is sufficient to prevent

the accumulation of quantities of vapor-air mixtures in concentrations above 25
percent of their lower flammable (explosive) limit (LFL).
 Ventilation, Inadequate: Rooms, buildings or spaces that do not have a natural or
a mechanical ventilation system providing for adequate ventilation.

Class I, Zone O: A Class I, Zone O location is a location (1) in which ignitable

concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are present continuously; or (2) in
which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are present for long
periods of time.

Class I, Zone 1: A Class I, Zone 1 location is a location (1) in which ignitable

concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are likely to exist under normal
operating conditions; or (2) in which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or
vapors may exist frequently because of repair or maintenance operations or
because of leakage; or (3) in which equipment is operated or processes are carried
on, of such a nature that equipment breakdown or faulty operations could result in
the release of ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors and also cause
simultaneous failure of electrical equipment in a mode to cause the electrical
equipment to become a source of ignition; or (4) that is adjacent to a
Class I, Zone O location from which ignitable concentrations of vapors could be
communicated, unless communication is prevented by adequate positive pressure
ventilation from a source of clean air and effective safeguards against ventilation
failure are provided.

Class I, Zone 2: A Class I, Zone 2 location is a location (1) in which ignitable

concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are not likely to occur in normal
operation and if they do occur will exist only for a short period; or (2) in which
volatile flammable liquids, flammable gases, or flammable vapors are handled,
processed, or used, but in which the liquids, gases, or vapors normally are confined
within closed containers of closed systems from which they can escape, only as a
result of accidental rupture or breakdown of the containers or system, or as the
result of the abnormal operation of the equipment with which the liquids or gases
are handled, processed, or used; or (3) in which ignitable concentrations of
flammable gases or vapors normally are prevented by positive mechanical
ventilation, but which may become hazardous as a result of failure or abnormal
operation of the ventilation equipment; or (4) that is adjacent to a Class I, Zone 1
location, from which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors could
be communicated, unless such communication is prevented by adequate
positive-pressure ventilation from a source of clean air, and effective safeguards
against ventilation failure are provided.

Gas groups: For purposes of testing, approval, and area classification, various air
mixtures (not oxygen enriched) are grouped as in below.
 Group I: A term used by IEC 79-10 to describe atmospheres containing firedamp
(a mixture of gases, composed mostly of methane, found underground, usually in
mines). Since this recommended practice does not apply to installations
underground in mines, this term is not used further.

Group II: The group used to describe gases found aboveground and is
subdivided into IIC, IIB, and IIA, , according to the nature of the gas or vapor, for
protection techniques d, ia, ib [ia], and [ib], and, where applicable, n and
o.

Group IIA: Atmospheres containing acetone, ammonia, ethyl alcohol, gasoline,

methane, propane, or flammable gas, flammable liquid produced vapor, or
combustible liquid produced vapor mixed with air that may burn or explode having
either a maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) value greater than 0.90 mm (35
mils) or a minimum igniting current ratio (MIC ratio) greater than 0.80. (NFPA 497)

Group 11B: Atmospheres containing acetaldehyde, ethylene, or flammable gas,

flammable liquid produced vapor, or combustible liquid produced vapor mixed with
air that may burn or explode having either a maximum experimental safe gap
(MESG) value greater than 0.50 mm (20 mils) and less than or equal to 0.90 mm
(35 mils) or a minimum igniting current ratio (MIC ratio) greater than 0.45 and less
than or equal to 0.80. (NFPA 497).
Group IIC: Atmospheres containing acetylene, hydrogen, or flammable gas,
flammable liquid produced vapor, or combustible liquid produced vapor mixed with
air that may burn or explode, having either a maximum experimental safe gap
(MESG) value less than or equal to 0.50 mm (20 mils) or a minimum igniting current
ratio (MIC ratio) less than 0.45. (NFPA 497)
Hazardous (classified) location: A location where fire or explosion hazards may
exist due to flammable gases or vapors, flammable liquids, combustible dust, or
ignitable fibers or flying. Unless specifically indicated otherwise, locations
containing combustible dust, ignitable fibers or flying are outside the scope of this
recommended practice.

Unclassified location (non-hazardous location): A location not classified asClass I,

Zone O, Zone 1, or Zone 2.
Combustible liquid (Class II, IIIA, and IIIB Liquids): Any liquid that has a closed-cup
flash point at or above 37.8C (100F), as determined by the test procedures and
apparatus outlined in NFPA 30.

Combustible Liquids are subdivided as follows:

Class II liquids-liquids having flash points at or above 37.8C (100F) and below
60C (140F).
Class IIIA liquids-liquids having flash points at or above 60C (140F) and below
93C (200F).
Class IIIB liquids-liquids having flash points at or above 93C (200F).
Area classification of flammable gas/vapor and liquids

Three grades of release are defined in terms of their likely frequency and duration:
1. Continuous Grade Release: A release that is continuous or nearly so or that
occurs for long periods which occur frequently (1000 hours/ year) normally leads to
Zone 0.

2. Primary Grade Release: A release that is likely to occur periodically or

occasionally in normal operation (100 hours/ year) normally leads to a Zone 1.

3. Secondary Grade Release: A release that is not likely to occur in normal

operation or may occur for a very short period (10 hours/ year) normally leads to a
Zone 2.

4. Adjacent Hazardous Zones In many locations where a hazardous area is

identified and numbered as 0, 1 or 2 the immediate surroundings are given the next
higher number, except for an original Zone 2 area, which automatically is
surrounded by a non-hazardous area. A Zone 0 area is surrounded by a Zone 1
area, which in turn is, surrounded by a Zone 2 area. A Zone 2 area stands alone.
During the preparation of drawings that show the extent and shapes of the areas
surrounding a source, it is usually found that overlapping areas create complicated
geometrical shapes, e.g. two adjacent circular boundaries
almost touching each other. In these situations the shapes should be simplified by
using tangent lines. Local pockets within the geometry should be absorbed into a
more uniform shape, especially non-hazardous pockets in Zone 2 geometry.
Experience shows that equipment located in a non-hazardous area that is near to
a Zone 2 area will usually be of the same specification as that which is to be
installed in the Zone 2 area. The same approach is sometimes used for Zone 2
areas near to a Zone 1 area if the equipment is small items e.g. Junction boxes,
lighting fittings, instrument casings, and local control stations.

Basic Conditions for a Fire or Explosion

National Electrical Code Criteria

Article 500 of NFPA 70, National Electrical Code, designates as hazardous

(classified) any location in which a combustible material is or may be present in the
atmosphere in sufficient concentration to produce an ignitable mixture.

Article 500 defines three major categories of hazardous location:

(1) Class I ; in which the combustible material is a gas or vapor

(2) Class ; in which the combustible material is a dust
(3) Class ; in which the combustible material is a fiber or flying
The intent of Article 500 is that electrical equipment and systems in the hazardous
(classified) locations should not provide a means of ignition for ignitable mixture,
dust cloud or layer.

Condition Necessary for Ignition

In a Class I location, three basic conditions must exist in order for a fire or explosion
to occur as a result of an electrical installation.

A flammable gas or vapor must be present in classifying a particular location, the

likelihood of the presence of a flammable gas or vapor is a significant factor in
determining the division classification. The decision is based principally on
whether the flammable mixture may be present

(a) Under normal conditions, or under abnormal conditions (including equipment

breakdown).
(2) The gas or vapor must be mixed with air or oxygen in the proportions and
quantities required producing a flammable or ignitable mixture. This condition is
important in determining the limit or extent of the classified location. The quantity
of the substance that might be liberated, its physical characteristics, the operating
pressure and the natural tendency of gases and vapors to disperse in the
atmosphere should be considered.

(3) The mixture must be ignited. When classifying locations, the potential source
of ignition is understood to be an electrical installation operating at energy levels
sufficient to release incendiary energy.

In Class location, ignition may occur under three different sets of conditions.
(1) In the first set of conditions,
a) A combustible dust must be present
b) The dust must be suspended in the air in the proportions required to produce an
ignitable mixture.

Further, within the context of this manual, a sufficient quantity of this suspension
must be present in
the vicinity of the electrical equipment.

c) There must be a release of energy intense enough to cause ignition of the

suspended mixture. Within context of this manual, the energy release is understood
to originate within the electrical system.

(2) In the second set of conditions,

1) A combustible dust must be present
2) The dust must be layered on the electrical equipment sufficiently thick to
interfere with the dissipation o f heat and allow the layer to reach the ignition
temperature of the dust.
3) The external temperature of the electrical equipment must be high enough to
cause the dust to reach its ignition temperature directly or dry out the dust and
cause it to self-heat.
(3) In the third set of conditions,
1) A Group E dust must be present.
2) The dust must be layered or in suspension in hazardous quantities.
3) Tracking must be sufficient to cause ignition. (See 3.2.2)

3. Flammable and Combustible Materials

3.1 Class I Material (Flammable and Combustible Liquids, Gases and Vapors)
3.1.1 Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Flammable and combustible liquids are classified in accordance with their closed
cup flash points and vapor pressure, as follows:

(1) Highly Volatile Liquids (HVLS)

Highly volatile liquids, such as butane, ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene,
liquefied natural gas, natural gas liquids and mixtures of such. Vapor pressure of
these liquids exceeds 40 pounds per square inch absolute (276 kilo-Pascals) at
37.8 (100). When released to the atmosphere, HVLS vaporize, creating large
volumes of cooled gases whose densities exceed that of air, HVLS shall be treated
very conservatively in considering the extent of the area affected, especially when
released at or near ground level. Under such conditions, the heavy gases can
travel along the ground for great distances if air currents do not assist dispersion.
When HVLS are released at higher elevations or are directed upward at substantial
velocity, diffusion and dilution of the upper-air mixture are faster, and the distance
from the point of release where lower flammable limit (LFL) concentrations are
present is less.
(2) FP - Class I

Flammable liquids having a closed cup flash point below 37.8 (100) and a vapor
pressure not exceeding 40 pounds per square inch absolute (276 kilo-pascales) at
37.8 (100), such as gasoline.
Class I liquids usually are handled at temperatures above the liquid's flash point and
consequently may produce a flammable atmosphere with respect to electrical area
classifications. Where released in appreciable quantities to the atmosphere, they
produce large volumes of vapor. This is particularly true for the more volatile Class I
liquids. The less volatile Class I liquids release vapors more slowly at normal
temperatures and are ignitable only near the surfaces of the liquids. At elevated
temperatures, however, these heavier liquids give off larger volumes of vapor can
spread. These vapors, even when evolved rapidly, have a natural tendency to
disperse into the atmosphere and, thus, rapidly become diluted to concentrations
below their lower flammable limit. This tendency is greatly accelerated by air
movement. A specific classification for crude oil is not possible since it is a mixture
of hydrocarbons or widely varying the composition.
However, crude oil usually is classified as a Class I flammable liquid, and its flash
point generally is accepted as -6.7 to 32.2 (20 to 90).

(3) FP - Class
Combustible liquids having a closed cup flash point at or above 37.8 (100) and
below 60 (140), such as kerosene, diesel fuel oil. With Class liquids, the
probability of an ignitable vapor-air mixture is low because the liquids typically are
handled at temperatures below their flash point and consequently do not produce
sufficient vapors to form an ignitable mixture. When these liquids are heated
above their flash point, additional vapors are generated and the possibility of
ignition is increased.
Class liquids should be considered capable of producting an ignitable mixture near
the point of release when handled, processed, or stored under conditions where the
liquid may exceed its flash point.

(4) FP - Class
Combustible liquids having a flash point at or above 60 (140). Class liquids
normally do not produce vapors of sufficient quantity to be considered for electrical
classification purposes. Class liquids will release vapor in the flammable range at
their surfaces if heated above their flash points, but the extent of the classified
location ordinarily will be very small and near the point of release.

3.1.2 Flammable Lighter - Than - Air Gases Petroleum facilities frequently handle
lighter-than-air natural gases (methane or mixtures of methane and small
quantities of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons). Lighter-than-air gases released
from an opening often will disperse rapidly because of their relatively low density
and usually will not affect as extensive an area as the vapors of flammable liquids
or heavier-than-air gases. Lighter-than-air gases seldom produce large volumes of
ignitable mixtures in open locations close to grade where most electrical
installations are made; however, ignitable mixtures can accumulate inside enclosed
spaces. Hydrogen must be given special consideration because of its properties of
wide explosive-mixture range, high flame-propagation velocity, low vapor density,
low minimum-ignition-energy level, and relatively high ignition temperature
[585(1085)].

3.1.3 National Electrical Code Grouping of Atmospheric Mixtures

When classifying locations for electrical installations, the appropriate NEC Groups
(A, B, C or D) should be determined for all atmospheric mixtures of flammable
liquids, gases and vapors present.
The grouping of various atmospheric mixtures is upon the basis of their
flammability characteristics.
A partial listing follows; for a more complete listing refer to NFPA No. 497.

Group A: Atmospheres containing acetylene.

Group B : Atmospheres such as butadiene, ethylene oxide, propyleneoxide,
acrolein or hydrogen (or gases or vapors equivalent in hazard to hydrogen, such as
certain manufactured gases).

Group C: Atmospheres such as cyclopropane, ethylene, hydrogen sulfide, or gases

or vapors of equivalent hazard.

Group D: Atmospheres such as acetone, alcohol, ammonia, benzene, benzol,

butane, gasoline, hexane, lacquer solvent vapors, methane, naphtha, natural gas,
propane, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazard
Most petroleum products are placed in Group D. However, ethylene production,
catalytic reforming, ammonia synthesis, and other process may involve other
groups, particularly Group B and C. In mixtures of hydrogen sulfide and natural gas,
it is recommended that the mixture be considered Group D, if the hydrogen sulfide
constitutes less than 25 percent of the mixture by volume. In mixtures of
manufactured gases, it is recommended that the mixture shall be considered Group
B, if the gases contain more than 30 percent hydrogen by volume.

3.2 Class Materials (Combustible Dusts)

Class combustible dusts are divided into three groups (Groups E, F, and G) based
upon the nature of the dusts.

3.2.1The definitions of the three dust groups are as follows:

(1) Group E: Atmospheres containing combustible metal dusts, including aluminum,

magnesium, and their commercial alloys, or other combustible dusts whose particle
size, abrasiveness, and conductivity present similar hazards in the use of electrical
equipments.

(2) Group F: Atmospheres containing combustible carbonaceousdusts, including

carbon black, charcoal, coal, or coke dusts that have more than 8 percent total
entrapped volatiles (see ASTM D3175-82 for coal and coke dusts) or that have been
sensitized by other materials so that they present an explosion hazard.

(3) Group G: Atmospheres containing other combustible dusts ,including flour,

grain, wood flour, plastic, and chemicals.

3.2.2 For the purpose of classification, only Group E dusts shall be considered
conductive. Group E dusts are sensitive to a phenomenon whereby an electric
current finds the path of least resistance through dusts particles in its path and thus
providing a source of ignition. Thus, an electric arc may
ignite a dust layer or a dust cloud. This phenomenon is commonly known as
tracking.

3.2.3 Certain metal dusts may have characteristics that require safeguards beyond
those required for atmospheres containing the dusts of aluminum, magnesium, and
their commercial alloys. For example, zirconium, thorium, and uranium dusts have
extremely low ignition temperatures (as low as 20) and minimum ignition
energies lower than any material classified in any of the Class I or Class groups.

3.2.4 All areas where Group E dusts are present in hazardous quantities are
classified as Division 1
(Zone 1) location. There are no Division 2 (Zone 2) locations for Group E dusts.

3.2.5 A listing of selected combustible dusts appears in NFPA 499, Recommended

Practice for Classification of Combustible Dusts and of Hazardous (Classified )
Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Area, with their group
classification and auto ignition temperature of the cloud or layer, whichever is less.

3.3 Ignition Temperature Classification

3.3.1 All material, equipment and enclosures of any electrical apparatus to be used
within hazardous locations shall be classified with a temperature class, with regard
to the maximum permitted surface temperature and to the minimum ignition
temperature of the substances that may present. The
temperature limit of each group shall be as follows in each standard.

Ignition Temperature

Max. Surface NEC (U.S.A) IEC (International) RIIS (Japan)

Temperature ( ) Temp. ID. No. Temp. Class Ignition Temp.

450 T1 T1 G1
300 T2 T2 G2
280 T2A
260 T2B
230 T2C
215 T2D
200 T3 T3 G3
180 T3A
165 T3B
160 T3C
135 T4 T4 G4
120 T4A
100 T5 T5 G5
85 T6 T6 G6
Gas group classifications
Gases are classified in accordance to the amount of energy required for ignition.
They are denoted by three digit code, the first two digits may be I or II and third
digit is A, B or C.

Example of Gases NFPA 70 NFPA 70 IEC 60079-0

Article Article 505 CENELEC
500, NFPA 497 EN 50014
NFPA Note c, d Note e
497
Note b,
d
Acetylene A IIC IIC

Hydrogen B IIC IIC +H2

Propyle B IIB IIB

neOxid
e
Ethyl
Oxide
Butadie
ne
Cyclopro C IIB IIB
pane
Ethyl
 ether
Ethylene
Aceton D IIA IIA
e
Benzen
e
Butane
Propan
e
Hexan
e
Natural
gas

Gases and Vapors are categorized according to their maximum

experimental safe
gaps (MESG).

3.3.2 Class I equipment shall not have any exposed surface that operates at a
temperature in excess of the ignition temperature of the specific gas or vapor. Class
equipment shall not have an external temperature higher than that specified below
table. The maximum surface temperature of Class equipments under operating
conditions shall not exceed 165 (329 ) equipment that is not subject to
overloading, and 120 (248) equipment (such as motors or power transformers) that
may be overloaded.

Equipment that Is Not Subject to Equipment (such as Motors or Power Transformers ) that
Overloading May Be Overloaded

Normal Operation Abnormal

operation
Class Group Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees

E 200 39 200 392 200 39

2 2

F 200 39 150 302 200 39

2 2

G 165 32 120 298 165 32

9 9

3.3.2 The flammable gases, flammable and combustible liquids, and combustible
dusts have been identified to allow their classification into the groups and
temperature by NFPA 497 M and IEC 60079.
3.3.3 Electrical apparatus shall be selected and installed taking the ignition
temperature and the classification from the explosive characteristics of the gas,
vapor or dust involved as well as the area classification into consideration.

4 Classification Criteria
The decision to classify a location is based upon the probability that flammable
gases or vapors and ignitable mixture of dust may be present. Having decided that
a location should be classified, and having designated the gas or vapor as Group A,
B, C or D and the dust as Group E, F or G, the next step is to designate the location
as either Division 1 ( Zone 1) (Zone 0, Zone 1) or Division 2 ( Zone 2) (Zone 2).
This latter step must consider the probability of whether a flammable gas or vapor
and ignitable dust release is likely to occur during normal operations, or only as a
result of an unusual occurrence or abnormal condition.

4.1 Class I Locations

Class I locations are those in which flammable gases or vapors are, or may be,
present in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
Class I locations include the followings;

4.1.1 Class I, Division 1 (Zone 0) Locations Class I, Zone 0. Locations are a

location;
(1) In which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are present
continuously:
(2) In which ignitable concentrations of such gases or vapors are present for long
periods of time:

4.1.2 Class I, Division 1 (Zone 1).

(1) In which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors exist under
normal operating conditions:

(2) In which ignitable concentrations of such gases or vapors may exist frequently
because of repair or maintenance operations or because of leakage: or

(3) In which breakdown or faulty operation of equipment or process might release

ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors, and might also cause
simultaneous failure of electrical equipment that could become a source of
ignition; or

(4) that is adjacent to a Class 1, Zone 0 location from which ignitable concentrations
of vapors could be communicated, unless communication is prevented by
adequate positive pressure ventilation from a source of clean air and effective
safeguards against ventilation failure are provided.

4.1.3 Class I, Division 2 (Zone 2). Locations

(1) In which volatile flammable liquids or flammable gases are handled, processed
or used, but in which the liquids, vapors or gases normally will be confined within
closed containers or closed systems from which they can escape only in case of
accidental rupture or breakdown of such containers or systems, or in case of
abnormal operation of equipment:
(2) In which ignitable concentrations of gases or vapors normally are prevented by
positive ventilation, and that might become ignitable through failure or abnormal
operation of the ventilating equipment.
(3) Which are adjacent to a Division 1 ( Zone 1) location (and not separated by a
vapor-tight barrier), and to which ignitable concentrations of gases or vapors
might occasionally be communicated unless such communication is prevented
by adequate positive-pressure ventilation from a source of clean air, and effective
safe guards against ventilation failure are provided; or
(4) that is adjacent to a Class 1, Zone 1 location from which ignitable concentrations
of vapors could be communicated, unless communication is prevented by
adequate positive pressure ventilation from a source of clean air and effective
safeguards against ventilation failure are provided
4.2 Class Locations Class locations are those in which ignitable dusts are, or may
be, present in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable
mixtures. Class locations include the followings; for a more detail refer to NFPA No.
499.
4.2.1 Class , Division 1 (Zone 1). Locations a condition for Division 1 (Zone 1) is
whether the location is likely to have an ignitable dust cloud or a thick layer of dust
present under normal condition. For example, the presence of ignitable dust
suspensions and layer of dust in the vicinity of an open bagging operation is normal
and requires a Division 1 (Zone 1) classification.

4.2.2 Class , Division 2 (Zone 2). Locations the criterion for a Division 2 (Zone 2)
location is whether the location is likely to have ignitable dust suspensions or
hazardous dust accumulations only under abnormal conditions. The term abnormal
is used here in a limited sense and does not include a major catastrophe.
4.3 Unclassified Locations

4.3.1 Gas or Vapor (Class I material Locations)

Experience has shown that certain locations may be unclassified regardless of the
ventilation rate, since the occurrence of flammable gas or vapor liberation from
some apparatus is so infrequent. Examples of such locations include the following:

(1) Locations where flammable substances are contained in;

1) All-welded closed piping systems without valves, flanges or similar devices, or

2) Continuous metallic tubing without valves fittings, flanges, or similar devices.

(2) Locations where flammable liquids, gases or vapors are transported or stored in
certain containers or vessels.

(3) Locations surrounding continuous or intermittent ignition sources, such as

unprotected fired vessels and flare tips, may be unclassified.
(4) Other non-enclosed locations that contain hydrocarbon handling apparatus may
be unclassified.

