ISO-OSI 7-Layer Network Architecture

According to the ISO standards, networks have been divided into 7 layers depending on the complexity
of the functionality each of these layers provide. The detailed description of each of these layers is given
in the notes below. We will first list the layers as defined by the standard in the increasing order of
function complexity:

1. Physical Layer

2. Data Link Layer

3. Network Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Session Layer

6. Presentation Layer

7. Application Layer

Physical Layer

This layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model. It helps in the transmission of data between two
machines that are communicating through a physical medium, which can be optical fibers, copper wire
or wireless etc. The following are the main functions of the physical layer:

1. Hardware Specification: The details of the physical cables, network interface cards, wireless
radios, etc are a part of this layer.

2. Encoding and Signaling: How are the bits encoded in the medium is also decided by this layer.
For example, on the copper wire medium, we can use different voltage levels for a certain time
interval to represent '0' and '1'. We may use +5mV for 1nsec to represent '1' and -5mV for 1nsec
to represent '0'. All the issues of modulation is dealt with in this layer.

3. Data Transmission and Reception: The transfer of each bit of data is the responsibility of this
layer. This layer assures the transmission of each bit with a high probability. The transmission of
the bits is not completely reliable as their is no error correction in this layer.
 4. Topology and Network Design: The network design is the integral part of the physical layer.
Which part of the network is the router going to be placed, where the switches will be used,
where we will put the hubs, how many machines each switch is going to handle, what server is
going to be placed where, and many such concerns are to be taken care of by the physical layer.
The various kinds of topologies that we decide to use may be ring, bus, star or a hybrid of these
topologies depending on our requirements.

Data Link Layer

This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by using the services of the physical layer which
transmits bits over the medium in an unreliable fashion. This layer is concerned with :

1. Framing : Breaking input data into frames (typically a few hundred bytes) and caring about the
frame boundaries and the size of each frame.

2. Acknowledgment : Sent by the receiving end to inform the source that the frame was received
without any error.

3. Sequence Numbering : To acknowledge which frame was received.

4. Error Detection : The frames may be damaged, lost or duplicated leading to errors. The error
control is on link to link basis.

5. Retransmission : The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive acknowledgment.

6. Flow Control : Necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.

Network Layer

Its basic functions are routing and congestion control.

Routing: This deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred) from source to
destination. It can be of three types :

Static : Routes are based on static tables that are "wired into" the network and are rarely changed.

Dynamic : All packets of one application can follow different routes depending upon the
topology of the network, the shortest path and the current network load.

Semi-Dynamic : A route is chosen at the start of each conversation and then all the packets of the
application follow the same route.

Routing
The services provided by the network can be of two types :

Connection less service: Each packet of an application is treated as an independent entity. On

each packet the destination address is provided and the packet is routed.

Connection oriented service: Here, first a connection is established and then all packets of the
application follow the same route. To understand the above concept, we can also draw an
analogy from the real life. Connection oriented service is modeled after the telephone system. All
voice packets go on the same path after the connection is established till the connection is hung
up. It acts like a tube ; the sender pushes the objects in at one end and the receiver takes them out
in the same order at the other end.

Congestion Control: A router can be connected to 4-5 networks. If all the networks send packet at the
same time with maximum rate then the router may not be able to handle all the packets and may drop
some/all packets. In this context the dropping of the packets should be minimized and the source whose
packet was dropped should be informed. The control of such congestion is also a function of the network
layer. Other issues related with this layer are transmitting time, delays, jittering.

Internetworking: Internetworks are multiple networks that are connected in such a way that they act as
one large network. Internetworks are connected by networking hardware such as routers, switches, and
bridges.

Network Layer does not guarantee that the packet will reach its intended destination. There are no
reliability guarantees.

Transport Layer

Its functions are :

Multiplexing / De-multiplexing : Normally the transport layer will create distinct network
connection for each transport connection required by the session layer. The transport layer may
either create multiple network connections (to improve throughput) or it may multiplex several
transport connections onto the same network connection (because creating and maintaining
networks may be expensive). In the latter case, de-multiplexing will be required at the receiving
end. A point to note here is that communication is always carried out between two processes and
not between two machines. This is also known as process-to-process communication.

Fragmentation and Re-assembly: The data accepted by the transport layer from the session
layer is split up into smaller units (fragmentation) if needed, and then passed to the network
layer. Correspondingly, the data provided by the network layer to the transport layer on the
receiving side is re-assembled.
 Types of service : The transport layer also decides the type of service that should be provided to
the session layer. The service may be perfectly reliable, or may be reliable within certain
tolerances or may not be reliable at all. The message may or may not be received in the order in
which it was sent. The decision regarding the type of service to be provided is taken at the time
when the connection is established.
Error Control : If reliable service is provided then error detection and error recovery operations
are also performed. It provides error control mechanism on end to end basis.
Flow Control : A fast host cannot keep pace with a slow one. Hence, this is a mechanism to
regulate the flow of information.
Connection Establishment / Release : The transport layer also establishes and releases the
connection across the network. This requires some sort of naming mechanism so that a process
on one machine can indicate with whom it wants to communicate.
Session Layer

Session layer deals with connections. It establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two
communicating nodes. This layer provides its services to the presentation layer. Session layer also
synchronizes dialogue between the presentation layers of the two hosts and manages their data
exchange. For example, web servers may have many users communicating with server at a given time.
Therefore, keeping track of which user communicates on which path is important and session layer
handle this responsibility accurately.

Presentation layer

Presentation layer prepares the data. It takes data from application layer and marks it with formatting
code such as .doc, .jpg, .txt, .avi etc. These file extensions make it easy to realize that particular file is
formatted with particular type of application. With formatting presentation layer also deals with
compression and encapsulation. It compresses (on sending computer) and decompresses (on receiving
computer) the data file. This layer can also encapsulate the data, but its uncommon as this can be done
by lower layers more effectively.

Application Layer

Application layer provides platform to send and receive data over the network. All applications and
utilities that communicate with network fall in this layer. For examples

Browsers :- Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome etc

Email clients: - Outlook Express, Mozilla Thunderbird etc.

FTP clients :- Filezilla, sFTP, vsFTP

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) Used to control the connected networking devices.

TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) Used to transfer the files rapidly.

DNS (Domain Naming System) Used to translate the name with IP address and vice versa.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) Used to assign IP address and DNS information
automatically to hosts.

Telnet used to connect remote devices.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) Used to browse web pages.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Used to reliably sends/retrieves files.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) Used to sends email.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol v.3) Used to retrieves email.

NTP (Network Time Protocol) Used to synchronizes clocks.

OSI Model Seven Layers

OSI Layers model has seven layers; Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, data link
and physical.

Application Layer

Application layer provides platform to send and receive data over the network. All applications and
utilities that communicate with network fall in this layer. For examples

Browsers :- Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome etc

Email clients: - Outlook Express, Mozilla Thunderbird etc.

FTP clients :- Filezilla, sFTP, vsFTP

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) Used to control the connected networking devices.

TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) Used to transfer the files rapidly.

DNS (Domain Naming System) Used to translate the name with IP address and vice versa.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) Used to assign IP address and DNS information
automatically to hosts.
Telnet used to connect remote devices.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) Used to browse web pages.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Used to reliably sends/retrieves files.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) Used to sends email.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol v.3) Used to retrieves email.

NTP (Network Time Protocol) Used to synchronizes clocks.

Presentation layer

Presentation layer prepares the data. It takes data from application layer and marks it with formatting
code such as .doc, .jpg, .txt, .avi etc. These file extensions make it easy to realize that particular file is
formatted with particular type of application. With formatting presentation layer also deals with
compression and encapsulation. It compresses (on sending computer) and decompresses (on receiving
computer) the data file. This layer can also encapsulate the data, but its uncommon as this can be done
by lower layers more effectively.