4.3.2 Dusts (Class material Locations)

Experience has shown that the release of ignitable dust suspensions from some
operations and apparatus is so infrequent that area classification is not necessary.
For example, it is usually not necessary to classify the following locations where
combustible ground up solids are processed, stored, or handled:

(1) Locations where materials are stored in sealed containers- bags, drums, fiber
packs - palletized or racked.

(2) Locations where materials are transported in well maintained closed piping
system.
(3) Locations where palletized materials with minimal dust are handled or used.
(4) Locations where closed tanks are used for storage and handling.
(5) Locations where mechanical dust collection systems on equipment prevent
(a) Visual dust clouds (b) layer accumulations that make surface colors
indiscernible.

(6) Locations where excellent housekeeping is maintained and there are

(a) No visual dust suspensions or
(b) Layer accumulations that make surface colors indiscernible.

(7) Mechanical dust collection systems that are provided on equipment to allow a
non-classified location must have adequate safeguards and warnings against failure.

(8) Open flames and hot surface associated with the operation of certain
equipment, such as boilers and fired heaters, provide inherent thermal ignition
source. Electrical classification is not appropriate in the
immediate vicinity of these facilities. Dust containing operations should be cut off by
blank walls or located away from such facilities. Where pulverized coal or ground up
solid waste is used to fire a boiler or incinerator, consideration should be given to
potential leak source in fuel feed lines to the burners to avoid installing electrical
devices that could in them become primary ignition sources for such leaks.

4.4 Ventilation
(1) General
1) The decision to classify a location as Division 1 (Zone 1), Division
2 (Zone 2), or unclassified, depends in part on the degree of ventilation of the
location.
2) Providing ventilation to allow the reclassification of an enclosed area from
classified to unclassified is not allowed in enclosed areas containing devices handling
hydrocarbons.
3) In general, a naturally ventilated location (building, room, or space) should be
substantially open and free from obstruction to the natural passage of air through it,
vertically or horizontally. Such locations may be roofed and/or partially closed on the
sides.

(2) Adequate Ventilation

1) Adequate ventilation is defined as ventilation (natural or artificial) that is sufficient

to prevent the accumulation of significant quantities of vapor-air mixtures in
concentration above 25 percent of their lower flammable (explosive) limit.

2) The source of air used for ventilation should from an area classified no
higher than the desired classification; for example, air from a Division 1 ( Zone 1)
area may not be used to ventilate a Division 2 (Zone 2)area. If practical, the source
of air should be from an unclassified area.

(3) Inadequately Ventilated Areas

Inadequately ventilated areas are defined as rooms, buildings, or spaces that do not have a
natural or a mechanical ventilation system providing for adequate ventilation. It is possible
to have portions of buildings adequately ventilated while other portions are inadequately
ventilated. For example, the lower portion of a compressor building (shed) without walls
(from the floor) might be adequately ventilated, while the upper portion of the shed
(particularly if without ridge vents or the like) might be inadequately ventilated.

4.5 Adjacent Area

(1) A non-enclosed adequately ventilated area that is adjacent to a classified area,
and which is not separated from the classified area by a vapor-tight barrier, shall be
classified to the extent designated area. (Fig. 4.7a of API RP 500 and/or 505)
(2) An enclosed area that is adjacent to a classified area, and which is separated
from the classified area by a vapor-tight barrier, is unclassified, considering only the
external source (Fig. 4.7b of API RP 500 and/or 505)
(3) An enclosed area that is adjacent to a classified area, and which is not separated
from the classified area by a vapor-tight barrier, shall be classified the same as the
highest classification included. (Fig. 4.7c and 4.7d of API RP 500 and/or505)
(4) It may be possible to reduce the classification of enclosed areas adjacent to
classified areas if the enclosed area is purged in accordance with NFPA No. 496.
(5) The hazardous area classification drawings will show the geographical limits of
the various areas, Divisions (Zone) and Groups with the source of release points
located and identified.

(6) The contractor shall study the hazardous area classification plans (as issued
during the Basic Engineering Package), with a view to rationalizing the electrical
equipment to be installed with battery limit.
Extent of a Classified Location: Class I Locations

The extent of a classified location shall require careful consideration of the following
factors:

(1) The flammable or combustible material

(2) The vapor density of the material
(3) The temperature of the material
(4) Process or storage pressure release

Ventilation
The volumes of liquid or gas that could be released, and the rate at which it could be
released, are of extreme importance in determining the extent of a classified
location.

Outdoor Locations
(1) In the absence of walls or other barriers, and in the absence of air currents or
similar disturbing forces, it must be assumed that a gas or vapor will disperse
uniformly in all directions, as governed by the gas or vapor density and velocity (that
is heavier-than-air vapors principally downward and outward; lighter-than-air gases
principally upward and outward).

(2) For heavier-than-air vapors released at or near grade level, the locations
where potentially ignitable concentrations are most likely to be found are below
grade; those at grade are next most likely; and as the height above grade
increases, the potential decreases. In open locations away from the immediate
point of release, freely drifting heavier-than-air vapors from a source near grade
seldom are above the lower flammable limits at elevations more than a few feet
above grade. For lighter-than-air gases the opposite is true; there is little potential of
an ignitable mixture below grade, and greater potential above grade.

(3) Elevated or below grade sources of gas or vapor release, or release of gas or
vapor under pressure, may substantially alter the outline of the limits of the
classified location. Also, low velocity movement (e.g., a very mild breeze) may
extend these limits in the direction of air movement. However, higher velocity
air movement (e.g., a stronger breeze) can so accelerate the dispersion of gases or
vapors that the extent of the classified location would be greatly reduced. Thus,
dimensional limits recommended for Division 1 ( Zone 1) or Division 2 ( Zone 2)
locations are based on experience as well as theoretical diffusion of gases or
vapors of the types prevalent in petroleum operations.

(4) Air currents and volatility combine to affect the extent of a classified location.
Vapors are rapidly dispersed in a well-ventilated location; for this reason, outdoor
locations and locations having ventilation equivalent to normal outdoor conditions
often can be classified as Division 2 (Zone 2). However, where ventilation is
inadequate, vapor-air mixtures are more likely to reach flammable limits, and the
situation
may justify a larger classified area.

Enclosed Locations
(1) Some enclosed locations (e.g. large building) used for diverse petroleum
operations have mechanical ventilation provided. Also, construction design may
permit a substantial degree of natural
ventilation that when coupled with such factors as volumetric content of the
enclosed location, floor area, lineal dimensions of walls, and ceiling height, could
justify considering that enclosed location as adequately ventilated.
(2) If adequate ventilation is provided, mechanically or naturally, many enclosed
locations may be classified Division 2 (Zone 2) instead of Division 1 (Zone 1). A
careful evaluation of prior experience with the same or similar types of installations,
including the temporary use of tarpaulins or similar devices
as windbreaks, should always be a part of the classification criteria.

Class Locations
References to Division 2 (Zone 2) locations apply only to Group F or G dusts. Careful
consideration of the following factors is necessary in determining the extent of
Division 1 ( Zone 1) or Division 2 ( Zone 2) locations:

(1) The combustible material involved

(2) The bulk density of the material
(3) The particle sizes of the material
(4) The density of the particles
(5) The process or storage pressure
(6) The size of the leak opening
(7) The quantity of the release
(8) The dust collection system
(9) The housekeeping
(10) The presence of any flammable or combustible gas

In addition, walls, partitions, enclosures, or other barriers and strong air currents will
also affect the distance that dust particles will travel and extend the Division 1 (Zone
1) and Division 2 (Zone 2) locations.

Where there are walls that limit the travel of the dust particles, area classifications
do not extend beyond the walls. Enclosing rooms, walls, and partitions are a primary
means of limiting the extent of the hazardous locations. There are no effective walls
involved the extent of the Division 1 (Zone 1) and Division 2 (Zone 2) locations can
be estimated as follows:

(1) By visual observation of the existing area using the guidelines of NFPA 499
(2) By experience with similar dusts and similar operations and taking into
consideration any new equipment, any new enclosures, any new mechanical
dust collection, and any changes in housekeeping rules and methods.
(3) By calculation.

Tight equipment, mechanically ventilated hoods and pickup points, adequate

maintenance, and housekeeping should limit Division 1 (Zone 1) locations to the
inside of process for transfer of material such as from conveyors to grinders to
storage bins to bags. Similarly, such good engineering will also
limit the Division 2 (Zone 2) location surrounding the Division 1 (Zone 1) location.

The size of building and its walls will influence the classification of the enclosed
volume. In the case of a small room, it may be appropriate to classify the entire
volume as Division 1 (Zone 1) or Division 2
(Zone 2)

Wherever possible with large buildings, walls should be used to cut off dusty operations to
avoid extensive use of special electrical equipment. Where walls are not possible, the
concentric volume approach of a Division 1 (Zone 1) location surrounded by a large Division
2 (Zone 2) location may be satisfactory.
Where a number of dusty operations are located in a building, it may be satisfactory to
have a multiplicity of Division 1 (Zone 1) locations with the intervening Division 2 (Zone 2)
and non-classified locations.

The quantity of dust released and its distance of travel is of extreme importance in
determining the extent of a hazardous location, and it is this consideration that necessitates
the greatest application of sound
engineering judgment. However, one cannot lose sight of the purpose of this judgment; the
location is classified solely for the installation of electrical equipment.

Determining the Degree and Extent of Hazardous (Classified) Location

Diagrams and Recommendations

(1) This chapter contains a series of diagram that illustrate the recommended extent of
classified locations around typical sources of flammable gases or vapors. These locations
may be assumed to contain an ignitable atmospheric mixture under the conditions
described. Some of the diagrams are for single-point sources; others apply to multiple
sources in an enclosed spare or in an operating area.

(2) The intended use of the diagrams is to aid in developing electrical classification maps of
operating units, process plants, or buildings. Elevations or sectional views may be required
where different classifications apply at different levels.

(3) An operating unit will have many interconnected sources of combustible material,
including pumps, compressors, vessels, tanks, and heat exchangers. These will, in turn,
present sources of leaks such as
flanged and screwed connections, fittings, valves, meters, etc. Thus, considerable
judgment will be required to establish the boundaries of the Division 1 (Zone 1) and Division
2 (Zone 2) locations.

(4) In some cases, individual classification of a multitude of point sources within an

operating unit is neither feasible nor economical. In such cases, the entire unit may be
classified as a single source entity. However, this should be considered only after a thorough
evaluation of the extent and interaction of the various sources, both within the unit and
adjacent to it.

(5) In developing these diagrams, vapor density is generally assumed to be greater than
that of air. Lighter-than-air gases, such as hydrogen and methane, will quite readily
disperse, and the diagrams for lighter-than-air gases should be used. However, if such gases
are being evolved from the cryogenic state (i.e., liquefied hydrogen or LNG), caution must
be exercised because, for some finite period of time, these gases will be heavier than air
due to their low temperature when first released.

Bases for Recommendations

(1) The practices of the petroleum refining industry are published in the American Petroleum
Institutes RP 500 and/or 505, Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations in
Petroleum Refineries. These practices are based on a survey and an analysis of the practices
of a large segment of the industry, experimental data, and careful weighing of pertinent
factors. Refinery operations are characterized by the handling, processing, and storage of
large quantities of materials, often at elevated temperatures.

The recommended limits of classified locations for refinery installations may therefore be
stricter than are warranted for more traditional chemical processing facilities that handle
smaller quantities.

(2) Various codes, standards, and recommended practices of the National Fire Protection
Association include recommendations for classifying hazardous location. These
recommendations are based on many years of experience. NFPA 30, Flammable and
Combustible Liquids Code, and NFPA 58, Standard for the Storage and Handling of Liquefied
Petroleum Gases, are two of these documents.

(3) Continuous process plants and large batch chemical plants may be almost as large as
refineries and should, therefore, follow the practices of the refining industry. The volume of
leakage from pump and agitator shaft packing glands, piping flanges, and valves increases
proportionately with process equipment size and flow rate, as does the travel distance and
area of dispersion from the discharge source. Similarly, the volume of the leakage, the
travel distance, and the area of dispersion all increase as operating pressure increases.

(4) In deciding whether to use an overall plant classification scheme or individual equipment
classification, process equipment size, flow rate, and pressure should be taken into
consideration. Generally speaking, for small or batch chemical plants, point source
diagrams can be used; for large, high pressure plants, the API recommendations are more
suitable. Below table 1 gives ranges of process equipment size, pressure, and flow rate for
equipment and piping handling flammable or combustible liquids or gases.

(5) The great majority of chemical plants fall in the moderate range of size, pressure, and
flow rate for equipment and piping handling flammable or combustible liquids or gases.
However, since all cases are not the same, sound engineering judgment is required.

Procedure for Classifying Locations

The following procedure should be used for each room, section, or area being classified.
(1)Step One - Need for Classification: The area should be classified if the answer to either of
the following
questions are Yes:

1) Are flammable liquids or flammable gases likely to be present?

2) Are combustible liquids likely to be handled, processed, or stored at temperatures above
their flash points?

(2) Step Two - Assignment of Division (Zone) Classification. Assuming an affirmative answer
to Step One, the following questions should be answered to determine the correct Division
classification.

1) Division 1 (Zone 1) locations are distinguished by a Yes answer to any one of the
following questions:

(a) Is an ignitable atmospheric mixture likely to exist under normal operating conditions?
(b) Is an ignitable atmospheric mixture likely to occur frequently due to repair,
maintenance, or leakage?
(c) Would a failure of process equipment, storage vessels, or piping systems be likely to
cause a failure of the electrical system simultaneous with the release of the combustible
material.
(d) Is a piping system containing a combustible material in an inadequately ventilated
space, and is the piping system likely to leak?
(e) Is the space or area in question below grade level such that vapors may accumulate
there?
(f) Are pressure relief valve discharges located within the area?

2) Division 2 (Zone 2) locations are distinguished by a Yes answer to any one of the
following questions:

(a) Is a piping system containing a combustible material in an inadequately ventilated

space, and is the piping system not likely to leak?
(b) Is a process equipment system containing a combustible material in an inadequately
ventilated space, and can the material escape only during abnormal situations, such as
failure of a gasket or packing?
(c) Is the location adjacent and open to a Division 1 ( Zone 1) location, or can gas or vapor
be transmitted from a Division 1 ( Zone 1) location to the location in question by trenches,
pipes, or ducts?
(d) If mechanical ventilation is used, can failure or abnormal operation of the ventilation
equipment permit an ignitable atmospheric mixture?

3) Step Three- Extent of Classified Location.

The extent of the classified location may be determined by applying, with sound
engineering judgment, the distances recommended in the diagrams contained in

Class II Location
Diagrams and Recommendations

(1) This chapter contains a series of diagrams that illustrate how typical dusty sites should
be classified and the recommended extent of the various classifications.

(2) The intended use of the diagrams is to aid in developing electrical classification maps of
operating units, storage areas, and process buildings. Most of the diagrams are plan views.
Elevations may be necessary to provide the three-dimensional picture of an actual
operation.

(3) These diagrams apply to operating equipment processing dusts when the specific
particle density is greater than 40 lb/cu ft (640.72 kg/m3). When dusts with a specific
particle density less than 40 lb/cu ft (640.72 kg/m3) are being handled, there is a
pronounced tendency for the fine dust to drift on air currents normally present in industrial
plants for distances considerably farther than those shown on these diagrams. In those
cases it will be necessary to extend the classified area. It is difficult to recommend precise
classified areas in these circumstances.

(4) Good engineering practices, good housekeeping practices, and dust control systems are
necessary to limit the extent of the classified locations and to minimize the chances of
primary and the often more violent secondary explosions.

(5) An operating unit may have many interconnected sources of pulverized combustible
materials such as storage tanks, bins and silo, piping and ductwork, hammer mills, ball
mills, grinders, pulverizes, milling machines, conveyors, bucket elevators, and bagging or
other packaging machines. These in turn present sources of leaks such as flanged and
screwed connections, fittings, openings, valves, and metering and weighing devices. Thus,
actual diagrams of the equipment may be required so that the necessary engineering
judgment to establish the
boundaries of Division 1 (Zone 1) and Division 2 (Zone 2) locations may be applied properly.

Procedure for Classifying Locations

The following procedure should be used for each room, section, or area being classified.
(1) Step One - Need for Classification: The area should be classified if the answer to the
following question is
Yes

1) Are combustible dusts likely to be present?

(2) Step Two - Assignment of Division (Zone) Classification: Assuming an affirmative answer
to Step One, the following questions should be answered to determine the correct division
classification.

1) Division 1 (Zone 1) locations are distinguished by a Yes answer to any one of the
following questions:
(a) Is a Group E dust present in hazardous quantities
(b) Is a dust likely to be in suspension in air continuously, periodically, or
intermittently under normal conditions in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or
ignitable mixtures.

(c) Will mechanical failure or abnormal operation of machinery or equipment cause such
explosive or ignitable mixtures to be produced, and might it also provide a source of ignition
through simultaneous failure of electrical equipment operation of protective devices or from
other causes?

(d) Are there dust layers or accumulations on surfaces deeper than 1/8 in. (3.18 mm)?
2) Division 2 ( Zone 2) locations for Group F or G dusts are distinguished by a Yes answer
to any one of the following questions:

(a) Is the dust not normally in suspension in the air in quantities sufficient to produce
explosive or ignitable mixtures, but could it be thrown into suspension by infrequent
malfunctioning of handling or processing equipment?
(b) Are the dust accumulations insufficient to interfere with the normal operation of
electrical equipment, but could the accumulations be ignited by the abnormal operation or
failure of electrical equipment?
(c) Is there a dust layer that makes the colors of the surfaces indiscernible?

(d) Would the failure of mechanical dust collection allow an ignitable suspension of dust or
a layer deeper than 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) to build up?

(3) Step Three - Extent of Classified Location

The extent of the classified location may be determined by applying, with sound
engineering judgment, the methods discussed in 3.4 and the diagrams contained in the
NFPA 499.

Electrical Equipment for Use in Hazardous Area

Electrical equipment for use in hazardous area shall be selected and installed in accordance
with the applicable standards and GS E&C Standard Specification No. GTP-6MSP-072
Below Table 1, 2, and 3 shall give the general guidance for more practical selection of the
electrical apparatus in
the classified area.
Electrical apparatus shall be selected and installed taking the ignition temperature
and the classification from the explosive characteristics of the gas or vapor and combustible
dust involved as well as the area classification into consideration.

In processing area, more than one fluid or mixed fluid will present. The apparatus selected
shall be suitable for the most onerous condition. Though the areas surrounding continuous
ignition sources, such as fired heaters, remain unclassified, the electrical apparatus
selection in the area shall conform to the adjacent area classification.

Selection of Apparatus
Procedure for Selecting Electrical Apparatus
The following factors shall be considered for proper selection of electrical equipment for use
in hazardous area:

(1) Area classification, i.e. the division (zone)

(2) Gas or dust classification, i.e. the gas or dust group.

The characteristics of the gas, vapor or dust involved in relation to the igniting current or
minimum ignition energy, sensitivity and explosions severity, and safe gap data.

(3) Temperature classification.

The ignition temperature of the gas, vapor or dust involved or the lowest value of the
ignition temperature if more than one combustible material may be present

(4) Environmental conditions in which apparatus is to be installed. The selected electrical

apparatus shall be adequately protected against corrosive and solvent agencies, water
ingress, thermal and mechanical stresses as determined by the environmental conditions.

Certification of Apparatus
(1) Electrical equipment located in hazardous area shall have certification suitable for the
area in which it is installed and the gases or dust present.

(2) Electrical apparatus where used in the classified area shall be constructed and
certified in accordance with either KISCO in Korea, NEC (UL) in USA, RIIS in Japan, or
CENELEC/IEC, ATEX in Europe.

(3) Certification shall be provided for all electrical apparatus selected for use in Division 1
( Zone 1) and Division 2
 (Zone 2) areas, which shall be by National Certifying Authority of countries where the
apparatus is manufactured, that is, UL or FM in USA, BASEEFA in UK, PTB in Germany, RIIS in
Japan and KISCO in Korea.

(4) Apparatus approved by other authorities requires specific approval of Purchaser. Type of
Protection for Different Hazardous Areas

(1) When selecting electrical apparatus for hazardous area, the classification of the
hazardous divisions (zones) is of major importance. Table 1 shows which types of
protection are permitted for the various hazardous divisions (zones) of Class I Locations.
TYPES OF PROTECTION FOR HAZARDOUS AREAS

Most electrical equipment consists of live or active static parts, and in some cases such as
motors, solenoid valves and relays moving mechanical parts, encased in an enclosure. The
electrically live conductors are kept out of touch to prevent electric shock hazards. The
detrimental effects of the atmosphere e.g. rain, sprayed water, fine dust
and particles are kept out of contact with the conductors, insulation, bearings and the like.
For equipment that is to be used in hazardous areas there is the additional requirement that
gases and vapors should be restricted from entering into the enclosure. There are various
basic methods that attempt to ensure that this requirement
is achieved at a more or less degree, which generally is dependent upon the Zone of the
intended area of installation. The design of the enclosure with regard to hazardous area
applications is defined by several lower case letter codes, mostly single digits for electrical
power equipment but occasionally two digits for very low energy electronic equipment. The
most frequently encountered codes are d, e, n, p and i. The lesser used codes are o, m, s
and q. Table 10.4 gives a brief description of each code. The codes are usually embraced
with double or single quotation marks or less often single round brackets ( ). The code is
prefixed with the letters Ex or EEx. Occasionally
two letters are combined for special designs of equipment e.g. Ex de for some types of
motors.
Type of Protectiond
This type of protection is also referred to as flameproof in some literature. An enclosure
that is designed as types will be able to withstand an internal explosion of the gas-air
mixture without being damaged beyond repair. Furthermore the mating surfaces of joints
e.g. terminal boxes, bearing seals on shafts, will be so designed that the flame inside the
enclosure will not pass to the outside with sufficient energy to ignite the environmental
gas-air mixture. In effect the design of the surfaces is such as to act as a very slow pressure
relief system for the internal explosion. (Care should be exercised when dismantling such an
enclosure after an internal explosion has occurred, because there may be some residual
pressure internally.) By the form of the design these enclosures
are usually robust, heavy duty and often made of thick cast iron, steel or bronze with many
bolts to fasten the fabricated sections and lids. They are therefore the most expensive
enclosures when compared with the e or p types. It becomes impractical to
manufactured type enclosures for very large ratings of motors. The amount of metal and
machining required would not be economical and so the p type would be an alternative.
This type of protection is mainly intended for Zone 1 areas. In addition the electrical
components inside the enclosure may be of the sparking type e.g. commutates for DC
motors, local control stations with push buttons, relay boxes. When an internal explosion
occurs or under normal running conditions, the outside surface of the enclosure must not
exceed the gas-air auto ignition temperature i.e. Temperature Class. The maintenance
procedures for working with Exd equipment need to be exercised with care so that the
machined surfaces are not degraded or damaged. BS5345 was introduced in 1976 to
address this and similar subjects.

Type of Protection e
Type e is also called increased safety and intended for apparatus that is to be installed in
a Zone 1 area. Two of the allowable features of the typed enclosures, namely permitting
sparking components and no Temperature Class limit to the internal components, cannot be
incorporated into the type e designs. The practical aspect of this is the removal of a source
of ignition i.e. a spark or a hot surface. In many types of equipment e.g. luminaries, terminal
boxes, junction boxes, some designs of motor control stations, telephones and public
address speakers; the elimination of these two sources of ignition is not a difficult problem.
For motors the removal of sparking components, such as a commutated is not too difficult,
but the prevention of a hot internal surface is a problem for the designer. Clearly a DC motor
cannot be designed as an e type machine. The identification of hot-spots in
the windings or core of a motor at the design stage is extremely difficult. This applies
especially to the rotor cage of an induction motor. Consequently the design of an e motor
needs to be somewhat conservative. For example the temperature rise of the windings
needs to be reduced. The power output of an e type motor for a given frame
size is generally found to be less than for type d or p motors. There are also restrictions
on the allowable starting current and run-up time. Hence the motor characteristics will need
to be more carefully matched to the driven machine. High inertia rotors in the driven
machines should therefore be avoided. This conservativeness is also supported by the
requirement that the protective relay equipment at the motor control centre shall have
special characteristics. Hence the use of an e type motor means that a system of
components or equipment must be used, not just the motor by itself. This adds an element
of unusualness to the circuits in a motor control centre, and for this reason the use of e
type motors in the oil industry is not common practice.

Type of Protection i
Intrinsically safe type i protection is not applicable to electrical power equipment. It is
mainly intended for electronic measuring and control circuits i.e. instrumentation and
telemetry. The principle behind i protections is that a circuit and its devices do not have
sufficient operating energy or stored energy to cause a spark that will ignite the gas-air
mixture. A spark can occur but it must be inherently too weak to ignite the mixture. There
are two sub-divisions of type i, namely ia and ib. The type ia has a more stringent
specification than ib and is therefore allowed to be used in a Zone 0 area. Type ib
equipment cannot be used in a Zone 0 area. Like the type e protection of motors a
system approach is required for type i equipment. The system includes the source of
power and its Zener Barrier, the interconnecting cables which by their nature have
inductance and capacitance, and the connected apparatus or load. If the connected
apparatus has inherent capacitance or inductance then extra attention must be paid to the
design and certification of the system.

Type of Protection m
Type m enclosures are encapsulations, for example an electronic circuit encapsulated in
solid epoxy resin or fire-resistance solid material. There are very few examples in electrical
power equipment used in the oil industry.

Type of Protection N and n

This type of protection does not have any particular title description. It also has some mixed
connotations with type of protection N which is very similar but not identically the same.
The subject of type of protection N attracted much debate in the 1980s and 1990s, as
much of which centered around whether or not sparking equipment could be included in an
enclosure. The N was originally developed in the UK and became covered by BS4683 Part
3. BS4683 has been superseded by BS6941, which has been updated in 1997. BS5000 part
16 covers non sparking motors with the type of protection N. The use of type of protection
N in zone 2 areas may not be universally assumed to be completely satisfactory, as
described in Reference 5 which recommends that some
action should be taken to reduce the hazardous situation when a release of gas occurs.
Taking appropriate action manually may not be achievable on a highly reliable basis in
practice. A form of automatic action will be needed such as a fire and gas detection
scheme, with alarms and tripping functions. References 1 and 5 give good descriptions of
the background to the development of the type N concept. Type n was not covered by the
early editions of IEC60079; it became included as Part 15 in 1987. The basic concept of type
n protection was to have an enclosure design that would be suitable for Zone 2 areas. The
application to Zone 1 areas was deliberately excluded. Consequently it should be possible to
design an enclosure which is better than standard industrial designs of good quality and
which has some similarity with type e designs. The intent was to have non-sparking
components inside a suitable enclosure, and to have a certifiable item of equipment for
Zone 2 use. Inherent in the concept of a good quality industrial design for use in a Zone 2
area is the need for a robust water and dust resistant enclosure. Hence the IEC and BSI
standards require a certain high level of ingress protection, see sub-section 10.6. In most
cases the minimum ingress protection is IP54, but fully insulated conductors IP44 may be
used e.g. motors. As far as motors are concerned, the emphasis on hot surfaces, high
starting currents and extended run-up
times is not as great as with type e for Zone 1 areas, due to the inherently lower risk of
hazard in a Zone 2 area. Special protective relays are not required and a system approach
is not used. Similar design features in the mechanical part will be found e.g. clearances of
fan blades, length of the air-gap between the rotor surface and the stator inner surface. Oil
company specifications often call for non-sparking materials for the construction of the fans.
Other types of equipment than motors are often chosen with type n enclosures, e.g.
luminaries, junction boxes, terminal boxes, if the designer can be sure that they will be
located in a Zone 2 or non-hazardous area.

Type of Protection o
With this type of protection the active and sparking parts of the equipment are immersed in
mineral oil. The concept is similar to that used in the manufacture of bulk oil immersed and
small volume oil immersed switchgear (both of which are seldom encountered nowadays).
Oil immersion finds application with electronic and tele metering equipment. Type o
protection is only permitted in Zone 2 and non-hazardous areas. Oil immersed switchgear is
not normally specified in the oil industry because there are far better insulating media
available in modern designs e.g. SF6 and vacuum.

Type of Protection p
This is also known as pressurization or continuous dilution. It is mainly applied to large
motors, control panels, display panels, and occasionally special purpose generators. Type p
protection is suitable for Zone 1 and Zone 2 areas. Type p protection allows well-designed
standard industrial equipment to be used in hazardous areas, provided that the enclosure is
suitable for pressurization by air or an inert gas. The enclosure should be reasonably airtight
so that the pressurization can be maintained by a modest throughput of air or gas. The
pressurization process is carried out in two parts, the first part when the equipment is ready
to be energized and the second part to cater for the running and shutdown of the
equipment. The first part is called purging. Air or inert gas is passed into and vented from
the enclosure, to purge out any gas-air mixture that may be present. The equipment is
prevented from being energized until the purging cycle is complete. The purging cycle will
need to pass a prescribed volume of air or inert gas through the equipment. Measuring
devices will be incorporated into the purging equipment to ensure that the necessary
volume of air or gas has been passed. If the purging equipment fails then the enclosure
cannot be energized. The purging equipment maintains a throughput of air or gas to
balance the leakage to atmosphere from joints, bearing seals, gaskets and the like, and to
maintain a prescribed pressure inside the enclosure. The purging air must be drawn from a
non-hazardous area source e.g. through suitable ducting or from a plant air compressor. If
the enclosure is large, as in the case of high voltage motors, then
the use of plant air may present problems of air consumption. The purging gas for a small
enclosure may be taken from high-pressure storage cylinders, using a suitable
pressure reduction regulator. Wherever the purging medium is derived from, it should be
filtered and dried so that the enclosure is not contaminated or dampened, and the insulation
of the internal components degraded.

Type of Protection q
This type of protection uses sand or similar dry powder to exclude the flammable gas-air
mixture. It is mainly intended for electronic equipment as it has very little application in the
oil industry.

Type of Protections
Types protection is also called special protection and enables unusual designs to be
designed, tested and certified. It is a little used method and the applications are mainly
suited to electronic and low power equipment.

Type of Protection de

The type of protection de is a hybrid of the d and e types. It is mainly used for motors.
The concept is that the motor is type d whilst its terminal boxes are type e. This hybrid
concept evolved from the difficulties experienced with the use of direct and indirect entry
of the cables at their terminal boxes. A direct entry requires a barrier gland, which is filled
with a compound to displace all the air pockets inside the gland where the cable conductors
are exposed. An indirect entry does not require a barrier gland. However, with both methods
the cable gland must be of the type of protection d, with the correct threading to suit the
terminal box. The type e terminal box contains the winding terminations, which are usually
in the form of threaded studs mounted on a robust
flameproof partition or interface. The studs are sealed into through-type insulators, which
are often made of epoxy resin compound. The arrangement ensures a strong hermetical
seal between the internal volume of the motor and that of the terminal box. Since the
components inside the terminal box are of the non-sparking type and their surface
temperature is kept low by design, then the box can be certified as type e. There must be
a fully sealed barrier or interface between the type d part and the type e part. Barrier
glands are generally unpopular in the oil industry because of the practical difficulties
associated with making and remaking the glands in difficult environments, for example
during periods of routine maintenance. The introduction of BS5345 in the mid- 1970s
focused attention on maintenance and installation of hazardous area equipment for the first
time. It placed responsibility on the user of equipment in addition to that which already
existed for the manufacturers. Keeping the materials clean and dry whilst the glanding is
being prepared is sometimes difficult e.g. outdoors offshore in bad weather, in dusty desert
conditions. Overall the type e terminal box with a non-barrier type d gland provides an
economical as well as a very practical method of terminating cables. The method has
potential with equipment other than motors e.g. local control stations, switched socket
outlets.

CERTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS AREA EQUIPMENT

In general the installation designer and the user require confidence that manufactured
equipment for use in a hazardous area carries an internationally recognized certificate. In
addition the certificate should be the result of laboratory testing of a sample of the same
equipment. The laboratory should be specialized in the type of testing required. In the UK
and Europe a certificate is required from the manufacturer for equipment that is to be used
in Zone 1 and Zone 2 areas. In some situations a certificate will be obtained for a system of
components, for example with intrinsically safe equipment. In the USA the practice is
slightly different. Only equipment that will be installed in a Division 1 area should require a
certificate. For manufacturers offering a range of products, the process of testing and
obtaining a certificate is expensive and time consuming. Subsequent modification to a
design can
also be a long and expensive process for retesting and re-approval. Over the last 15 years
there has been a process called harmonization of the various national standards within the
UK and Europe with the internationally accepted IEC standards. This has made the subject of
certification rather complicated, but as time passes the results should be simpler to obtain
both for the manufacturer and to the satisfaction of the user. The harmonization process has
been managed by the Committee of Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) in Europe.
The committee standardizes many subjects of electrical and electronic engineering, not only
those pertaining to hazardous area equipment and its installation. When equipment is
certified in accordance with a CENELEC standard the symbol Ex is odified to become EEx.
This serves to give the designer and the user extra confidence in the certification. The
certification process, like so many other manufacturing functions, is now being
influenced by the generally accepted requirement for quality assurance, through the
ISO9000, 9001 and 9002 standards. There are several permutations for certification
involving European harmonization and countries inside or outside the EC (European
Community). Equipment can be manufactured in any country. The manufacturer may
choose to design his equipment to the national standards of his country, or he may wish to
cover a wider market by using an international or even a CENELEC standard. Once the
equipment is manufactured, samples of it will need to be tested. There may be a testing
authority in the particular country, or for some reason the manufacturer may choose to
have the testing carried out in another country e.g. the testing laboratory may have a wider
scope of facilities. Eventually the manufacturer will obtain a certificate. The installation
designer and the user may need to carefully scrutinize the whole sequence of events
leading up to the issuance of a valid certificate. Reference 1 explains the European situation
in detail, together with the various types of certificates that are obtainable from within
Europe and from other continents. The subject is complex and requires careful study to
ensure that the correct documentation is obtained.
MARKING OF EQUIPMENT NAMEPLATES
Hazardous area equipment that has been tested and approved by a recognized laboratory
should have a marking plate attached to its surface, in a place easily seen by the user. This
plate is usually the nameplate that shows the normal information such as the name of the
manufacturer, voltage, rated power, full load current, frequency, model number, serial
number, ambient temperature and date of manufacture. The additional information to be
shown for the hazardous area application should be at least the following:
Applicable national or international standard e.g. BS5501 Part 5, IEC60079 Part 2.
Name or abbreviation of the testing laboratory that issued the certificate, e.g. BASEEFA.
Approved symbol for the certifying authority, and if appropriate the EEC hexagonal
symbol.
Type of protection e.g. EEx d, Ex e, Ex n.
Gas Group e.g. IIA, IIB, IIC.
Temperature Class e.g. T6.
Certificate unique identification number.

Now we move on to the procedures/ steps to be followed for classification of an area into
hazardous and non hazardous.

PROCEDURES
In preparing the electrical area classification, a number of steps are followed:
Step 1- The flammable material present in the unit are defined
Step 2- Plot plan of the area for which hazardous area classification to be made
Step 3- The flammable material content per process equipment is defined
Step 4- The grade of sources of release and ventilation type is determined
Step 5- The type of zones is determined.
Step 6- Classification of temperature class.
Step 7- The extent of zones is determined.
Step 8- The minimum required types of protection for electrical and instrument equipment
are determined.

To understand the steps better, we move into a depth of the steps-

STEP 1:
Flammable Material present in the project Area. The flammable materials present in the
project area are to be listed in a tabular form called Hazardous Source List. A sample source
list is attached in Appendix 1. For the purpose of area classification, the flammable materials
have an indication of gas groups and temperature class.
Flammable materials are classified as by gas groups, according to their maximum
experimental safe gaps and minimum ignition currents. Gas groups are I, IIA, IIB and IIC. Gas
group IIC (Hydrogen) is the most stringent. Gas groups of the flammable materials (as
determined by tests) are derived from IEC 79-12. Flammable materials are classified by
Temperature classes such that the maximum surface temperature of the electrical
apparatus is below the lowest ignition temperature of the explosive gas mixture.
Temperature classes are T1 through T6 in which T6 (85 deg C) is the most stringent. This is
a vital input for classification of hazardous area. This information has to acquire from
process department.

STEP-2:
Plot plan of the area for which hazardous area classification to be made. The plot plan
should indicate all the equipments like vessels, containers, tanks, pumps, flanges, valves,
etc wherever there is a possibility of release of gases. This is another vital input for
classification of the area. A proper and prcised plot plan depicting each equipment of the
area is very important for proper classification. This is also to be acquired and validated
from process department

STEP-3:
The flammable material content per process equipment is listed in the source list. The
process equipment of the plant often do not contain products of only one gas group but
mixtures of products of different gas groups.
Unless unique gas group/ temperature class is available for a particular mixture, definition of
the area is based on following:
Upon release, gas mixtures are considered to separate immediately into their separate
gases. The percentage (by volume) of the individual components of the mixture is indicated
in source list. Mixtures from flammable materials of gas groups IIA/ IIB with hydrogen (gas
group IIC), the hydrogen can be discarded if, under any process condition, it constitutes less
than 30% volume of the mixture. The definition of a certain area is based on the
minimum temperature class and most stringent gas group of any gas within a mixture,
possible within that area
If the separate gases of a mixture are both lighter and heavier than air, the extent of each
separate area is indicated on the area classification layout. Conversely, when mixture is
composed of lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air gases and the mixture density is less than
75% of the density of air at standard conditions, the extent of the classified area shall satisfy
the requirements for lighter-than-air vapors. Where the mixture has a density equal to or
greater than 75% of air at standard conditions, it shall be considered as heavier-than-air
vapors for area classification purposes. This is another input, which is also a part of source
list to be furnished by process department

STEP 4:
The grade of sources of release and ventilation type unless otherwise mentioned, all sources
of release are of secondary grade (a source which is not expected to release in normal
operations and, if it releases, is likely to do so only infrequently and for short periods). This
is part of source list and the information is generally furnished in the source list.

STEP 5:
Classification of Zones
The classification of zone is based on the expected existence, the probability of existence, or
the non existence of an atmosphere, containing a concentration of vapors or gases within
the flammable limits of the specific flammable material involved. They may be classified as
Zone 0, Zone 1 or Zone 2. This information can be obtained from grade of source of release.
This step and all other steps following it is part of output and is responsibility of electrical
department

STEP 6:
Classification of temperature class
Once we have the hazardous source list we must identify the temperature class of the
equipment. The temperature class depends upon the auto ignition temperature of the gas
handled by the equipment. Temperature classification should be always lower than the auto
ignition temperature of the gas. Classification of temperature class should be based on
Table-3 shown above.

STEP 7:
Extent of zones
The extent of zone classification can be based on standards like IEC60079, API505, IP, and
OISD113. Here in our study we are going to adhere with API505.The extent of classifications
are made on the plot plan, a well as sectional view.

After classification of the zones and identifying extent of zones , the most vital step and aim
for all the exercise is done that is selection of equipment as per the area classification, so
that the project is cost effective and safe.

STEP 8:
Types of protection
The Types of protection for electrical and instrument which are allowed to be used certain
types of zones, are based on local regulations and/or contract requirements.

Some special considerations

1. Gas / Vapour in an enclosed hazardous area can be diluted by dispersion or diffusion into
the air until it's concentration is below the lower flammable limit (LFL). Degree of ventilation
(natural or artificial) can determine the Division / Zone. For further details, refer IEC 60079-
10 Annex B, API RP 500 Section 6.3.

2. In vendor supplied skids handling flammable liquids / gases, welded piping is used and
skid is categorized as general purpose. When flanged connection is used as interface with
such a skid, a Class I, Div 2 (alternatively Class I, Zone 2) area is created. This requires all
devices on the skid under influence of this new hazardous area, to be suitable for this area.
This leads to a major problem with potential costly fixes. It is recommended that welded
piping be used whenever possible. Also, placing large motors / devices with contacts in the
4.6 m (15) radius zone of a potential leak source like a flange, shall be avoided.

In vendor supplied skids handling flammable liquids / gases, welded piping is used and skid
is categorized as general purpose. When flanged connection is used as interface with such a
skid, a Class I, Div 2 (alternatively Class I, Zone 2) area is created. This requires all devices
on the skid under influence of this new hazardous area, to be suitable for this area. This
leads to a major problem with potential costly fixes. It is recommended that welded piping
be used whenever possible. Also, placing large motors / devices with contacts in the 4.6 m
(15) radius zone of a potential leak source like a flange, shall be avoided.

3 When a mixture contains gases of different Groups, the area classification shall be based
on following conditions:
Ignition temperature of that gas (or vapor) having lowest ignition temperature shall be
considered. Alternatively, tests for ignition temperature may be required. If specific gravity
of resultant mixture is greater than 1 than gas shall be considered heavier than air. If
specific gravity is less than 1, than gas shall be considered lighter than air.

4 Charging of non-sealed battery cells leads to creation of Hazardous area since the cells act
as primary source of emission of Hydrogen. Battery rooms that are adequately ventilated as
per guidelines laid by IEEE 484 shall be treated as unclassified. For interiors of unventilated
Battery room, electrical area classification shall be Class I, Division I (or alternatively, Zone 1
), Group B ( or alternatively Group IIC ).

Special precaution shall be exercised in classifying hazardous locations associated with

Crude Oil. Crude oil contains volatile light ends which may be released during storage and
handling or upon heating. Flash point of crude oil can range from zero to over 150F (-17C
to 66C). The volatile light ends of crude oils, such as propane, butane and pentane, upon
leakage or other release to atmosphere, may volatilize at ambient temperature. Being
heavier than air, the vaporized hydrocarbons may travel for considerable distances and
accumulate in hazardous concentrations
Electrical Area Classification Drawing: the drawings are as per API
Here are few drawings of typical equipments and classification of the zones as per API. For
any other specialized type of equipment refer API or OISD. The extent of classification may
vary from one standard to other slightly but the basic concept remains same. Electrical
installations in areas where flammable liquids, gases, or vapors are produced, processed,
stored or otherwise handled can be suitably designed if the locations of potential sources of
release and accumulation are clearly defined. Once a location has been classified,
requirements for electrical equipment and associated wiring should be determined from
applicable publications. Applicable publications may include NFPA 70 (NEC) or API RP 14F.
 CABLING SYSTEM

Cables provide a highly reliable and compact method of transmitting power from its source
to its consumer. Cables are installed in open air on racks or ladders, in the ground, or
underwater as in the case of submarine cables. Power at all the voltages normally
encountered in the industry i.e., less than 100 V and up to 33 kV, can be transmitted
efficiently by single and multi-core cables. Over the last 30 years there has been a
progressive improvement in the materials used in the construction of cables, especially in
the non-metallic materials. This has been due to several necessary requirements e.g,
a) To maximize the conductor temperature and hence the power transmitted.
b) To provide high resistance to mechanical wear and tear, both during the laying of the
cables, and in their on-going use when they may be disturbed in the future.
c) To withstand the effects of chemical attack from their environment e.g., when laid in
polluted ground.
d) To withstand the damaging effects of steady state and transient overvoltage.
e) To withstand the impact of heat from the environment when exposed to fire and high
radiant temperatures.
f) To withstand freezing temperatures and embitterment.
g) To be resistant to ultraviolet light when exposed to bright sunlight.
Not all of the above requirements are needed for a particular plant. The specification of the
cable and its materials should take account of the changes in its environment throughout a
one-year cycle. The conductor current rating should be based on the worst-case conditions if
the cable is to be fully utilized and expected to give a long life time of service.

ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES

Copper and aluminum are used in their highly refined form for the power conductors of
cables. The total impurities contained in high conductivity copper should be less than 0.1%
and for aluminum less than 0.5%. The measured conductivity of these metals will have its
highest value when they are annealed. Hard drawn conductors will have conductivity that is
several percentage points lower than the annealed value. Note that castings made of these
materials will generally have conductivity slightly lower than their rolled and drawn forms.
The presence of oxygen in the form of oxides is the most common impurity. It slightly
reduces the conductivity, malleability and ductility of the metal. For use in most power cable
applications these metals are formed into annealed conductors. Copper is generally the
preferred material for cable conductors used in the oil industry. Aluminum is seldom chosen
for conductors. It is sometimes used for the armoring of single-core cables that carry AC, or
DC, if a substantial AC ripple is present e.g., DC, motors fed from a thyristor controlled
power source.

Tin
Tin metal is occasionally specified to provide a thin layer on the outer surface of copper
conductors. Historically this tin layer gave protection against corrosion of the copper surface
from rubber insulation, which contained substances such as sulphur. Large proportions of
sulphur were added during the vulcanizing process to increase the hardness and tensile
strength of the rubber. The modern use of plastic insulation instead of rubber compounds
means that the layer of tin is no longer required in most applications. Tin is beneficial in
situations where soldered lugs are used to terminate the copper conductors, although
modern methods of crimping lugs onto their conductors has tended to make the use of tin
unnecessary. Tin is also used as a coating for copper armor wires or armor braiding where
rubber compounds are used in the inner or outer sheathing.

Phosphor Bronze
Phosphor bronze is an alloy of mainly copper, 5 to 10% tin and approximately 0.1%
phosphorous.
The alloy has superior mechanical strength when compared with copper. It is also very
resistant to corrosion, particularly in the presence of water. Phosphor bronze is used as wire
in the armoring of cables to provide moderate protection against mechanical damage. It is
formed into a tightly woven braid to form a non-magnetic, highly conductive, armoring and
electromagnetic screen. It is a practical alternative to tinned copper braid in many
applications where steel wire should not be used. The alloy is also used in the form of a thin
tape for the purpose of repelling insects e.g., ants, termites and marine teredo worms. The
tapes are placed underneath the main armoring and on top of the inner sheathing

Galvanized Steel
Galvanized steel is used for the cable armor where a high degree of mechanical protection
is required, and where high pulling forces are experienced during the installation of the
cable, especially in the laying of submarine cables. The armor wires are formed into a helical
cage to give the highest protection or as a braid when flexibility
is required during the installation and a lesser level of protection can be accepted. Mild steel
is used for the armoring of cables laid on land. For submarine cables the material can be
specified as carbon steel, which has a higher tensile strength. The depth of the galvanizing
is specified in the international standards. The cross-
sectional area of each armor wire (in a helix and not in a braid) varies from typically 0.9 mm
for small power and control cables e.g. 1.5 and 2.5 mm2 conductors, to 2.5 mm for 400
mm2 low voltage high power cables. For submarine cables the wire diameter can be up to
6.0 mm and for some deep ocean applications two layers of armor wires are used. Steel wire
armor as opposed to steel wire braid has lower electrical impedance
for a given length of cable. This is an important benefit in networks that are solidly earthed
at their power source. Some special applications that require as low impedance as is
practical to achieve in the cable have some of the armor wires replaced by copper wires.
Hence the parallel circuit consisting of the steel and copper wires has lower total impedance
than the steel wires on their own. The impedance of the armoring, with or without the
copper wires, is predominantly resistive and so the inductive reactance at the power
frequency can therefore be ignored.

Lead
Metallic lead is occasionally used as an extruded sheath to provide protection against
chemical corrosion where it is necessary to bury cables in polluted or aggressive soils.
Examples of these are found in chemical plants, refineries, storage tank farms and areas
that have high water tables. The lead is often alloyed with small amounts of tin and
antimony to improve its ability to withstand mechanical fatigue, such as fatigue experienced
in long distance transportation to site. Lead sheathed cables should not be installed where
regular cyclic physical movement will be experienced.

ELECTRICALLY NON-CONDUCTING MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES

Definition of Basic Terminology
Some terms are used loosely in various engineering disciplines e.g. plastic, rubber. However,
they have particular connotations in electrical engineering, especially in the field of cable
manufacturing.

Rubber
Rubber is obtained in two basic forms, natural rubber and synthetic rubber. Natural rubber is
the sap of the particular species of trees called Hevea brasiliensis, which is sticky when at
tropical temperature, reasonably hard at low temperatures and oxidizes when exposed to
the atmosphere. Natural rubber is a naturally occurring compound of carbon and hydrogen,
and is of little use as a basic material. It is therefore mixed with other chemical compounds,
filler materials such as carbon black and then vulcanised to produce vulcanised rubber or
more generally called simply rubber. The vulcanizing process requires sulphur to be added
and the application of heat and pressure. The molecules of rubber are formed in long chains.
Individual chains are not bonded to adjacent chains; hence the chains can slide alongside
each other with little resistance to movement. This gives processed rubber the ability to
recover without permanent deformation. Natural rubber does not necessarily recover to its
original shape, since its stability depends on its ambient temperature. Vulcanizing or curing
causes the sulphur
to cross-bond adjacent chains, which stiffens the material thereby making it more useful. By
increasing the sulphur content or extending the vulcanizing time, or a combination of both
functions, the rubber becomes progressively harder with higher tensile strength. Increasing
additives such as carbon black can reduce the dielectric strength, thereby making the
rubber a poorer insulator. Carbon by itself is of course a conductor. Synthetic rubbers are
also composed of carbon and hydrogen molecules, but they are combined by manufacturing
processes. A synthetic rubber, which closely resembles natural rubber, is polyisoprene,
which has the same chemical composition.

Elastomer
The term elastomer is the most appropriate technical term for rubber, and is generally
applied to synthetic rubbers, e.g. ethylene propylene rubber. It derives its name from the
well-known elastic property of rubber.
However some non-rubber compounds are also called elastomers if they exhibit a non
deforming elastic property similar to rubber at room temperature, even if the compound is
relatively hard. The two main groups of non-rubber elastomers are thermoplastics, e.g.,
polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene and thermosets, e.g., ethylene
propylene rubber, cross-linked polyethylene. These two groups are also covered by the term
plastic.
Polymer
A polymeric compound contains several different molecules e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
silicon, chlorine, sulphur. These molecules combine in small groups usually with a carbon
molecule in the middle. The group is repeated linearly many times in the form of a chain.
Polymers can be natural or synthetic materials, which include but are not limited to rubbers,
elastomers and plastics. When two polymers are combined the resulting compound is called
a copolymer.

Plastic
This is a very widely used term to describe typical household, automobile and industrial
components that are moulded from man-made chemical compounds. In the electrical
engineering field the term has a more specific definition, especially where insulation
materials are being described. Plastic materials are those that are formed from synthetic
compounds e.g., polymers or natural compounds that have previously been modified, for
example hydrocarbons refined from crude oil, natural gas or derivatives of ethane, methane
and naphtha. By definition the manufacturing of a plastic component should include a
viscous flowing process that usually requires heat and pressure, for example extrusion or
injection moulding. Two important groups of insulating and sheathing
materials that also come within the definition of plastic are the thermoplastic and thermoset
polymeric compounds.

Resin
The preferred term for synthetic polymers is resin polymers or simply resins. Hence the two
main groups are thermoplastic resins and thermoset resins.

Thermoplastic resins
Thermoplastic resins (elastomers and polymers) are plastics that retain their flexibility and
chemical composition when heat is applied and removed. The applied heat is only sufficient
to steadily melt the resin. The most widely used thermoplastic resins used in cables are
polyvinyl chloride (in various forms), polyethylene (in several forms), polypropylene and
polytetrafluoroethylene. In general these resins in their basic forms do not have sufficiently
good properties to make them attractive as materials for cables. The necessary properties
for insulation are usually different from those required for sheathing and bedding, even
though the same basic resin may be used for these purposes. Other substances are
polymerized or mixed with the basic resin during its manufacture.
These substances are used to improve or provide:-
High dielectric strength.
Low dielectric loss angle.
High insulation resistivity.
High melting temperature.
High tensile strength and resistance to mechanical impact.
Good flexibility.
Good handling properties for installation and termination.
 Good resistance to ultraviolet light.
Good dimensional stability.
Long service life.
Low water absorption.
Low emission of smoke and acid gases during fire situations.
Low flammability.
Low solubility in mineral oils (drilling mud), acids, alkalis, organic compounds and solvents.
Good extrusion performance.
High resistance to ozone.

Not all of the above can be optimized for a particular type of cable. Some sacrifices need to
be made when a particular property or overall performance is to be obtained. For example
good performance during a fire inside a building where people are present and smoke and
gas must be minimized.

Thermoset resins
Thermoset resins do not melt when heated, and are irreversibly changed after the heat is
removed. They are produced from a two-stage chemical process. The second stage is called
cross-linking, and is similar to vulcanizing. The process requires heat, pressure, catalysts,
or irradiation, or a combination of these additives to produce the desired material.
Thermoplastic resins can be further processed by cross-linking techniques to produce
thermosets. The thermoset elastomers most frequently used for cables are ethylene
propylene rubber and cross-linked polyethylene. Thermosets are widely used as sheet type
insulating materials, adhesives, jointing compounds for cables and solid mouldings such as
post insulators. Electrical and physical properties of thermoplastic and thermoset resins
There are many thermoplastic and thermoset resins but only a few developed for use in
manufacturing cables. Commonly Used Insulations for Cables

Mainly three types of insulating materials are used in the industry for insulation of the
cables namely PVC, XLPE and EPR. Conductor maximum continuous temperature in C for
PVC is 70C, for XLPE 90C and for EPR 85 to 90C.
Max conductor temp C for 5 sec short circuit in accordance with IEC 502 for PVC is 160C,
for XLPE 250C and For EPR is 250C.
Conductor
The conductors are usually copper or aluminum. Aluminum is seldom used in the oil industry
because it work hardens during installation, has higher losses, has high volt-drop at rated
current and requires special attention during termination. Copper and aluminum conductors
are described in IEC60228 (BS6360), which divides
them into a number of classes. Class 1 applies to single stranded conductors, but these are
only used in sizes normally less than 1.5 mm2, and even then finely stranded conductors
are preferred. For sizes equal to or greater than 1.5 mm2 Class 2 is used, and the lowest
number of strands used is 7 for sizes up to 16 mm2 for marine and
off shore installations and up to 35 mm2 for onshore installations. Marine and offshore
installations usually require the cable to be more flexible for handling during laying and
smaller bending radii during termination. Higher flexibility can be obtained by finer
stranding as given by Class 5 of the standard is preferred with a maximum of 400 mm2 for
single core cables due to difficulties in laying larger sizes.
For LV cables having a cross-sectional area above approximately 25 mm2 the conductors
would usually be formed into sector shaped conductors. In general cable sizes above 400
mm2 are rarely used in the oil industry.

Stranding
Stranding provides flexibility to the cable needed to pull, bend, and terminate it. For most
cables, Class B stranding is sufficient. If extra flexibility is needed, Class C stranding can be
specified. See ASTM B8, B496, or IEC 60228 for additional information. Conductors are
available in concentric round, compressed, compact, segmental, bunched and rope lay
constructions. Thermocouple extension cables and some specialty cables are solid
conductors.

Coating
Tin or alloy coating of the copper conductors was a standard practice in the cable industry
before the 1970s when manufacturing processes and cable insulation contained sulfur.
Today, the amount of sulfur used is greatly reduced, allowing many manufacturers to offer
uncoated copper conductors. The purchase of cable with
uncoated copper conductors can result in cost savings to the project by having lower
conductor resistances and weight on the cable. These savings are most evident with larger
sized cables, e.g., 250 kcmil (120 sq mm) and larger. It is recommended that 1/0 AWG (50
sq mm) and larger cables be purchased with uncoated conductors to take advantage of the
cost savings. See ASTM B33, B189 or IEC 60228 for additional information.

Conductor Semiconducting Screen

The purpose of the screen is to reduce the voltage gradient (electric stress) at the surface of
the conductor where it interfaces with the insulation. Otherwise irregularities in the interface
could initiate failure of the insulation in the longer term.

Insulation
The most frequently used insulating compounds are PVC, XLPE and EPR. For most onshore
applications PVC and XLPE are preferred because of economic reasons, and XLPE is
becoming more popular than PVC. Marine and offshore applications tend to prefer XLPE and
EPR. EPR is usually more expensive than XLPE. Both compounds
have the advantage that they permit the conductors to operate at higher temperatures (85
to 90C) than those of PVC (70C). PVC compounds can be specially manufactured to
tolerate conductor temperatures up to 85C. Silicon rubber can be specified if high
conductor temperatures (up to 180C), and for even higher temperatures (up to 260C)
Insulation Semiconductor Screen
The insulation screen is important in three-core cables because it prevents the inter-core
electric stressing that would occur if the screen were not present. It maintains a radial stress
pattern in each core, which is independent of the other cores.

Inner Sheath
An inner sheath, usually made of extruded polymer, is used to cover the insulation screen,
and to fill in the interstices between the cores of a multi-core cable. It is important to fill the
interstitial spaces for two reasons. Firstly to ensure good circularity and dimensional
accuracy of the finished cable, and secondly to prevent an internal passage within the cable
along which flammable gases could travel. The transmission of such gases along a cable
must be eliminated by design and construction for cables that are used in hazardous areas.

Lead Sheathing
Lead is used as a sheathing material for protecting the cable from chemical attack whilst it
is buried directly in hostile ground conditions, e.g. in chemical and refinery plants.

Armouring
In order to minimize the possible damage to a cable, and to provide a safe path for electrical
earth return currents, it is necessary to specify a metallic armoring. There are several types
of metallic armouring used in the oil industry, i.e. galvanized steel wires (GSWA), aluminum
wires (AWA), tinned copper wire braid (TCUWB), phosphor bronze wire braid (PBWB)

Outer Sheath
Oil industry cables are usually finished with an extruded heavy-duty polymeric sheath such
as PVC, PE. For situations where resistance to heat, oil and flames is necessary it is the
practice to use special elastomeric that are identified as HOFR types. These compounds
include EVA, EMA, CPE, and EPR together with suitable fillers that are used during their
curing processes. BS7655 details the requirements for HOFR cables, and IEC60332 for their
fire retardance.

Voltage grade of cable

For cables the AC rms voltages are defined for example in IEC60502, in terms of their line-
to-earth and line-to-line values. Note that occasionally u0 is quoted as the value obtained by
dividing u by 1.732 and rounding to one decimal place to be consistent with Table 5.1 where
20% upward margin is added to obtain um before rounding is applied.

IEC standard rated voltages of power cables

Line-to- earth voltage Line-to-Line Voltage Maximum value of the highest

system line-to-line voltage

uo u um
600 1,000
1,800 3,000 3,600
3,600 6,000 7,200
6,000 10,000 12,000
8,700 15,000 17,500
12,000 20,000 24,000
18,000 30,000 36,000
Notation of cable
a) Letters used in Type designations:

A = Appearing as a first letter denotes Aluminum Conductor.

Y = (PVC) Insulation or (PVC) Sheath depending on the position in which it appears. 2X = X
(Cross-linked Polyethylene) Insulation.
W = Round Steel Wire Armouring.
WW = Double Round Steel Wire Armouring.

F = Formed Steel Wire (Strip) Armouring.

FF = Double Formed Steel Wire (Strip) Armouring. C = Metallic Screening (Usually of
Copper).
CE = Metallic Screening (usually of Copper) over each individual core. Gb = Holding Helix
Tape (of Steel)
Wa = Aluminum Round Wire & Aluminum Formed Wire (Strip) Fa Armouring

b) Type Designations:
AYY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, PVC Outer Sheathed Non Armoured Cables.
AYWY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, Galvanized Round Steel Wire Armoured and PVC
Outer Sheathed Cables.

AYFY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, Galvanized Flat Steel Wire (Strip) Armoured and
PVC Outer Sheathed Cable.

AYCY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, Metallic Screened and PVC Outer Sheathed Non
Armoured Cable.
A2XCY Aluminum Conductor, XLPE Insulated, Metallic Screened and PVC Outer Sheathed
Non Armoured Cable.
AYCEFY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, individual core metallic screened flat steel Wire
(strip) Armoured and PVC Outer Sheathed Cable.
A2XCEFY Aluminum Conductor, XLPE Insulated, individual cores metallic screened Flat Steel
Wire (Strip) Armoured and PVC Outer Sheathed Cable.

NOTE:
If the first letter A is dropped in the above designations (i.e. YY, YWY, YFY etc.) they will
denote corresponding types with Copper Conductors.
YWWG by (Mining) Copper Conductor, PVC Insulated, double round wire armored and PVC
Outer Sheathed Heavy Duty Mining Cable.
YFFG by (Mining) Copper Conductor, PVC Insulated, double flat wire (strip) armored and
PVC Outer Sheathed Heavy Duty Mining Cable.

GENERAL
Power cables supply power to the various plant loads such as motors, heaters, chargers,
transformers, and motor control centers. Low voltage power cable is used for systems rated
1000 V or less. Medium voltage cables are used for systems rated between 1001 V and 69
kV. Medium voltage cables 8 kV or greater are typically shielded. 5 kV cables may or may
not be shielded. 1/C, 3/C or triplex are the preferred cable constructions that are used for
such types of cables. These cables may be armored if conditions call for it. Conductors may
be either copper or aluminum. Copper is recommended for most installations.

Control Cable
Control cables are used to interconnect protective relays, control switches, push buttons &
contacts from various devices. These cables carry low current levels and are used for
intermittent operation to change the operating status of a utilization device. Control cables
are typically of multi-conductor construction (2/C, 3/C, 7/C, 12/C, etc) and are rated for a
minimum of 600 V. In case the cables are in proximity to high voltage systems (substations
etc) and where additional mechanical protection is specified, 1 kV or 2 kV ratings are used.
Control cables are used without shields except in case of high voltage substations where
they are procured with electrostatic shields.

Instrumentation Cable
Instrumentation cables carry low-level digital or analog signals. Low-level signals are usually
variable voltage or currents from instrumentation systems. Instrument cables are made in
pairs or triads and are typically specified with a 300 V rating. The individual pairs/triads are
typically shielded. A shield may also be provided over all the pairs in a multi-pair cable.

Thermocouple Cable
Thermocouple extension cables are used to connect thermocouples to measuring
instruments (typically, the distributed control system). These are constructed in pairs and
are rated for 300 V. The pairs are also normally shielded similar to the instrumentation
cables. Conductor materials are the same as the thermocouple. Solid conductors are used.

Coaxial/Triaxial Cable
Coaxial/triaxial cables are used when the signal or instrument system requires low
attenuation, lower capacitance, greater bandwidth etc. These are typically specified for low
level and /or high frequency signal applications. The shield on a coaxial cable and the inner
shield on a triaxial cable are referred to as being the second conductor as they act as a
return path for the signal. Common applications for such cables are data highways, video
transmission, and security systems.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables are used in similar applications like the coaxial/triaxial cables but have
better operating characteristics. These cables consist of a glass fiber with a cladding
member, enclosed in a tube, with a strength member and an overall jacket. These cables
are free from electromagnetic interference and immune to lightning and surge voltages.

CABLE SIZING

CABLE RATING & SIZING

The following factors are to be considered for sizing and rating a cable:
Voltage Rating (rated operating & peak withstand)
Short circuit rating
Emergency overload rating
Voltage drop
Current carrying capability (ampacity)

Voltage Rating
The voltage rating of the cable insulation is based on the phase-to-phase voltage of the
system in which the cable is to be used, system grounding/earthing (grounded or
ungrounded) and the fault clearing time for ground/earth faults on a system by the
protective devices. In case of systems where a ground/earth fault is not isolated
promptly, the cable insulation is subject to extra stresses during the fault conditions,
affecting the cable life. Therefore, such cables must have greater insulation thickness.
Medium Voltage Power Cable Insulation Levels - ANSI based Projects An insulation level of
100, 133, or 173 percent must be specified when purchasing medium voltage power cables.
These insulation levels correspond to the fault clearing time for the system voltage level
being used.
The 100-percent insulation level is generally applicable to electrical systems having relay
protection such that ground faults will be cleared as rapidly as possible but, in any case,
within 1-minute of occurrence. Usually, these are solidly grounded systems.
The 133-percent insulation level applies to systems whose breaker clearing time is not
within the 1-minute criterion but offering adequate assurance that the fault will be cleared
within 1 hour. Usually, these are ungrounded or high resistance grounded systems.
The 173-percent criterion applies to systems in which the fault clearing time is indefinite.
The 133 percent insulation level is the most common and is recommended for ungrounded
systems. In accordance with the NEMA/ICEA standards, the voltage rating, printed on the
cable jacket, is the phase-to-phase voltage of the cable. For example, cable rated 15 kV is
appropriate for 15 kV phase-to-phase, but is appropriate only for 8,660 volts phase-to-
ground under normal operating conditions. For ungrounded or resistance grounded systems
under fault conditions, the phase-to-ground voltage rises to 15 kV until the fault is cleared.
The clearing time determines whether the insulation level should be 100, 133, or 173
percent. If a system were designed that has a line to neutral voltage of 15 kV, the phase-to-
phase voltage of the system would be 26 kV, and a 15 kV rated cable would not be suitable,
in which case, the next standard cable rating, 28 kV, should be selected.

Medium Voltage Power Cable Voltage Ratings - IEC based Projects The voltage
designation/rating U0/U should be per the relevant cable standard, for e.g., 600/1000V,
1900/3300V etc. and should be appropriate for the type of system & earthing arrangements.
To facilitate the selection of appropriate voltage rating of a cable, the systems are divided
into three categories per IEC 60183.
Category A, comprises those systems in which any phase conductor that
comes in contact with earth/earth conductor, is disconnected within 1-minute.
Category B, comprises those systems which, under fault conditions, are
operated for short time with one phase earthed. This period should not exceed
1-hour.
Category C, comprises those systems which do not fall into category A or B.

Fault Current Rating

During short circuit conditions, the temperature of the conductor rises rapidly. The short
circuit capacity is limited by the maximum temperature capability of the insulation. For e.g.,
XLPE/EPR insulated cables are designed to operate with a continuous conductor
temperature of 90oC and a maximum of 250oC under short circuit. The corresponding
figures for PVC are 70oC and 160oC respectively. Failure to check the conductor size for
short-circuit heating could result in permanent damage to the cable insulation and could
also result into fire. In addition to the thermal stresses, the cable may also be subjected to
significant mechanical stresses. The maximum temperature reached under short circuit
depends on both the magnitude and duration of the short circuit current. The quantity I2t
represents the energy input by a fault that acts to heat up the cable conductor. This can be
related to conductor size by the formula:

Minimum cable size is calculated from following formula:

I = short-circuit current in rms amperes
t = duration of short circuit in seconds,
(tc)A = cable conductor cross sectional area in circular mils or mm2 (use actual mm2
instead of nominal size)
C = Constant equal to 0.0297 for copper & 0.0125 for aluminum
T1: Initial operating temperature (Max. permissible continuous conductor temperature)
(T1 = 90 OC for XLPE insulated conductor)
T2: Maximum permissible temperature at short circuit
(T2 = 250 OC for XLPE insulated conductor)
T0 = 234.5 C for copper and 228.1 C for aluminum

On medium voltage systems, the fault current at the load will not be significantly different
than at the source due to the system impedance. Cable impedances have little effect on
reducing the fault levels. However, in case of low voltage systems or when the loads are far
from the source the cable impedances have a major effect in reducing the fault levels at the
load end.

Sizing - Recommendations
The short circuit capacity need not be calculated for every cable. Generally, low voltage
branch circuit feeders are not sized for short circuit withstands current. It is conventional to
calculate the minimum cable size required for each switchboard or system and then ensure
that all cables are of at least this size. Different sizes may be selected in line with the
different types of protection applied. Generally short circuit capacity will be of greatest
concern on high voltage systems.

ANSI based projects

The fault current (I) in the above equation varies with time. However, calculating the exact
value of the fault current and sizing the cable based on that can be complicated. To simplify
the process the cable can be sized based on the interrupting capability of the circuit
breakers/fuses that protect them. This approach assumes that the available fault current is
the maximum capability of the breaker/fuse and also accounts for the cable impedances in
reducing the fault levels. The fault clearing time (tc) of the breakers/fuses per ANSI/IEEE
C37.010, C37.013, and UL 489 are:
For medium voltage system (4.16 kV) breakers, use 5-8 cycles
For starters with current limiting fuses, use. cycles
For low voltage breakers with intermediate/short time delay, use 10 cycles
For low voltage breakers with instantaneous trips, use 1 cycle

These are recommended values, and can be modified based on specific project data. In case
the short circuit data at different voltage levels are available based on an ETAP study, the
same can be used for sizing the cables.
IEC based projects for fuse protected equipment the value of I2t can be calculated from the
fuse
characteristic directly. For low voltage fuses maximum allowable operating time is 5 seconds
for fixed equipment and 0.4 seconds for socket outlets and portable equipment. These are
voltage dependant. Operating time for the fuse at the expected current should be
considered. For circuit breaker fed circuits with instantaneous protection, it is conventional
to assume t = 0.2 seconds. The current is assumed to be the switchgear short circuit rating,
however, in some cases this can lead to cables with large cross sectional area, which
practically, cannot be accommodated. In these circumstances the actual or future projected
fault current produces more prudent results.
For circuit breaker fed circuits without instantaneous protection, protection operating times
of 1 second are normally assumed. It should be noted that if inverse definite minimum time
delay relays have time settings greater than 0.5, then longer operating times are required.
Again the current is assumed to be the switchgear short circuit
rating. Most cable manufacturers produce graphs of conductor short circuit capacity.

Short Circuit Rating of Shield/Screen

In case of shielded power cables during ground/earth fault conditions, the shield/screen can
be damaged if exposed to excessive fault currents. The shield must be large enough to carry
the fault current for a sufficient length of time to permit the system protective devices to
operate. The suitability of the shield can be calculated using,

I = Fault current flowing through the shield in amperes

A = Area of shield in circular mils or mm2/1974 (use actual mm2 instead of nominal size)
K = Constant based on temperature limits of jackets and metallic portion of shield
T = duration of fault in seconds

When the ground/earth fault current is greater than the short circuit current, it will also be
necessary to re-check that the phase conductor is still protected against damage by the
ground/earth fault current.

Emergency Overload Rating

Conductor operating temperature affects the life of the insulation. The life of the cable
insulation is approximately halved and the thermally caused service failure doubled for
every 8 to 10C rise in temperature. Sustained operation over the normal operating
temperature or ampacity should not be allowed. Overloading for short periods of time can
be considered, provided the following conditions are met for ANSI/IEC based
projects.

ANSI Based Projects

The changes in cable temperature are not instantaneous based on variation in load. During
overload conditions, the cable may be overloaded for short periods of time. The ICEA has
established maximum emergency overload temperatures for various insulations. For e.g.,
130C for XLPE and 130/140C for EPR rated at 90/105C
continuous rating. Warning, cable expansion may be a problem at elevated temperatures,
particularly for XLPE which has a high coefficient of expansion. For exceptionally long cable
lengths providing expansion loop may be considered. Operations at the emergency overload
temperature should not exceed 100 hours/year or more than 500 hours during the life of the
cable. Refer to IEEE 141, Table 12-5 for uprating factors for short time overloads for various
types of insulated cables. This uprating factor multiplied by the nominal current rating of a
cable for a particular installation will give the emergency or overload current rating for the
particular installation.

IEC based Projects

For IEC cable current capability, the following definitions apply:
In = the nominal current or current setting of the protective device Ib = the design current.
Iz = the current carrying capacity of the conductors, under particular installation conditions.
I2 = the current causing the effective operation of the protective device. Relationship
between In, Ib, Iz, and I2
In must be greater than or equal to Ib
Iz must be greater than or equal to In
I2 must not exceed 1.45Iz

HRC (high rupturing capacity) fuses, cartridge fuses, mccbs (molded case circuit breakers)
and mcbs (miniature circuit breakers), must comply with the requirement that the fusing
current does not exceed 1.45Iz and the current carrying capacity of any conductor in the
circuit is not less than the nominal rating of the protective device.

A HRC fuse is often referred to as having a fusing factor of 1.5, but this is in an open test rig,
and when installed in an enclosure, its fusing factor can be considered to be 1.45.

Voltage Drop
Cables shall be sized so that the maximum voltage drop between the supply source and the
load when carrying the design current does not exceed that which will ensure safe and
efficient operation of the associated equipment. It is a requirement that the voltage at the
equipment is greater than the lowest operating voltage specified for the equipment in the
relevant equipment standard. Designing the system so that buses operate at nominal
voltage plus or minus 10 percent has its problems, it is also not practical (or necessary) to
calculate the voltage at every load. The approach should be to establish a set of maximum
allowable cable voltage drops, and then allow for these drops in the design. Naturally, when
choosing the allowable cable voltage drops, it is necessary to review the system to ensure
that the allowable drops are sufficient for the worst-case loads. However, cable should not
be oversized (beyond acceptable voltage drop) to compensate for bad system design. The
system should be corrected if the total voltage drop at the load is excessive when cable
voltage drop is acceptable.
The voltage-drop in a circuit, V'D, line to neutral, is given by the following Approximation
(IEEE 141 - 1993, Chapter 3)
 Where,
I = current
flowing in the conductor, in amperes.
R = total line resistance for one conductor, in ohms. X = total line reactance for one
conductor, in ohms. cos= load power factor, in per unit.
sin = load reactive factor, in per unit.
Es= Sending end voltage

The voltage-drop obtained from the formula above is in one conductor, one way (i.e., line-to-
neutral voltage drop). However, the line-to-line voltage-drop, VD in a three phase ac system
is computed by multiplying the formula above by 3:

where,

R = conductor resistance per 1000 feet (meters), in ohms. X = conductor reactance per
1000 feet (meters), in ohms. l = total length of circuit, in feet/meters. and VD can be
expressed as; VD = (%VD)*(VL)

where,
(%VD) = Percentage of the Voltage-Drop
(VL) = Nominal Bus Voltage

Rearranging, gives the circuit length as;

This formula is used in determining the maximum feeder cable lengths. When using the
formulae to calculate the voltage drop in a cable supplying a motor load, it is necessary to
perform the calculation for motor starting and running conditions. The value at full load is
based on practical and economic considerations and that at starting to ensure that motor
starting torque is sufficient to accelerate the driven equipment. Resistance data are usually
tabulated in the form of dc resistance per 1000 feet of conductor at some given
temperature, such as 20C or 25C, for different sizes and cable construction (stranded,
solid, coated, uncoated, etc.). This resistance must then be corrected for the proper cable
operating temperature, skin effect, installation in magnetic conduit, and, for large cables,
proximity effect. (The skin effect causes an increase in apparent resistance for ac
operation.) Because most cables carry current that is less than their rated ampacity, their
actual operating temperatures will be less than their rated operating temperature. To be on
the safe side and to simplify things, the resistance is usually corrected for the cables rated
maximum operating temperature. This yields the worst case resistance.

Voltage Drop Study - Recommendations

Normally the limits of cable voltage drop are established individually for each project and
are given in the project Electrical Design Criteria. The values are usually based on Client
requirements and National Standards, where applicable. Typical LV cable voltage drop
values, as a percentage of the nominal circuit voltage, are as follows:

Motor Feeders at motor full load current 5% at starting 15%

Power distribution feeders 2%
Lighting distribution feeders 1%
Lighting sub-circuits 2%

Cable Ampacity
Ampacity is defined as the current in amperes a conductor can carry continuously under the
conditions of surrounding medium in which the cables are installed. An ampacity study is
the calculation of the temperature rise of the conductor in a cable system under steady-
state conditions. Cable ampacity, whether calculated or taken from an ampacity table is
based on the following equation,

This equation is based on Neher-McGrath method where, Tc - allowable conductor

temperature (oC)
Ta - ambient temperature (either soil or air) (oC)
Td - temperature rise of conductor due to dielectric heating (oC)
Tint - temperature rise of the conductor due to interference heating from adjacent cables
(oC)
Rac - electrical ac resistance of conductor including skin effect, proximity and temperature
effects (/ft)
Rca - effective total thermal resistance of path between conductor and surrounding
ambient to include the effects of load factor, shield/sheath losses, metallic conduit losses,
effects of multiple conductors in the same duct etc (thermal-ft, oC-cm/W).
From the above equation it is clear that the rated current carrying capacity of a conductor is
dependent on the following factors,
Ambient temperature (air or ground)
Grouping and proximity to other loaded cables, heat sources etc.
Method of installation (aboveground or below ground)
Thermal conductivity of the medium in which the cable is installed
Thermal conductivity of the cable constituents

Cable Ampacity Study - Standard Tables

The above equation is used to analyze the cable ampacity of unique installations. Standard
ampacity tables are available for a variety of cable types and cable installation methods and
can be used for determining the current carrying capacity of a cable for a particular
application. These standards provide tabulated ampacity data for cables installed in air, in
ductbank, directly buried or in trays for a particular set of conditions clearly defined. If the
actual design conditions in a project are different from those defined in these tables, rating
factors have to be applied to obtain the correct rating of the cables. The standards below
provide the rating factors for variations in ambient or ground temperature, depth of laying,
thermal resistivity of soil and mutual heating due to cables installed together. Manufacturers
are another source of ampacity.
CABLE SIZING PROCEDURE
1) PROCEDURE
The size of the cable is selected based on the following considerations.
a) Short circuit withstand capacity (SC Ampacity).
b) Effective current carrying capacity (Thermal Ampacity).
c) Voltage drop during steady state operating conditions and motor start-up.

Short circuit withstand capacity is to be checked for HT cables and for LT incomer feeders
only. For LT breaker controlled motor feeders ,the cable impedance reduces short circuit
current considerably, hence, short circuit withstand capacity is not required to be checked
for the rated fault level of the LT motors. For HT feeders & LT incomer feeders, the
minimum cable size which satisfies the above three conditions is selected. For other LT
feeders, minimum cable size which meets b) & c) is selected.

STEPS FOR CABLE SIZING

Following steps are to be followed to conclude proper techno-economical cable size for a
consumer.

Step-1 (Applicable for HT cables and LT incomer cables only)

The cross sectional area where calculated shall not be less than the value determined by the
following formula.
S = It
K
Where,
S = Nominal cross sectional area of the conductor in mm
I = Value of fault current in Amperes.
t = Fault clearing time in seconds (This is generally taken as 0.2seconds for motor &
transformer feeders,0.6 seconds for plant feeders, 1.0 seconds for incoming feeder.)
K = Factor taking account of the resistivity, temperature co-efficient, heat capacity of the
conductor material, initial and final temperature. Value of `K (as per BS 7671) shall be
taken as 94 for XLPE insulated Aluminum Cables , 143 for XLPE insulated copper cables
and 76 for PVC insulated

Aluminium Cables
Wherever the application of the formula results in a non-standard size, a conductor of the
next higher standard cross section area shall be used. Short circuit duration for cables must
be commensurate with the tripping time of the protective devices associated with the
feeder.

Step-2 - Effective Current Carrying Capacity (Thermal Ampacity)

The current carrying capacity of a cable corresponds to the maximum current that it can
carry under specified conditions without the conductors exceeding the permissible limit of
steady state temperature for the type of insulation concerned. Derating factor or correction
factor (C) shall be applied where the installation conditions differ from those for which
values of current carrying capacity are defined. Derating factors generally considered are as
follows:

a) In Ground Installation (direct burial)

C = Cs X Cg X Cd X Ct
Where,
Cs = Rating factor for variation in Ground temperature.
Cg = Rating factor for Grouping of cables.
Cd = Rating factor for Depth of laying.
Ct = Rating factor for Thermal resistivity of soil.

b) Above Ground Installation

C = Ca X Cg
Where
Ca = Rating factor for variation in Ambient air temperature.
Cg = Rating factor for Grouping of cables.

c) Values of different derating factors for calculating C shall be taken as per manufacturer
catalogues. The value of C thus calculated is multiplied by the cable continuous current
obtained from the standard tables gives the derated current carrying capacity of cable.

d) In case cables are laid partially in air and ground, take the lowest derating factor for
calculation.
e) Prepare derated current rating chart for each size cable after multiplying the cable
ampacity with the applicable derating factor C.

Step-3 (Cable size according to load current)

a) Calculate load current for a consumer using following formulas

(i) I = KW for 3 ph AC loads

3 * V* pf *effn

(ii) Iload = KW for 1 Ph AC load

V*pf*effn

(iii) Iload = KW for DC

V*effn
Where I = Load current of the electrical consumer (in Amp)
KW = Output kW (name plate) rating of the load. In case of battery charger maximum
load considering normal load + boost charging to be considered
V = Line to line voltage in case of 3ph AC/ Line to phase in case of 1 ph AC / DC voltage in
case of DC ( in kV and name plate voltage rating of the consumer, not the switchgear bus
voltage) in kV
pf = power factor in case of AC voltage at rated load
effn = Efficiency (1) of the equipment at rated load.

b) Select the cable size from the calculated chart (cl 3.2 e)

c) Compare the cable size as per short circuit

(step-I) and according to load Current
(step-3) Select the higher cable size.

Step-4 -Verification of cable size according to permissible voltage drop during steady state
operating conditions & motor start up.
a) For three phase circuits.
% Voltage drop can be computed using the formula
% Vd = 3 * I * L * (Rac * Cos + X * Sin) * 100 / (N * V)

Where,
Vd = Voltage drop in percentage
= Power factor angle as considered to calculate I.
I = Line current in Amps
V=System voltage in volts
Rac =AC conductor resistance at maximum rated conductor temperature in ohms per km.
(70 deg C for PVC , 90 deg C for XLPE)
X=Reactance in ohms per km at rated frequency.
L=Cable length in km.
N=Number of Runs for star-delta feeder, minimum no. of runs is 2).

b) For DC circuits:
% Voltage drop can be computed using the formula
% Vd = (2 * I * L * Rdc * 100) / (N * V)
Where,
I=Line current in Amps
V=System voltage in volts
Rdc = DC conductor resistance at maximum rated conductor temperature in ohm per km
L=Cable length in km.
N=Number of Runs

c) For single phase AC circuits.

% Vd = 2 * I * L * (Rac * Cos + X * Sin) * 100 / (N * V)

Where
Vd=Voltage drop
=Power factor angle by which the current lags (or leads) the voltage.
I=Line current in Amps
V=System voltage in volts
Rac=AC conductor resistance at maximum rated conductor temperature in ohms per
km.
X=Reactance in ohms per km at 50 Hz
L=Cable length in km.
N=Number of Runs
Check the calculated voltage drop, for the selected cable as per step-3, if voltage drop
voltage drop is higher than the permissible value , then calculate voltage drop with next
higher cable size until the condition is satisfied.

A software program available for cable sizing of LT motor feeders shall be used by providing
specific project requirements.

Derating factor due to variation in ambient temperature for cable lay in air

Air Temp in Deg C 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

LV Cable PVC insulated 1.33 1.25 1.16 1.09 1.00 0.90 0.83
Source: CCI Capital

HV cable XLPE insulated 1.07 1.04 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82
Source: Fort gloster

Derating factor due to variation in ground temperature for cable lay in ground

Ground Temp in Deg C 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

LV Cable PVC insulated 1.17 1.12 1.06 1.00 0.94 0.87 0.79
Source: CCI Capital

HV cable XLPE insulated 1.04 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.76
Source: Fort gloster

Derating factor due to variation in thermal resistivity of soil for cable lay in
ground

Thermal resistivity of soil 70 100 120 150 200 250 300

in Deg C-cm/w
HV cable XLPE insulated 1.20 1.11 1.00 0.89 0.80 0.73
Source: Fort gloster

Derating factor due to grouping of cables in air

Source: Fort gloster
M core with 1d
spacing 0.98 0.96 0.93 0.92 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.88 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.86

S core trefoil with

2d spacing 0.980.96 - - 0.94 0.92 - - 0.93 0.90 -

APPENDIX-II
SAMPLE OF HT CABLE SIZING CALCULATION INCOMER FEEDER
From: Switch Board at Tps

To: HT Switchgear
RMS Symmetrical short circuit current = 40 KA (assumed)
Operating time of the Protection device for Fault current = 0.6 sec. (assumed)
Minimum Aluminum conductor section to allow for max S. C. current= 40000 * SQRT
(0.6)/94= 329.61 mm2
Min. Cable size = 1 - 3C x 400 mm2
Full load current = 300 A

Cable Data Considered:

Cable size considered = 3C x 400 mm2 (XLPE + Al)
Cable resistance = 0.102 /KM
Cable reactance = 0.091 /KM
Cable Ampacity = 525 A
Derating factor = 0.58 (from manufacturer catalogue)
Derated cable ampacity = 525 * 0.58= 304.5A.
No. of cable runs selected = 300/304.5 = 0.985 Nos= 1 no selected.
Cable length = 80 m. % Voltage drop =1.732 * 300 * 0.08 * (0.102 * 0.8 + 0.091 * 0.6)
*100/(1* 6600)
= 0.395 % (LESS THAN 3 % ACCEPTABLE)

Hence 1 Nos. of 3C x 400 mm2 cable is acceptable.

MOTOR FEEDER
From: HT Switchboard
To: HT Motor
RMS Symmetrical short circuit current = 40 KA (assumed)
Fault clearing time = 0.2 sec. (assumed)
Min. conductor Size = 40000 * SQRT(0.2)/94= 190.30 mm2
Min. Cable size = 1 - 3C x 240 mm2
Cable Length= 0.40 KM (assumed)
Load (as per load list) = 951 KW
Power factor / Efficiency = 0.90 / 0.92
Full load current = 951/(1.732*6.6*0.90*0.92)= 100.475 A
Derating factor = 0.58 (from manufacturer catalogue)

Cable Data Considered

Cable size considered = 3C x 240 mm2 (XLPE + Al)

Cable resistance = 0.161 /KM
Cable reactance = 0.097 /KM
Cable Ampacity = 385 A
Cable derated current = 385 * 0.58 = 223.3 A
Min. no. of cable runs required = 100.475/223.3
= 0.449 NOS.
No. of cable runs selected = 1
% Voltage drop = 1.732 * 100.475 * 0.40 * (0.161 * 0.9 +
0.097 * 0.436) * 100 / (1* 6600)
(During running condition) = 0.197 % (LESS THAN 3 % ACCEPTABLE)
Locked rotor current = 6 * 100.475 = 602.85 A
Starting power factor = 0.25 (Assumed) % Voltage drop = 1.732 * 602.85 * 0.40 *
(0.161 * 0.25 + 0.097 *0.968) * 100/(1*6600) (during starting condition) = 0.849 % (LESS
THAN 5 % ACCEPTABLE)

Hence 1 No. of 3C x 240 mm2 cable is sufficient.

SAMPLE OF LT CABLE SIZING CALCULATION
MOTOR FEEDER
From: PCC
To: Cooling Tower Fan
Cable Length = 0.425 KM (assumed)
Load (as per load list) = 160KW (assumed)
Power factor / Efficiency = 0.85/0.95
Full load current = 160/(1.732*0.415*0.85*0.95)= 275.665 A
Derating factor = 0.54 (from manufacturer catalogue)

Cable Data Considered:

Cable size considered = 3C x 300 SQ.MM.(PVC + AL)

Cable resistance = 0.123/KM
Cable reactance = 0.079 /KM
Cable Ampacity = 305 A
Derated cable ampacity = 305 * 0.54 = 164.7 A
Min. no. of cable runs required = 275.665 / 164.7= 1.674 NOS.
No. of cable runs selected = 2
% Voltage drop = 1.732 * 275.665* 0.425 *(0.123* 0.85+ 0.079 * 0.526) *100 /(2* 415)
(During running condition) =3.572% (LESS THAN 5.5 % ACCEPTABLE)
Locked rotor current = 5.5 * 275.665 = 1516.1575A
Starting power factor = 0.25 (Assumed)

% Voltage drop= 1.732 * 1516.1575 * 0.425 (0.123 * 0.25 + 0.079 *0.97) * 100/ (2* 415)
(during starting condition)
= 14.44% (LESS THAN 15 % ACCEPTABLE)

Hence 2 Nos. of 3C x 300 mm2 cable is sufficient.

With the ever-increasing kva capacity of power systems, the possible short circuit currents
are becoming so high that it is frequently necessary to consider the effect of these short
circuits on the heating of the cables. The conductor size must be large enough to carry the
short circuit current for a sufficient length of time to permit the circuit breakers to open
before the conductor is heated to the point where it damages the insulation.
The chart at right shows the maximum currents to which various size copper conductors can
be subjected for various times without injuring the insulation. It is based on a 90C
conductor operating temperature. The maximum current for short circuit ratings for 75C
conductor temperatures and for other than 250C may
be obtained by multiplying the value obtained for T1 = 90C and T2 = 250C from chart by
appropriate correction factor for other values of T1 and T2.

COPPER & ALUMINUM CORRECTION FACTORS FOR VARIOUS SHORT CIRCUIT

TEMPERATURES
Short Circuit Temp. (T2)
175C 200C 225C 250C
T1 = 75C .84 . 92 99 1.06
T1 = 90C .76 .85 .93 1.00

Allowable short circuit currents for insulated copper conductors*

 CABLE TRAY SYSTEM
What is a Cable Tray System?

As per the National Electrical Code, a cable tray system is "a unit or assembly of units or
sections and associated fittings forming a rigid structural system used to securely fasten or
support cables and raceways."

What does this mean?

Cable trays support cable the way that roadway bridges support traffic.
A bridge is a structure that provides safe passage for traffic across open spans.
Cable tray is the bridge that allows for safe transport of wires across open spans.
Therefore, think of cable tray as the structural component of a building's electrical
system.

What standards / guidelines are available for cable tray systems?

1. The National Electrical Code publishes the standards for all types of electrical
applications. Articles 318, 250, and 800 cover various aspects of cable tray systems.

2. NEMA, (National Electrical Manufacturers Association), is an association comprised of the

major cable tray manufacturers in the industry. This committee has published three
documents to date: NEMA VE1, FG1 and VE2.
NEMA VE1 covers general cable tray definitions, manufacturing standards, performance
standards, test standards, and application information.

NEMA FG1 addresses the standards for fiberglass cable tray systems
NEMA VE2 is a cable tray installation guideline which covers receiving and unloading
material, storage of material, and general installation practices.

CTI, (Cable Tray Institute), is a trade association comprised of the major cable tray
manufacturers in the industry and was formed to provide specifies, designers, and installers
information on the advantages of using cable tray systems over other types of products. (i.e
conduit, ladder rack, etc.)

What types of Cable Tray are available?

1. Ladder
2. Solid Bottom
3. Perforated Cable Tray
4. Trough
5. Channel
6. Wire Mesh
7. Single Rail

How do I know what type of cable tray is right for my application?

1. Ladder Cable Tray provides:

a. Solid side rail protection and system strength with smooth radius fittings and a wide
selection of materials.
b. Maximum strength for long span applications standard widths of 6,12,18, 24, 30, and 36
inches
c. Standard depths of 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches
d. Standard lengths of 10, 12, 20 and 24 feet
e. Rung spacing of 6, 9, 12, and 18 inches

Ladder cable tray is generally used in applications with intermediate to long support spans,
12 feet to 30 feet.

2. Solid Bottom Cable Tray provides:

a. Non-ventilated continuous support for delicate cables with added cable protection
available in metallic and fiberglass.
b. Solid bottom metallic with solid metal covers for non-plenum rated cable in
environmental air areas
c. Standard widths of 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, and 36 inches
d. Standard depths of 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches
e. Standard lengths of 10, 12, 20 and 24 feet

Solid Bottom cable tray is generally used for minimal heat generating electrical or
telecommunication applications with short to intermediate support spans of 5 feet to 12
feet.

3. Perforated Cable Tray

4. Trough Cable Tray provides:

a. Moderate ventilation with added cable support frequency and with the bottom
configuration providing cable support every 4 inches available in metal and nonmetallic
materials.
b. Standard widths of 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 inches
c. Standard depths of 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches
d. Standard lengths of 10, 12, 20 and 24 feet
e. Fixed rung spacing of 4 inch on center

Trough cable tray is generally used for moderate heat generating applications with short to
intermediate support spans of 5 feet to 12 feet.

5. Channel Cable Tray provides:

a. An economical support for cable drops and branch cable runs from the backbone cable
tray system.
b. Standard widths of 3, 4, and 6 inches in metal systems and up to 8 inches in nonmetallic
systems.
c. Standard depths of 1-1 inches in metal systems and 1, 1 1/8, 1 5/" and 2 3/16 inches
in nonmetallic systems
d. Standard length of 10, 12, 20 and 24 feet

Channel cable tray is used for installations with limited numbers of tray cable when conduit
is undesirable. Support frequency with short to medium support spans of 5 to 10 feet.

6. Wire Mesh Cable Tray provides:

a. A job site, field adaptable support system primarily for low voltage, telecommunication
and fiber optic cables. These systems are typically steel wire mesh, zinc plated.
b. Standard widths of 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 18, 20, and 24 inches
c. Standard depths of 1, 2, and 4 inches
d. Standard length of about 10 feet (118")

Wire Mesh tray is generally used for telecommunication and fiber optic applications and are
installed on short support spans, 4 to 8 feet.

7. Single Rail Cable Tray provides:

a. These aluminum systems are the fastest systems to install and provide the maximum
freedom fort cable to enter and exit the system.
b. Single hung or wall mounted systems in single or multiple tiers.
c. Standard widths are 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches.
d. Standard depths are 3, 4, and 6 inches.
e. Standard lengths are 10 and 12 feet.

Single Rail Cable Tray is generally used for low voltage and power cables installations where
maximum cable freedom, side fill, and speed to install are factors.

Cable tray construction

Cable trays of ladder and perforated types and the associated accessories such as
coupler plates, tees, elbows etc., are fabricated from either 12 gauge (2.5 mm thick), 14
gauge (2.0 mm thick) or 16 gauge (1.60 mm thick) mild steel sheets.
Cable tray covers are fabricated from 16 gauge perforated (1.60 mm thick) m.s. sheets
Cable trays, accessories and covers shall be painted with one shop coat of red oxide zinc
chromate primer and two site coats of aluminum alkyd paint for indoor use
For outdoor use, cable trays, accessories and covers shall be either galvanized or made
of aluminum
The cable trays are supplied in standard lengths of 2500 mm and clear inside widths of
trays are as follows:

A) Perforated type trays: 150, 300, 450 and 600 mm.

B) ladder type trays :300, 450, 600 and 750 mm

What materials / finishes are available for the various cable tray systems?

1. Steel (Min. Yield = 33KSI) (35 KSI for Stainless)

a. Plain: hot rolled pickled and oiled steel per ASTM A569 (Commercial Quality) or A570
(Structural Quality)
b. Pre-Galvanized: mill galvanized steel per ASTM A653 CS (Commercial) or
SS (Structural) G90
c. Hot Dip Galvanized after Fabrication: plain steel which is hot dipped after fabrication per
ASTM A123.
d. Stainless Steel: type 304 or 316L fully annealed stainless steel

2. Aluminum (Min. Yield = 23 KSI)

a. 6063-T6 or 5052-H32 alloy per ASTM B209

3. Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP)

a. Polyester and Vinyl Ester resin systems available
b. Meet ASTM E-84 smoke density rating; Polyester 680, Vinyl Ester 1025
c. Class 1 Flame Rating and self-extinguishing requirements of ASTM D-635.

Now that I know what types of cable trays are available, what configurations are available?

1. Straight sections are available to route cables in a horizontal or vertical plane.

2. Fittings are available to route cables in various directions in either the horizontal or
vertical planes. Typical examples of fittings include elbows, tees, crosses, and risers. Each of
these fittings is available in various radii and bends angles.

3. Covers are accessories and shouldn't be in here unless splices etc. are included. Cable
tray accessories
Bends
Reducers
Tees
Coupler plates
Cover

After selecting the type of cable tray and configuration required, what support methods are
available?
1. Trapeze Support (Single or Multi-tier)
2. Hanger rod clamps, "J" hangers
3. Center Hung Support
4. Wall Support
5. Under-floor Support
6. Pipe stanchions or other structures

Each of these support methods are preferable in different applications. For instance, trapeze
supports may be desired in an application where cables will be pulled through the cable tray.
Center hung supports, on the other hand, are generally used when cables will be installed
from the side of the cable tray. Center hung supports are especially useful when future cable
additions are desired. Wall supports and under-floor supports are useful when ceiling
structure is not available or undesired. Outdoor installations are controlled by the structures
available to support the cable tray. Before selecting the type of cable tray, cable tray
configuration(s), and support method desired, what additional information do I need to
supply to the cable tray manufacturer for them to best understand and satisfy my needs?

1. Where? Job site and installation considerations

a. Outdoor
1. Supports available affect the length and strength requirements
2. Environmental loads, ice, wind, snow, and possibly seismic
3. Corrosion requirements affect the materials and finishes
4. Classified hazardous locations affect the cable types acceptable
b. Indoor
1. Support locations available affect the length and strength of the system
2. Industrial installation may require a 200 lb. Concentrated Load
3. Commercial or institutional installation may make system appearance, system weight,
and space available important factors
4. Environmental air handling area may affect cable types, cable tray material, or cable tray
type and need for covers
5. Classified hazardous locations affect the cable types acceptable

2. What?
a. Type and number of cables to support

1. NEC cable fill requirements dictate size, width and depth, of system
2. Cable support requirement may control bottom type
3. Largest bending radius of cable controls fitting radius
4. Total of cable weight determines load to support

b. Future requirements
1. Cable entry / exit freedom
2. Design partially full or an expandable system
3. Support type to allow for needs

Cable tray installation

Plate inserts for cable tray mounting structure are provided by civil contractor in floor
slabs at 1000 mm spacing
Cable tray mounting structure are welded to the plate inserts or to steel structural beams /
members
Spacing between cable tray mounting structures is 1000 mm for horizontal straight run of
cable trays
Loading on a horizontal support arm shall not exceed 120kg / meter run of cable
Width of the horizontal arms of the mounting structures is same as the tray widths
required in the cable layout drawings plus length required for welding to the vertical
supports (maximum tray width is 750 mm)
Spacing between horizontal supports arms of vertical cable tray runs is 600 mm
Cable trays are welded to tray mounting supports
Minimum clearance between top most tray tier and structural member/ceiling shall be 300
mm
Minimum vertical clearance below the bottom of the lowest cable tray tier & any structural
member shall be 200 mm and 300 mm in case of steam or process pipe lines
 The type and size of tray to be used shall be as mentioned in the individual
layout drawings
The maximum size of cable tray when used in trenches and tunnels shall be
of 600 mm width
Each continuous laid out length of cable tray shall be earthed at minimum two
places by m.s. flats of minimum size 25x3 mm (unless otherwise noted) to the
purchasers earthing system. The distance between earthing points shall not exceed 10
metres.

Cabling system

Types of cable installation

Cable installation details
Cabling layout drawings

Cable installation
Trenches
Trays
Racks
Tunnels
Conduits
Duct banks
Directly buried

Cable tunnel installation

Plate inserts for cable carrier structure will be provided by the civil contractor. Spacing for
plate inserts shall be 750 mm and shall be staggered when provided on opposite walls
Spacing between cable carrier arms shall be 1500 mm when cable trays are used and 750
mm otherwise
Earthing conductor shall be located as shown in cable tunnel drawings and shall be welded
to cable carrier structure before installation of cables. This conductor shall be connected to
station earth grid at minimum two places to form a closed loop
Minimum size of earthing conductor shall be 25x3 mm G.S.
Vents with 250 mm dia. Pipes (min) shall be provided at every 15meters by the civil
contractor
Three phase, 63A, weather proof power receptacle unit with MCB together with
fluorescent tube type instalite fixture shall be provided at every 100 meters. Insatiate fixture
shall be supported suitably from embedded plate at each location
Longitudinal slope of 1:250 shall be provided in tunnel floor unless otherwise noted on the
layout drawing.
All structural steel and exposed surfaces of embedded plates shall be painted with a two
pack epoxy coating
Whenever cables are to be taken out along the route of the tunnel, they shall be laid
through pipe sleeves embedded in the tunnel wall by the civil contractor. The location of
such sleeves will be indicated on the electrical cable layout drawing.
Loading on cable carrier arm shall not exceed 120 kg / meter run of cable.
Tunnels shall be provided with opening with ladder at every 100 meters.
Minimum depth of the tunnel shall be 2100 mm Cable installation
Cable markers shall be provided for directly buried cables and at least, one cable marker
shall be provided if the length of the buried cable is less than 15 meters
In each outdoor cable run greater than 60 metres, some extra cable length shall be kept
at a suitable point to enable a straight through joint to be made, should the cable develop
fault at a later date
Where cables cross roads and water/oil/gas/ sewage pipes, the cablesshall be laid in hume
or steel pipes.
For road crossings, the pipe for the cable shall be buried at not lessthan 600 mm depth
unless otherwise noted in the drawings.
Hume pipes shall be preferred to steel pipes from the point of view ofcorrosion
Control cables and small power cables in trenches, tunnels and racks shall be run in ladder
type cable trays (maximum tray width 600 mm) supported on trench/ tunnel/rack carrier
arms.
The cables shall be tied to tray rungs by means of 3 mm dia. Nylon cord at an interval not
exceeding 5000 mm and also at bends
For good sealing arrangement at entry points, suitable pipe sleeves, adequate in number
and of adequate sizes shall be provided in building walls/slabs for passage of cables into
a building from cable trays/racks/cable trenches located outside the buildings.
Details of sleeves and exact locations of such entry points will be available on relevant
project drawings
Different voltage grade cables shall be laid in separate trays when traysare arranged in
tiers.
H.V. cables shall be laid in top trays and cables of subsequent voltagegrade in lower tier of
trays
The HV power cables of 3.3 KV and above shall be laid in trays/on racks as follows:
In single layer only without exception
3 core cables shall be laid in touching formation
Single core cables shall be laid in Tre-foil groups with spacing equal to diameter of the cable
between edges of the trefoils
Cables in trefoil groups of the same circuit shall be laid as indicated below so as to ensure
balanced current distribution:

Y Y Y

R B B R R B
(1) (2) (3)

1100 V grade power cables of 120 mm2 size and above shall normally be laid in single
layer in trays/on racks. In exceptional cases, these may be laid in double layer
1100 V grade power cables below 120 mm2 may be run in double layers in case of space
restrictions
Control and instrumentation cables can be laid up to a maximum of three layers in each
tray/rack
Single core power cables for 3 phase ac circuits laid in trays / racks / trenches in tre-foil
groups shall be held in trefoil clamps placed at an interval not exceeding 3 meters.
The tre-foil groups of cables shall be additionally tied by means of 3 mm dia nylon cord
Cables in vertical raceways shall be clamped by saddle type cleats to the horizontal
slotted angles.
Cable entry to motors, push button stations and other electrical devices are from the
bottom as far as possible or from the sides.
Top entry shall be avoided particularly for outdoor equipment
Identification tags made from aluminium sheet are attached to each end of each cable by
means of GI binding wire.

Cable earthing

Metallic sheaths, screens and armor of all multicourse cables shall be earthed at both
equipment and switchgear end
Sheath and armor of single core power cables shall be earthed at switchgear end only

Type and voltage grade of cable Minimum Radius

Bending
 Single core
Multi core

PVC & XLPE insulated up-to 1.1KV 15D

12D
PVC & XLPE insulated above 1.1 KV to11KV 15D
5D
PVC & XLPE insulated above 11 KV 20D
15D

Cabling layouts

Interface with Civil Civil GA layout drawings, for electrical to furnish consolidated mark up
for
Floor cutouts
Insert plate requirements
Architectural drawings, for electrical to furnish consolidated mark up for wall cutouts
Structural drawings
Underground facilities including buried pipes, trenches & ducts

Interface with Mechanical

Plot plan
Equipment layouts
piping layouts
Pipe rack or pipe sleeper GA
Equipment list & load list
Interface with C & I
Control room layout
Cabling layout of instrumentation

Electrical inputs
Single line diagrams
Cable sizing calculations
Tray sizing
Cable schedules

Overall cable routing layout

This shall be prepared on the basis of the latest overall plot plan of the plant.
The routing of cables from the switch rooms to the various parts of the plant shall be
indicated in this drawing

Overall cable routing layout

Details of number and size (i.e. Width) of cable trays running along each route
Routing of underground cables
 Area wise cable routing layout
These drawings shall be prepared on the basis of the latest equipment layouts of the
respective areas
The drawings shall indicate the locations of all electrical equipment such as-
Panels, motors, heaters, welding sockets, power sockets, power junction boxes, local control
stations or switches, instrumentation junction boxes
Cable numbers of the cables terminating at these equipment may also be indicated
All main and branch cable trays, cable trenches and underground cable routes for electrical
and instrumentation cables shall be indicated, with reference of continuation drawings
wherever these cable ways pass into an area outside the scope of the drawing
Cross sections indicating arrangement of trays and supporting details shall be indicated for
all the different branches
Cable trays shall be numbered throughout the plant and the numbers shall be indicated in
the drawings
Embedded conduits shall be used for leading cables up to equipment located away from
structures used for cable tray support.
Conduit bends shall be specified considering the minimum bending radius required for the
respective cable size. The two ends of the conduit shall protrude at least 200 mm above the
floor level.
While deciding the routing of cable trays, it shall be ensured that there is no interference
with piping or other equipment/ structures.

ELECTRICAL CONDUIT SYSTEM

An electrical conduit is a purpose-designed electrical piping system used for protection and
routing of electrical wiring. Electrical conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fibre, or fired
clay. Flexible conduit is available for special purposes. Conduit is generally installed by
electricians at the site of installation of electrical equipment. Its use, form, and installation
details are often specified by wiring regulations, such as the U.S. NEC or other national or
local code. The term "conduit" is commonly used by electricians to describe any system that
contains electrical conductors, but the term has a more restrictive definition when used in
wiring regulations. Early electric lighting installations made use of existing gas pipe to gas
light fixtures (converted to electric lamps). Since this technique provided very good
protection for interior wiring, it was extended to all types of interior wiring and by the early
20th century purpose-built couplings and fittings were manufactured for electrical use.

Comparison with other wiring methods

Electrical conduit provides very good protection to enclosed conductors from impact,
moisture, and chemical vapors. Varying numbers, sizes, and types of conductors can be
pulled into a conduit, which simplifies design and construction compared to multiple runs of
cables or the expense of customized composite cable. Wiring systems in buildings are
subject to frequent alterations. Frequent wiring changes are made simpler and safer through
the use of electrical conduit, as existing conductors can be withdrawn and new conductors
installed, with little disruption along the path of the conduit. A conduit system can be made
waterproof or submersible. Metal conduit can be used to shield sensitive circuits from
electromagnetic interference, and also can prevent emission of such interference from
enclosed power cables.

When installed with proper sealing fittings, a conduit will not permit the flow of flammable
gases and vapors, which provides protection from fire and explosion hazard in areas
handling volatile substances. Some types of conduit are approved for direct encasement in
concrete. This is commonly used in commercial buildings to allow electrical and
communication outlets to be installed in the middle of large open areas. For example, retail
display cases and open-office areas use floor-mounted conduit boxes to connect power and
communications cables.

Both metal and plastic conduit can be bent at the job site to allow a neat installation without
excessive numbers of manufactured fittings. This is particularly advantageous when
following irregular or curved building profiles.

The cost of conduit installation is higher than other wiring methods due to the cost of
materials and labor. In applications such as residential construction, the high degree of
physical damage protection is not required so the expense of conduit is not warranted.
Conductors installed within conduit cannot dissipate heat as readily as those installed in
open wiring, so the current capacity of each conductor must be reduced if many are
installed in one conduit. It is impractical, and prohibited by wiring regulations, to have more
than 360 degrees of total bends in a run of conduit, so special outlet fittings must be
provided to allow conductors to be installed without damage in such runs. While metal
conduit can be used as a grounding conductor, the circuit length is limited. A long run of
conduit as grounding conductor will not allow proper operation of over current devices on a
fault, for example.

Types of conduit
Conduit systems are classified by the wall thickness, mechanical stiffness, and material
used to make the tubing. Tubing with thicker walls in the same material offers better
protection from impact, but increases the weight and cost of the conduit and also increases
labor cost to install the system.

Rigid Metal Conduit (RMC)

Rigid Metal Conduit (RMC) is thick threaded tubing, usually made of coated steel, stainless
steel or aluminum.

Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit (RNC)

Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit (RNC) is non-metallic unthreaded tubing.

Galvanized rigid conduit (GRC)

Galvanized rigid conduit (GRC) is galvanized steel tubing, with a tubing wall that is thick
enough to allow it to be threaded. Its common applications are in commercial and industrial
construction.

Electrical metallic tubing (EMT)

Electrical metallic tubing (EMT), sometimes called thin-wall, is commonly used instead of
galvanized rigid conduit (GRC), as it is less costly and lighter than GRC. EMT cannot be
threaded. Lengths of conduit are connected to each other and to equipment with clamp type
fittings. Like GRC, EMT is more common in commercial and industrial buildings than in
residential applications. EMT is generally made of coated steel, though it may be
aluminum. The Canadian Electrical Code does not include EMT in its definition of
conduit, a distinction that can affect some installations.

Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing (ENT)

Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing (ENT) is thin-walled corrugated tubing that is moisture
resistant and flame retardant. It is pliable such that it can be bent by hand and is often
flexible although the fittings are not. It is not threaded due to its corrugated shape although
the fittings might be.

Flexible Metallic Conduit (FMC)

Flexible metallic conduit used in an underground parking facility. Flexible Metallic
Conduit (FMC) is made through the coiling of a self-interlocked ribbed strip of aluminum or
steel, forming a hollow tube through which wires can be pulled. FMC is used primarily in dry
areas where it would be impractical to install EMT or other non-flexible conduit, yet where
metallic strength to protect conductors is still required. The flexible tubing does not maintain
any permanent bend.

Cutting FMC requires a specialized hand tool with a rotary abrasive disc to create a small
incision into the ribbing so that a twisting motion separates the segments. The disc cuts
deep enough to sever the armor coil but not so deep that it could damage the inside
conductors. Short segments of FMC called whips are often used as circuit "pigtails" between
fixtures and a junction box, especially in suspended ceilings. Whip assemblies save a great
deal of repetitive labor when installations require several pigtails for several fixtures.
Flexible metal conduit coated with a UV-resistant polymer is liquid-tight when installed with
appropriate glandular fittings containing liquid-tight features such as O-rings. Wiring
regulations vary; in locales following the U.S. National Electric Code (NEC),
flexible metallic conduit may serve as an equipment-grounding conductor. Other areas may
require a bonding wire for equipment grounding. The bonding wire in direct contact with the
interior of the conduit creates a lower resistance grounding conductor than the conduit
alone.

Liquid tight Flexible Metal Conduit (LFMC)

Liquid tight Flexible Metal Conduit (LFMC) is a non-metallic and liquid tight jacket covering a
flexible metal interior. The interior is similar to FMC. Originally designed and manufactured
by Kopex International Flexible Metallic

Tubing (FMT)
Flexible Metallic Tubing (FMT) is flexible metallic tubing that lacks the waterproof jacket of
LFMT.

Liquid tight Flexible Nonmetallic Conduit (LFNC)

Liquid tight Flexible Nonmetallic Conduit (LNFC) refers to several types of flame-resistant
non-metallic tubing. Interior surfaces may be smooth or corrugated. There may or may not
be integral reinforcement within the conduit wall. It is also known as FNMC.

Aluminum conduit
Aluminum conduit, similar to galvanized steel conduit, is a rigid conduit, generally used in
commercial and industrial applications, where a higher resistance to corrosion is needed.
Such locations would include food processing plants, where large amounts of water and
cleaning chemicals would make galvanized conduit unsuitable. Aluminum cannot be directly
embedded in concrete, since the metal reacts with the alkalis in cement. The conduit may
be coated to prevent corrosion by incidental contact with concrete. The extra cost of
aluminum is somewhat offset by the lower labor cost to install, since a length of aluminum
conduit will have about one-third the weight of an equally-sized rigid steel conduit.

Intermediate metal conduit (IMC)

Intermediate Metal Conduit (IMC) is steel tubing heavier than EMT but lighter than RMC. It
may be threaded.

PVC conduit
PVC conduit is the lightest in weight compared to other conduit materials, and usually lower
in cost than other forms of conduit. In North American electrical practice, it is available in
three different wall thicknesses, with the thin-wall variety only suitable for embedded use in
concrete and heavier grades suitable for direct burial and exposed work. The various fittings
made for metal conduit are also made for PVC. The plastic material resists moisture and
many corrosive substances, but since the tubing is non-conductive an extra bonding
(grounding) conductor must be pulled into each conduit. PVC conduit may be heated and
bent in the field. Joints to fittings are made with slip-on solvent-welded connections, which
set up rapidly after assembly and attain full strength in
about one day. Since slip-fit sections do not need to be rotated during assembly, the special
union fittings used with threaded conduit (Ericson) are not required. Since PVC conduit has a
higher thermal coefficient of expansion than other types, it must be mounted so as to allow
for expansion and contraction of each run. Care should be taken when installing PVC
underground in multiple or parallel run configurations due to mutual heating effect of cable

Other metal conduits

In extreme corrosion environments where plastic coating of the tubing is insufficient,
conduits may be made from stainless steel, bronze or brass.

Underground conduit
Large diameter (more than 2 inch/50 mm) conduit may be installed underground between
buildings to allow installation of power and communication cables. An assembly of these
conduits, often called a duct bank, may either be directly buried in earth or encased in
concrete. A duct bank will allow replacement of damaged cables between buildings or
additional power and communications circuits to be added, without the expense of
excavation of a trench. While metal conduit is occasionally used for burial, usually PVC,
polyethylene or polystyrene plastics are now used due to lower cost. Formerly, compressed
asbestos fiber mixed with cement was used for some underground installations. Telephone
and communications circuits were installed in fired-clay conduit.

Fittings
Despite the similarity to pipes used in plumbing, purpose-designed fittings are used to
connect conduit.
Box connectors join conduit to a junction box or other electrical box. A typical box connector
is inserted into a knockout in a junction box, with the threaded end then being secured with
a ring (called a lock nut) from within the box, as a bolt would be secured by a nut. The other
end of the fitting usually has a screw or compression ring which is tightened down onto the
inserted conduit. Fittings for non-threaded conduits are either secured with set screws or
with a compression nut that encircles the conduit. Fittings for general purpose use with
metal conduits may be made of die-cast zinc, but where stronger fittings are needed, they
are made of copper-free aluminum or cast iron.

Couplings connect two pieces of conduit together.

Sometimes the fittings are considered sufficiently conductive to bond (electrically unite) the
metal conduit to a metal junction box (thus sharing the box's ground connection); other
times, grounding bushings are used which have bonding jumpers from the bushing to a
grounding screw on the box.Unlike water piping, if it the conduit is to be watertight, the idea
is to keep water out, not in. In this case, the fittings have gaskets, such as the weatherhead
leading from the overhead electrical mains to the electric meter. Flexible metal conduit
usually uses fittings with a clamp on the outside of the box, just like bare cables would.

Conduit bodies
A conduit body is used to provide access to wires placed within conduit. This differs from a
junction box, which both allows access for pulling wires and space for splices. Conduit
bodies are commonly referred to as "condulets", a term trademarked by Cooper

Crouse-Hinds company, a division of Cooper Industries.

Conduit bodies come in various types, moisture ratings, and materials, including galvanized
steel, aluminum, and PVC. Depending on the material, they use different mechanical
methods for securing conduit.
Among the types are:
L-shaped bodies ("Ells") include the LB, LL, and LR, where the inlet is in line with the
access cover and the outlet is on the back, left and right, respectively. In addition to
providing access to wires for pulling, "L" fittings allow a 90 degree turn in conduit where
there is insufficient space for a full-radius 90 degree sweep (curved conduit section).

T-shaped bodies ("Tees") feature an inlet in line with the access cover and outlets to both
the cover's left and right.
C-shaped bodies ("Cees") have identical openings above and below the access cover,
and are used to pull conductors in a straight runs as they make no turn between inlet and
outlet.

Service "Ells" (SLBs), shorter with inlets flush with the access cover, are frequently used
where a circuit passes through an exterior wall from outside to in.

Comparison of some types of conduit

Relative to rigid galvanized steel conduit, 3/4 inch (21 metric) size

Relative RGS Aluminum IMC EMT PVC

Labor 1.0 0.89 0.89 0.62 0.55

Weight 1.0 0.34 0.76 0.42 0.20

Material cost 1.0 0.99 0.84 0.35 0.43

Junction box

An electrical junction box is a container for electrical junctions, usually intended to conceal
them from sight and to some extent to eliminate tampering. It can be a small metal or
plastic container, such as those intended to form part of wiring, especially in buildings; in
this type of application, it may form part of an electrical conduit wiring
system, or may be buried in the plaster of a wall, concealed behind an access panel or cast
into concrete with only the lid showing. It may or may not include terminals etc. for joining
wires. A similar container used for joining wires to electrical switches or sockets is called
patters.
The term may also be used for a larger item, e.g. of street furniture; in the UK, this is
sometimes called a cabinet.
Junction boxes form an integral part of a circuit protection system. In the circuit integrity has
to be provided, as may be necessary for emergency lighting or emergency power lines, or
the wiring between a nuclear reactor and a control room. In such an event, the fireproofing
afforded to the incoming or outgoing cables must also be
extended to cover the junction box to prevent short circuits inside the box during an
accidental fire.

LIGHTING DESIGN
General
There are many approaches in lighting design. Each emphasizes one or more of the
interrelated elements depending on whether the designer is an architect, engineer, lighting
designer, or a combination of these. However, no matter which approach the designer is
accustomed to taking, fundamental steps of design must be exercised. These fundamental
steps are: project analyses, conceptual formulation, lamp type selection, luminaries
selection, documentation, and execution. The purpose of lighting is to serve the needs of
persons. Quality of illumination implies that all luminances are designed to contribute
favorably to visual performance, visual comfort, ease of seeing, safety, and aesthetics for
the specific visual task involved. Glare, diffusion, direction, shadows, uniformity, color,
luminance, and luminance ratios have significant effects of visibility. Each of these concepts
is explained in the IESNA Handbook. Note that this guide is written using dimensions in feet
and foot candles; but the procedures contained herein are identical for dimensions in meters
and Lux units. One foot candle equals
10.7639 Lux. Another specific lighting task is direction signage, such as exit lighting, since
from every location along any main corridor a person should be able to see two exit paths
with lighted EXIT signs that must be connected to the emergency power system.

Lighting Design Procedure

Project Analyses
(1) BUILDING & SITE - such as the type of occupancy, hazardous area classification, the
occupants, users, and their characteristic uses of illumination and construction constraints.

(2) NON-ILLUMINATION CRITERIA - such as client's requirements/standard, budget, codes

and standards, safety considerations, ambient temperature, luminaries surface
temperature, voltage, and vibration.

(3) ILLUMINATION CRITERIA - such as task (degree of difficulty), luminance (required foot-
candle or lux value) visual comfort, color rendering requirements, atmosphere, maintenance
and operations, light sources, daylight availability and control, and emergency lighting
requirements.

Conceptual formulation, such as orientation and space, pattern, distribution of luminance,

cut-off angles, and special effects.

Lamp type Selection, such as incandescent, fluorescent, high-pressure sodium, or metal

halide.

Luminaries Selection, such as direct, indirect, diffusing (size, lumen distribution, lamp,
mounting, style); standard products vs. special design; domestic vs. foreign; controls (with
daylight effects); floor plans; reflected ceiling; power, energy, hazardous area classification,
environmental considerations, mounting height, maintenance considerations, and disability
glare considerations.

Documentation required such as drawings (site plans, floor plans, ceiling plans, details,
schedules, riser diagrams); and specifications (performance, technical data, delivery).

Light Sources (Lamps)

The primary purpose of an electrical light source is the conversion of electrical energy into
visible light. The effectiveness with which a lamp accomplishes this is expressed in terms of
lumens emitted per watt of power consumed, or luminous efficacy.
For an idea of the relative luminous effectiveness of common light sources, consider that a
60-watt incandescent lamp emits about 900 lumens in comparison to a 60-watt fluorescent
lamp that emits about 5600 lumens. This is roughly six times the lumen per watt of the
incandescent lamp. In addition, the fluorescent lamp has a ten-time
longer life than the incandescent lamp. To obtain the predicted long life of any lamp, it must
be mounted according to the manufacturers instructions. Some lamps can only be
mounted in a vertical position; others, only in a horizontal position. Some have a
requirement for the base to be up, others for the base to be down. The most common types
of light sources and their associated groups are shown below.

Type Grout
Incandescent Filament
Fluorescent High Intensity Discharge
Mercury Vapor High Intensity Discharge
Metal Halide High Intensity Discharge
High Pressure Sodium (HPS) High Intensity Discharge

Incandescent Lamps
The filament lamp produces light by heating a wire filament to incandescence, which
generates energy in the form of light and heat. The most common filament material is
tungsten. All filament lamps emit a large
quantity of heat with generally less than 5% light energy emitted. Both the life and light
output of an incandescent lamp are determined by the filament temperature. The higher
the temperature for a given lamp, the shorter the
life. However, the larger the diameter of the filament wire, the hotter the lamp can operate.
This results in more light output, which in turn means higher efficacy. To illustrate this,
consider that a 150-watt, 220 volt lamp
produces approximately 34% more light than three 50-watt, 220 volt lamps. Incandescent
lamps have a rated average life of about 1000 hours and radiate about 14 to 20 lumens per
watt. Vibration and shock should be
eliminated as they can greatly reduce lamp life. Incandescent lamps are available with
virtually unbreakable shells and filaments where high vibration or rugged duty is required.

As a general rule, incandescent lamps should be operated at rated voltage. Over voltage
operation produces higher wattage, higher efficacy, and higher light output, but results in a
shorter life. Under voltage, while increasing
lamp life, causes a reduction in wattage, efficacy, and light output. A voltage as little as 5%
below normal results in a loss of light of more than 16%, with a savings in wattage of only
8%. Since the lamp cost is almost always small compared with the cost of the power to
operate the lamp, the increased lamp life which accompanies reduced voltage does not
compensate for the loss in light output. Maintaining the proper voltage is an important
factor in obtaining good performance from lamps and lighting installations.

Fluorescent Lamps

The fluorescent lamp contains mercury vapor at low pressure with a small amount of inert
gas for starting. When voltage is applied, an arc discharge is produced by current flowing
through the mercury vapor. The discharge generates ultraviolet radiation which excites the
fluorescent powders on the inner wall of the lamp, which in turn emit light.
Like most gas discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps must be operated in series with ballast.
The ballast produces the required voltage to start and operate the lamp and the required
current to produce the desired light.

Fluorescent lamps have a rated average life of about 20,000 hours when operated for a
minimum of 3 hours per start. The lamps radiate about 74 to 84 lumens per watt.

The average lamp life for fluorescent lamps is affected by the number of on-off operations.
A rule-of-thumb is that each lamp start reduces the average lamp life by 3 hours. This
might imply that fluorescent lamps should be
operated continuously during the day to save lamp life rather than being turned off when
not in use to save energy. However, the light should be turned off to save energy because
approximately 80% of the life-cycle cost
of a fluorescent lamp is for electrical energy. The life of F40 and F30 lamps, operating on
rapid start ballasts when burned 3 or more hours per start, is not appreciably affected by
the number of starts. All burned-out lamps
should be removed promptly to prevent the auxiliary equipment from overheating.
Depreciation in light output of the fluorescent lamp is due chiefly to a gradual deterioration
of the phosphor powders and a blackening
of the inside of the tube. In the last hours of lamp life, a dense deposit develops at the end
of the lamp where the electrode is deactivated. This effect is especially marked if the lamp
is allowed to flash on and off before it
is replaced.

Low voltage, as well as high voltage, reduce efficiency and shorten fluorescent lamp life.
This is in contrast with filament lamps, where low voltage reduces efficiency but prolongs
life. Low voltage and low ambient temperatures may also cause starting difficulties with
fluorescent luminaries.

A large voltage dip or reduction in line voltage affects the stability of the arc. The reaction to
a voltage dip depends on the lamp type and ballast characteristics. For 40-watt, T-12
lamps, and the line voltage can drop to the values illustrated in the table below before the
lamps will extinguish:
Type Percent of Normal Voltage
Preheat 75
Rapid-start series-sequence 80
Instant-start lead-lag 60
Instant-start series-sequence 50

High Intensity Discharge Lamps

High intensity discharge (HID) lamps that are commonly used include mercury vapor, metal
halide, and high pressure sodium. The light producing element of these lamps is a
stabilized arc discharge contained within an arc tube. Light is produced by the passage of
an electric current through a vapor or gas rather than through a tungsten wire. The applied
voltage ionizes the gas and permits current to flow between two electrodes located at
opposite ends of the lamp. The electrons which comprise the current stream, or arc
discharge, are
accelerated to tremendous speed. When they collide with the atoms of the gas or vapor,
they temporarily alter the atomic structure, and light is produced from the energy generated
as the atoms return to their normal state.
Low-pressure sodium lamps are not recommended because of very poor color rendition and
high operating costs.

Mercury Vapor Lamps

(1) Most mercury vapor (MV) lamps are constructed with two envelopes, an inner envelope
(arc tube) which contains the arc, and an outer envelope which: (a) shields the arc tube
from outside drafts and resulting changes
in temperature; (b) usually contains an inert gas which prevents oxidation of internal parts;
(c) provides an inner surface for a coating of phosphors; and (d) acts as a filter to remove
certain wavelengths of arc radiation.

(2) A significant part of the energy radiated by the mercury arc is in the ultraviolet region.
Through the use of phosphor coatings on the inside surface of the outer envelope, some
of this ultraviolet energy is converted to visible light by the same mechanism
employed in fluorescent lamps.

(3) Mercury lamps used in open-type fixtures can cause serious skin burn and eye
inflammation from short-wave ultraviolet radiation if the outer envelope of the lamp is
broken or punctured and the arc tube continues to operate. For this reason, non-enclosed
fixtures should be specified with self-extinguishing lamps that will automatically extinguish if
the outer envelope is broken or punctured. Self-extinguishing lamps cost about twice as
much as standard lamps.
(1) Metal halide (MH) lamps are very similar in construction to mercury lamps. The major
difference is that the metal halide arc tube contains various metal halides in addition to
mercury and argon.

(2) Almost all varieties of available white-light metal halide lamps produce color rendering
which is equal or superior to the presently available phosphor coated mercury lamps. Metal
halide lamps are also available with phosphors applied to the outer envelopes to further
modify the color.

(3) Most metal halide lamps require a higher open-circuit voltage to start than
corresponding wattage mercury lamps. Therefore, they require specifically designed
ballasts.

(4) Metal halide lamps are constructed of a glass envelope with an internal arc tube made of
quartz. These arc tubes operate under high pressure (6 to 7 atmospheres) at a very high
temperature (up to 900). The arc tube may unexpectedly rupture due to internal causes
or external factors, but most commonly ruptures when the lamp is operated beyond its
rated life. If the arc tube ruptures, the glass envelope surrounding the arc tube can break,
allowing particles of extremely hot quartz from the arc tube and glass fragments from the
glass envelope to be discharged into the fixture enclosure and surrounding area. This
circumstance creates a risk of personal injury or fire. Metal halide lamps should always be
used in enclosed fixtures with lens/diffuser material, which is able to contain fragments of
hot quartz or glass.

(5) To reduce the potential hazard of ruptured arc tubes, use metal halide lamp
manufacturers with proven lamps. Additional precautions to use to reduce the likelihood of
arc tube rupture are:

a) Turn continuously operating lamps off once a month for at least 15 minutes. Lights which
are close to the end of their design life likely will not restart. This procedure will reduce the
chance of arc tube rupture caused by continuously operating lamps burning beyond the end
of rated life.
b) Relamp fixtures at or before the end of their rated life. Allowing lamps to operate
beyond their design life increases the possibility of arc tube rupture.

(6) Like mercury vapor lamps, metal halide lamps can cause serious skin burn and eye
inflammation from short-wave ultraviolet radiation if the outer envelope of the lamp is
broken or punctured and the arc tube continues to operate. When using open-type fixtures,
self-extinguishing lamps that automatically extinguish when the outer envelope is broken or
punctured should be specified.

High Pressure Sodium Lamps

(1) In a high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamp, light is produced by electric current passing
through sodium vapor. The arc tube contains xenon as a starting gas. Special ballasts are
required which incorporate starting voltages in the range of 2250 to 4000 volts to strike the
arc. These high strike voltages can result in high temperatures, which could possibly create
problems in classified areas. HPS lamps do not incorporate a starting electrode or heater
coil as do mercury vapor and metal halide lamps.

(2) Arc tube rupture is not a problem with high-pressure sodium lamps since the arc tube is
made of ceramic material. Short-wave radiation is also not a concern with high-pressure
sodium lamps.

Lamp Designations
Lamp designations follow a system authorized by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). All designations begin with a letter that identifies the type of HID lamp: H for
mercury, M for metal halide, and S for high-pressure sodium. This letter designation is
followed by an ANSI assigned number, which identifies the electrical characteristics of the
lamp and, consequently, the ballast. After the number, two arbitrary letters identify the bulb
size, shape, and finish, but do not identify the color. Additional letters are used by individual
manufacturers for special designations.

3. Fixture Selection
A thorough understanding of the purpose for a lighting system must be established before
the various selection factors can be evaluated. Figure 3-01 lists fixture types and typical
applications in order of preference for locations that require maximum light output at the
lowest possible operating cost. On offshore platforms where power is generated and the
physical layout prevents full use of light output, mercury vapor fixtures are often preferred.
They give better color rendition and have lower installed costs in situations where some of
the light is lost due to shadows. When several possible fixture types have been chosen, a
review of the features of each one can be made to complete the selection process.

Area Classification
Area classification must be determined before selecting lighting fixtures. Refer to GTP-6DMP-
010, Classification of Hazardous Area or GTP-6MSP-072, Electrical Apparatus for Use in
Classified Area for guidance in determining area classification considerations. Refer to the
area classification drawing of the facility in which the lighting fixture is to be installed to
identify the proper area classification. The fixture temperature must not exceed the ignition
temperature of flammable gases or vapors present.

Luminous Efficacy and Lumen Depreciation

One of the two primary factors used in fixture selection is the luminous efficacy (lumens per
watt) of the light source. The other primary factor is the initial cost of the fixture. For
fixtures that have a long life, the luminous
efficacy, which relates directly to the operating cost of the lamp, usually will govern the
selection process. These factors usually do not govern fixture selection when shadows
prevent full use of light output or when power is generated at very low cost (e.g., on
offshore platforms).

Lumen depreciation is a reduction in normal light output that is unique to each type of lamp.
It is an important factor during the design and fixture layout process. For example, the light
output of a mercury vapor lamp at the end of rated life will only be about 50% of its original
light output. By comparison, the light output of high pressure sodium and fluorescent
lamps at the end of rated life will be about 80% of their original light output. Figure 3-03,
Efficiency for Various Light Sources, and Figure 3-04, Lumen Depreciation Factor,
summarize the luminous efficacy and lumen depreciation for different light sources.

Color
In some applications, color rendition is the dominant factor in fixture selection. For
example, metal halide fixtures are typically used in the canopy area of service stations
because of the pleasing visual effect of the light. Metal halide lamps use more energy per
lumen output and have a shorter life than high-pressure sodium lamps, but the visual
attractiveness obtained by using metal halide lamps outweighs their added operating cost.

Mixing high-pressure sodium with metal halide or mercury vapor is not recommended
because of the contrasting colors. Mixing luminaries becomes a problem when color
rendition is important-for example, for distinguishing colors, for reading, and when
performing precision, task-oriented activities. Mixing luminaries also presents a
maintenance problem during revamping, when time is lost locating the correct lamps.

Incandescent Filament Lamps

Incandescent light closely resembles natural sunlight, with good color rendition.

Fluorescent Lamps
The color produced by a fluorescent lamp depends upon the blend of phosphors used to
coat the wall of the tube. These are different white and color spectrum fluorescent lamps
available with their own particular coloration. White lamps have good color rendering
properties.

High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps

A discussion of the color aspects of HID lamps follows.
(1) Mercury Vapor (MV) Lamps. The color spectrum of clear mercury lamps is deficient in
red and has a preponderance of blue and green. This results in marked distortion of object
colors, and makes mercury vapor lamps undesirable when the appearance of colors is
important. This deficiency can be overcome by using deluxe white (color-corrected) lamps
in which fluorescent phosphor coatings are added to the lamps to improve color rendering.
MV lamps have poorer color rendition than MH lamps, but better color rendition than HPS
lamps.
MV lamps are best used for general lighting (street, industrial, and flood-lighting) where
color rendering is not extremely important or where the full output of an HPS lamp will not
be utilized because of shadowing.

(2) Metal Halide (MH) Lamps. The color spectrum of clear metal halide lamps is equal to
or superior to phosphor-coated mercury vapor lamps. Phosphor coatings can be added for
better color. MH lamps are best used where color rendering is important and in general
lighting where only a few fixtures are required.

(3) High Pressure Sodium (HPS). The color spectrum of high-pressure sodium lamps
consists of white light with a yellow-orange tone. HPS lamps are best used for general
lighting of large areas where good color renditions is a secondary consideration.
High-pressure sodium lamps are usually the best economic choice for lighting large areas,
primarily because of their low operating cost and long life. Such areas include:
floodlighting, general area lighting, road way lighting, and warehouse lighting. Metal
halide is the second most cost effective choice for outdoor lighting, followed by fluorescent.
Mercury vapor fixtures should not be used in new installations due to poor luminous
efficacy and high lumen depreciation (which results in high operating costs) except for
specific locations as discussed below. In fact, it may be cost effective to retrofit existing
mercury vapor installations with high-pressure sodium lamps.

At locations where power is purchased or generated at low cost and physical layout
prevents full use of light output, metal halide or mercury vapor fixtures may be more cost
effective. An economic evaluation should be performed.

Fluorescent lamps are often the preferred choice for enclosed areas, especially for control
rooms, office buildings, and laboratories with low ceiling clearance. High-pressure sodium
lamps are often preferred for warehouses and indoor process areas. Incandescent lamps
should be used sparingly, and only for specialty applications (e.g., emergency lighting) or
where lighting is used infrequently and the initial fixture cost is low compared to
alternative lighting fixtures.

Fluorescent Lamps
Figure 3-05 shows a cost analysis for energy saving versus standard efficiency
fluorescent lamps. This analysis indicates that energy-saving lamps should be specified
even when the time value of money is as high as 20%. Energy-saving lamps are more cost
effective because the average lamp life is long (almost 7 years) and energy represents more
than 80% of the life cycle cost (LCC) of operating lamps.

High Intensity Discharge Lamps

(1) Figure 3-06 shows a cost analysis to light a 50,000 square foot area to an illumination
level of 5 foot-candles. The analysis is based on using Class I, division 2 fixtures, with an
energy cost of $ 0.08/kWH, and 4000 burning hours per year. For different costs of power
and labor, ratio actual costs to the costs used in this example (e.g., $ 0.04/kWH/$ 0.08/kWH
= $ 4,864.00 annual operating cost.) The undiscounted life cycle cost (LCC) of using HPS
lamps in this example is approximately $300,000. By comparison, the undiscounted LCC of
MV lamps are more
than $ 720,000. This cost does not consider the added cost of source equipment
(transformers and panel boards) for the MV lamp option (with a connected load of 82 kW
versus 30 kW for the HPS option). In addition, more conduit, wire, and lamp stanchions are
required for the MV lamp option. The metal halide option is also a better choice
economically than mercury vapor.

(2) Figure 3-07 illustrates another example in which one HPS, MV, or MH fixture provides a
maintained minimum illumination of 5 foot-candles. In this example, the MV option has the
lowest initial cost and the lowest LCC even when the time value of money is over 20%.
(3) Figure 3-08 demonstrates a retrofit example in which MV lamps are presently in use.
An initial investment of approximately $96,000 will be required to retrofit to HPS or
$104,000 to retrofit to MH. Based on a 10-year LCC, the option to retrofit with PHS yields a
savings even when the time value of money is as high as 12%. Retrofitting with MH is not a
cost effective option. This also is true when using a 20-year LCC. However, when the cost
of energy is below $0.05/kWH, it is not cost effective to change out the MV lights. An
economic analysis should be performed for each possible situation.

Temperature
Temperature can affect the installation and operation of light sources in many ways.
Ambient temperatures can affect the lumen output of some fixtures. Self-generated heat in
excess of that which is designed to be dissipated by the fixture can damage the ballast,
lamp, base, and fixture. Ballast life is very sensitive to high ambient temperatures. For
high ambient temperature areas, it may be more cost effective to use fixtures with remote-
mounted ballasts, even though the initial costs for fixtures with integral ballasts may be
lower. Fixtures must be
mounted according to manufacturers recommendations to correctly dissipate heat.

Incandescent Filament Lamps

Operation of lamps under conditions which cause excessive bulb and base temperatures
may result in softening of the base cement and loosening of the base. In extreme cases,
the fixture and adjacent wiring can be damaged. Care should be taken to ensure that the
correct wattage lamps are installed in fixtures. Most fixtures are designed to dissipate a
specific quantity of heat generated by the lamps. Over voltage conditions or the use of
lamps of higher wattage than the manufacturers rating can cause slight or severe damage.
The use of incorrect wattage lamps may also affect light distribution by fixtures since the
focal point will not be correct for reflectors.

Fluorescent Lamps
(1) Temperature is an important factor in the performance of fluorescent lamps. The
temperature of the bulb wall has a substantial effect on the amount of ultraviolet light
generated by the arc; therefore, light output is
significantly affected by the temperature and movement of the surrounding air. For
maximum efficiency, bulb wall temperatures should be within a range of 100to 120.
Light output decreases about 1 percent for each 1-degree drop in bulb temperature below
100, and decreases a like amount for each 2-degree rise between 120 to 200.

(2) When fluorescent lamps with P ballasts are installed, fixtures must be able to dissipate
the heat which is generated. Insulation around the fixture, or a fixture installed in a high
ambient temperature area, can cause the ballast protection to cut in and out, turning the
lamp off and on unpredictably.
(3) Low temperatures may also cause starting difficulty. This normally is not a problem with
indoor applications, but can become a significant problem outdoors.

(4) For outdoor applications, fluorescent lamps designed for outdoor use are recommended
because of their high lumen output. In order to maintain high output in cold climates, the
lamps must be enclosed. Enclosing the lamps shifts the peak output to a lower
ambient temperature. When using lamps in cold weather without a surrounding enclosure,
best results will be obtained from T10J lamps specifically designed for use in low air
temperatures.

High Intensity Discharge Lamps

(1) The lumen output of the enclosed arc-tube type lamp is not significantly affected by
ambient temperature. However, to insure immediate starting at low temperatures, many
HID lamps require a ballast which has a higher open-circuit voltage than that of a
standard ballast designed for a temperature-controlled environment.

(2) Because HID lamps have a long life, operating temperatures are particularly important.
The effect of heat is partly a function of time, and the longer the life of the lam`, the greater
the possibility of damage from high temperature. Excessive bulb and base temperatures
may cause the following conditions: lamp failure, unsatisfactory performance due to
softening of the glass, damage to the arc tube from moisture being driven out of the outer
envelope, softening of the basing cement or solider, or corrosion of the base, socket, or
lead-in wires. The use of any reflecting equipment that might concentrate heat and light
rays on
either the inner arc tube or the outer envelope should be avoided.

Lamp Starting and Restarting

Lamp starting and restarting can be an important consideration if there is a significant time
delay before light output can be achieved. This factor can be important in remote
locations, or in an industrial setting where an unsafe condition may exist after a power dip if
light is not restored immediately. Of all luminaries, metal halide lamps take the longest
time to restart and reach full power output after a power failure.

Incandescent Lamps
Incandescent lamps achieve immediate light output upon starting and restarting.

Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent lamps should be equipped with rapid start ballasts which provide
immediate starting and restarting characteristics.

High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps

(1) All HID lamps need time to reach full output and stable color. If the arc is extinguished
after this warm-up, the lamp will not relight until it is cooled sufficiently to lower the vapor
pressure of the gases to a point where the arc will re-strike with the available voltage.

(2) Some ballast can be equipped with a restart circuit that will provide sufficient starting
voltage to overcome the higher vapor pressure of the gases. Ballasts equipped with restart
circuits provide full light output immediately upon restoration of power. Battery-powered
emergency lighting systems may be required for outages, which are longer than momentary
outages.
(3) Epoxy encapsulated ballasts should be considered for high humidity areas and corrosive
environments. The epoxy protects the ballast from possible contaminants.

1) Mercury Vapor (MV) Lamps

(a)The time from initial starting to full light output at ordinary room temperature varies from
5 to 7 minutes. Re-strike time (including cooling time until the lamp will restart) varies
between 3 and 6 minutes.
(b) Mercury vapor lights with an auxiliary quartz lamp are available. The incandescent
quartz lamp lights immediately when the circuit is restored. When the MV lamp attains
75% of its rated output, a current sensing relay turns the quartz lamp off. Quartz lamps
operate at temperatures, which are above those allowed for Class I, Division 1 or 2 areas.

2) Metal Halide (MH) Lamps

The warm-up time for MH lamps is slightly less than that of MV lamps, varying between 2
and 5 minutes. Since MH arc tubes operate at higher temperatures than MV lamps, the
time to cool and lower the vapor pressure of the metal halide lamp is longer, varying
between 10 and 20 minutes.

3) High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps

The lamp warm-up time for HPS lamps are between 3 and 4 minutes, and full light output is
reached in approximately 10 minutes. Because the operating pressure of a high-pressure
sodium lamp is lower than that of a mercury lamp, the re-strike time is shorter, between 0.5
and 1 minute. Ninety percent of full light output is reached in 3 to 4 minutes. HPS lamps
can be equipped with a special feature called Instant Re-strike for
convenience (or for use as emergency lighting) when uninterrupted illumination is
required. With this feature, some light is available immediately. Light output reaches 30%
of full output after 1/2 minute. Full light output is achieved in about 3 minutes.

Lamp Starting and Restarting Summary

LAMP STARTING AND RESTARTING TIME

Type of Lamp MV MH HPS Incandescent Fluorescent

Starting Time 5-7 2-5 3-4 immediate
immediate
Restarting Time 3-6 10-20 0.5-1 * immediate
immediate

* Also available with instant restarting.

Lamp Starting and Restarting Time (in Minutes)

Ballasts
Fluorescent Lamps
The components of a typical rapid start ballast consist of a transformer-type core and coil,
power capacitor, thermal protective device, and a potting compound (such as asphalt)
containing a filler (such as silica). The average
ballast life at a 50% duty cycle and proper operating temperature is about 12 years.

High Intensity Discharge

The Constant Wattage Autotransformer CWA lead circuit ballast is the preferred choice for
most HID installations. It consists of a high reactance autotransformer with a capacitor in
series with the lamp. The capacitor allows the lamp to operate with better wattage stability
if branch circuit voltage fluctuates. Other advantages of the CWA ballast are a high power
factor, low-line extinguishing voltage, and lower line starting currents. Fixtures with ballasts
other than CWA will require approximately 60% more starting current than operating
current. The CWA features allow maximum loading on branch circuits and provide more
cost-effective HID lighting systems.

Fixture Materials
Fixture material may be an important consideration in the selection of lighting fixtures,
especially in marine environments.

Voltage Levels
The voltage level and power distribution system of lighting are decided with safety
consideration, easier phase balancing and reduced inventories of fixtures and ballasts.

Lighting System Design

Before the system design process can begin, the following design parameters must be
determined: area classification, fixture selection, and voltage level. In addition, the
following project design tasks must be completed: facility layout, mechanical
equipment plans, structural plans, and emergency escape routes.
The design of any lighting installation involves the consideration of many variables include:

(1) Lighting for detailed work,

(2) Flood lighting,
(3) Task-oriented lighting, and
(4) Emergency lighting.

The lighting system should be designed to provide slightly more than the initial desired light
to allow for lamp deterioration and dirt accumulation on the fixture lens (i.e., maintenance
factor and luminaries depreciation factor). The lighting system should also be designed to
provide the desired quantity of light at the particular location and in the proper visual plane.
The amount of glare produced, the ease of installation and maintenance, and environmental
suitability (e.g., indoors, outdoors, and hazardous locations) should all be considered during
the design phase.

Distribution of Light
The distribution of light is divided into five classes: direct, semi-direct, general-diffuse (or
direct-indirect), semi-indirect, and indirect.

(1) Direct lighting provides 90 to 100% of its light downward, and while it often is most
efficient, it usually results in glare.
(2) Semi-direct lighting provides 60 to 90% of its light downward, with a general decrease in
glare and increase in seeing comfort.

(3) General-diffuse (direct-indirect) lighting systems provide approximately equal

components of up light and down light. This system emits very little brightness in the
direct-glare zone. The efficiency of the system depends largely on the reflectances of all
the room surfaces. This system is widely used in laboratories and offices.
(4) Semi-indirect lighting provides 60 to 90% up light and depends on light being reflected
from the ceiling and walls. This type of lighting system is used when reflected glare from
room surfaces must be minimized.

(5) Indirect lighting systems provide 90 to 100% up-light and produce the most comfortable
light. However, they have the lowest utilization of the five classes and often are difficult to
maintain. In-direct lighting in preferred for control rooms with CRT monitors.

Lighting Methods
To provide the necessary quantity and quality of light for lighting system applications, three
types of lighting are used.

(1) General lighting should provide overall, uniform lighting with special attention focused
on the areas along walls. The lighting level at the wall should be comparable to that at the
center of the room. An example of this is in the bunk areas of living quarters.

(2) Localized general lighting is used in areas where higher illumination levels are required.
This often can be obtained by increasing the output of the general lighting system in the
particular area.
(3) Supplementary luminaries are used to provide higher levels of illumination in small or
restricted areas.

The illumination of vertical surfaces often requires special considerations to provide

uniformity any, in those cases where the vertical surface is behind a transparent cover, to
prevent reflected glare. Where vertical surfaces are adjacent to sources of high luminance,
acceptable brightness ratios should be maintained to help avoid eye-strain caused by a
large difference in brightness between the task area and the background.

Illumination Level

Company experience has shown that the lighting levels listed in Intensity of Illumination.
Table. Illuminances Currently Recommended by the Petroleum,
Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Representations (*1)
Emergency Lighting Systems
Emergency lighting is used during power failures and provides illumination by silhouetting
objects. It should be provided in control rooms, at critical instrument locations, in large
electrical substations, in mechanics shops, and
in laboratories. Emergency systems are used to evacuate personnel, to provide light to
shut down controls and equipment, and to maintain a level of illumination adequate for
safety and security. It may also be required to illuminate equipment for plant startup
following a power outage. Local, city, state, and federal codes may require emergency
lighting for special areas where personnel work. Applicable codes should be reviewed
carefully.

The power source for emergency lighting systems should be separate from the normal
electrical source. If the same power source is used for both normal and emergency
lighting, a power outage would render the
emergency lighting useless. Emergency lighting power sources include engine generator
sets, UPS, and batteries. If normal power is lost, light should automatically be provided in
areas where the loss of light might cause personnel hazard.

Company Experience with Lighting Systems

Industrial Lighting
High-pressure sodium lamps are preferred for most outdoor onshore lighting applications
because of their lower initial capital investment and operating costs. MV or MH fixtures
should be considered for offshore locations where power is locally generated (often at lower
cost/KWH) and where obstructions may shadow areas (requiring more fixtures regardless of
the individual fixture output). There are some applications where only a few
fixtures are required or where color rendering is of primary importance. In these situations,
metal halide or color-corrected mercury vapor fixtures may be preferred.

Services Station Lighting

Metal halide lighting is almost exclusively used for outdoor lighting at service stations. The
better color rendering properties of metal halide help to maintain the Company image and
improve seals. Normally, high-pressure
lighting is used for tank truck loading racks and warehouse lighting.

Roadway and Parking Lot

High-pressure sodium lighting normally is preferred for roadways and parking lots. 4.5.4
Offshore Platforms

Mercury vapor and metal halide (and occasionally high pressure sodium) lamps are used for
area lighting and lighting the interiors of large buildings. Fluorescent lighting is used indoors
(and at times outdoors) for area lighting, particularly where low profile fixtures are needed
because of low ceiling heights.

Control Room Lighting

Control rooms or other rooms equipped with CRTs should be designed with indirect lighting
to reduce glare. Wall-mounted or suspended indirect fluorescent fixtures with adjustable
light level controls are preferred. Fluorescent lighting with parabolic louvers (to reduce
glare) can also be used for general lighting. Incandescent spot lighting can be used for task
lighting. An effort should be made to prevent light penetration from other
work spaces. All surfaces in control rooms should be non-reflective.

Aviation Lighting
Metal halide or color-corrected mercury vapor systems are preferred for most heliport
lighting applications on offshore platforms because of their superior quality of light.
Fluorescent fixtures may be required for low profile
applications. Incandescent fixtures equipped with long-life lamps are used for landing
lights.

Lighting Calculations and Fixture Layout

The three most common methods used to determine the number of fixtures required to
provide the necessary maintained illumination for an area are: the lumen method, the point-
to-point method, and the iso-foot candle method. The watts-per-square foot method is
used for estimating purposes very early in a project or during the conceptual phase
of a project. Generally, the lumen method is used in calculations where fixtures are installed
in an enclosed space (like a room). The point-to-point method is commonly used in
calculations for outside applications where reflected light is not a factor. However, either
method may be used for indoor or outdoor locations. The IES Handbook and the
Westinghouse Lighting Handbook contain detailed, step-by-step processes for using these
two methods. Most lighting design done by the Company is for exterior (outdoor) lighting,
primarily for area lighting and floodlighting. This section explains two lighting-calculation
methods: the watts-per-square foot method for conceptual design, and the iso-foot-candle
method for general outdoor applications.

Area Lighting

Area lighting for a particular operating company location should be standardized as much as
possible. Designs should produce uniform and efficient lighting levels and facilitate cost-
effective maintenance.

Floodlighting
(1) The difference between floodlighting and area lighting is the aiming angle. The greater
the aiming angle, the greater the area illuminated: however, light output directly beneath
the fixture will be lower. Since the objective of floodlighting is to maintain only 1 to 2 foot-
candles at grade, the best method is usually to angle fixtures at 60 degrees from
horizontal and install them at heights of about 25 feet.

(2) The area illuminated by floodlights can be varied by using different beam widths. This is
particularly useful when the light must be directed to a specific area where an individual
lighting fixture cannot be installed. Standard floodlight beam widths are specified by NEMA
as follows:

NEMA TYPE SPREAD (degrees) BEAM

1 10- 18
2 18- 29
3 29- 46
4 46- 70
5 70-100
6 100-130
7 103 and up

Lumen Maintenance Factor (LMF)

As lamps age, lumen output deteriorates (lumen depreciation). Dirt depreciation is the lamp
depreciation associated with dirt on the lamp, lens, and reflector. Together, lamp
depreciation and dirt depreciation constitute
the lumen maintenance factor (LMF).

Figure 5-01 provides the recommended lumen maintenance factors to apply to various
types of fixtures.

For example, a 70-watt HPS fixture with a standard reflector and no guard, mounted 8-feet
high, will provide 10 foot-candles of initial illumination in a 5-foot radius. By applying the
LMF of 0.6 for HPS fixtures, the illumination
level design basis is 6 foot-candles (10 x 0.6) near the end of rated life. If the minimum
recommended illumination level is 12 foot-candles, two 70-watt HPS fixtures spaced 5-feet
apart would provide the required illumination.

LUMEN MAINTENANCE FACTORS

Type of Fixture Lumen Maintenance Factor
Incandescent
- Indoor 0.60
- Outdoor 0.70

Fluorescent
- Indoor 0.55
- Outdoor 0.60

Mercury Vapor
- Indoor 0.40
- Outdoor 0.50

High Pressure Sodium

- Indoor 0.55
- Outdoor 0.60

Metal Halide
- Indoor 0.45
- Outdoor 0.55

Watts-Per-Square Foot Method

The watts-per-square foot method works well to determine the appropriate number of
lighting fixtures required and to estimate the total lighting loads for determining initial
calculations during the conceptual phase of a project.

To use this method, a six-step process is outlined below:

(1) Step 1: Determine the illumination level for the area(s) in question.
(2) Step 2: Determine the total square footage of the area to be illuminated from the
preliminary plot plan.
(3) Step 3: Determine the type of lighting fixture to use from Figure 3-01, Light Fixture
Selection.
(4) Step 4: Determine the watts per square foot from Figure 5-02.
(5) Step 5: Obtain the total wattage required by multiplying the watts per square foot (from
Step 4) by the area to be illuminated (from Step 2).

(6) Step 6: Determine the total number of fixtures required by dividing the total wattage
required (from Step 5) by the wattage of each lamp (from Step 3).

Iso-Foot candle Method

The iso-foot candle lighting-calculation method works well for outdoor locations, but is not
well suited for indoor applications. Figure 5-03 shows an iso-foot candle chart for a 70-watt
HPS fixture with a standard dome
reflector mounted at an elevation of 8 feet. Iso-foot candle charts show lines of equal foot-
candles that will be produced by a specific fixture at a given height. These curves are
created from photometric test data, and are
representative of the lamps actual output. Iso-foot candle charts are useful as they can be
superimposed on the design plot plan and relocated until satisfactory light levels are
achieved. Iso-foot candle charts (IFCs) may be hard to obtain for a specific fixture and
often have to be scaled to match the plot plan. An alternative to the iso-foot candle chart is
the iso-foot candle table, which is readily available from most fixture manufacturers. Using
this data, iso-foot candle levels can be placed on the plot plan. Sections 5.5 and 5.6 present
two examples that illustrate the layout of lighting fixtures using the iso-foot candle method.
Iso-Foot candle Chart for Stanchion Mount Fixture

Maintenance Consideration

A good maintenance program involves: (1) replacing lamps, (2) cleaning fixtures, and (3)
cleaning lighted surfaces.

Replacing Lamps (Revamping)

Two different approaches may be taken in revamping programs: (1) replace lamps as they
extinguish, or (2) replace all lamps at one time (group replacement). The first approach,
individual lamp replacement, is usually the least cost-effective method. The labor portion
of the revamping program typically dominates the total cost. When the labor cost is not
the largest portion of revamping cost, the first approach is the more economical (e.g., on
offshore platforms.)

A group replacement scheme can be developed for a given installation by considering the
cost of labor and lamps, lamp life, and the effect of work interruptions. A commonly used
criterion for group replacement is: When 20% of the original lamps have failed, the entire
installation is revamped. This approach cannot be used if fixtures provide light for specific
locations.
The time between replacements may vary somewhat because of variations in system
voltage and operating schedules. Over voltage or under voltage should be suspected if the
replacement interval is several months shorter than normal.

Cleaning Fixtures
In some instances, dust and other foreign material on lighting equipment can reduce the
lighting level by 30% in only a few months. The type of ventilation and cleanliness of the
surrounding area determine the required cleaning intervals. It is important to clean fixtures
regularly. If fixture cleaning is coordinated with group lamp replacement, maintenance costs
usually can be kept to a minimum.

Cleaning Lighted Surfaces

Cleaning interior lighted surfaces usually is an important maintenance factor. If an
illumination survey indicates less than the design level illumination after lamp replacement
and fixture cleaning, the lighted surfaces may need painting or cleaning. However, a check
should be made first to insure that low voltage is not the problem.
References

The following references are readily available. Those with an asterisk(*) are included in this
manual or are available in other manuals.
References

(1)American National Standard Practice for Industrial Lighting (ANSI/IES RP-7)

(2)American National Standard Practice of Office Lighting (ANSI/IES RP-1)

(3)American Petroleum Institute RP 14F, Design and Installation of Electrical Systems for
Offshore Production Platforms

(4)American Petroleum Institute RP 540, Recommended Practice for Electrical Installation in

Petroleum Processing Plants

(5) Code for Safety to Life from Fire in Buildings and Structures, ANSI/NFPA No. 101

(6)ANSI/IEEE STD 45, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Installation son Shipboard

(7) IES Lighting Handbook, 1984 Reference Volume and 1987 Application Volume

(8) IES RP 12, Recommended Practice for Marine Lighting

(9) National Electric Code, ANSI/NFPA 70