Session Layer

Session layer deals with connections. It establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two
communicating nodes. This layer provides its services to the presentation layer. Session layer also
synchronizes dialogue between the presentation layers of the two hosts and manages their data
exchange. For example, web servers may have many users communicating with server at a given time.
Therefore, keeping track of which user communicates on which path is important and session layer
handle this responsibility accurately.

Transport Layer

So far CCNA exam is concern; this is the most important layer to study. I suggest you to pay extra
attentions on this layer, as it is heavily tested in exam.

Transport layer provides following services: -

It sets up and maintains the connection between two devices.

It multiplexes connections that allow multiple applications to simultaneously send

and receive data.

According to requirement data transmission method can be connection oriented or

connection less.
 For unreliable data delivery connection less method is used.

Connection less method uses UDP protocol.

For reliable data delivery connection oriented method is used.

Connection oriented method uses TCP protocol.

When Implemented a reliable connection, sequence numbers and acknowledgments

(ACKs) are used.

Reliable connection controls flow through the uses of windowing or

acknowledgements.

For exam purpose remember five main functions of transport layer.

1. Segmentation

2. Connection management

3. Reliable and unreliable data delivery

4. Flow control

5. Connection multiplexing

Lets understand these functions in more depth

Segmentation
Segmentation is the process of breaking large data file into smaller files that can be accommodated by
network. To understand this process thinks about a 700 MB movie that you want to download from
internet. You have 2MBPS internet connection. How will you download a 700MB movie on 2MBPS
internet connection?

In this case segmentation process is used. On server transport layer breaks 700MB movie in smaller size
of segments (less than your internet connection speed). Assume that 700Mb movie is divided in 700
segments. Each segment has file size of 1Mb that your PC can easily download at current connection
speed. Now your PC will download 700 small files instead of one large file. So next time when you see
download progress bar in browser, think it about segment receiver progress bar. Once your browser
receives all segments from server, it will pop up a message indicating download is completed. Transport
layer at your PC will merge all segments back in a single 700Mb movie file. End user will never know
how a 700Mb movie makes its way through the 2Mbps connection line.

Connection management
Transport layer setup, maintain and tear down connections for session layer. Actual mechanic of
connection is controlled by transport layer. Transport layer use two protocols for connection
management UDP and TCP.

UDP
UDP is a connection less protocol. Connection-less transmission is said to be unreliable. Now, don't get
worried about the term "unreliable" this doesn't mean that the data isn't going to get its destination; its
only means that it isn't guaranteed to get its destination. Think of your options when you are sending a
postcard, put it in the mailbox, and chances are good that it will get where it's supposed to go but there is
no guarantee. There is always a chance of missing in the way. On the other hand, it's cheap.

TCP
TCP is a connection oriented protocol. Connection-oriented transmission is said to be reliable. Think
TCP as registry AD facility available in Indian post office. For this level of service, you have to buy
extra ticket and put a bunch of extra labels on it to track where it is going and where it has been. You get
a receipt when it is delivered. In this method you have a guaranteed delivery. All of this costs you more
but it is reliable!

Reliability

Reliability means guaranteed data delivery. To insure delivery of each single segment, connection
oriented method is used. In this approach before sending any segments three way handshake process is
done.

Three way handshake process

 1. PC1 sends a SYN single to PC2 indicating that it wants to establish a reliable
session.

2. P2 replies with ACK/SYN signal where ACK is the acknowledgment of PC1s SYN
signal and SYN indicates that PC2 is ready to establish a reliable session.

3. PC1 replies with ACK signal indicating that is has received SYN signal and session is
now fully established.

Once connection is established data transmission will be initiated. To provide maximum reliability it
includes following functions:-

Detect lost packets and resend them

Detect packets that arrived out of order and reorder them

Recognize duplicate packets and drop extra packets

Avoid congestion by implementing flow control

Flow control

The transport layer implements two flow control methods:

Ready/not ready signals

 Windowing

Ready / not ready signals method

In this method sender sends data according to its buffer size. Receiver receives data in its buffer. When
receivers buffer get filled, it send a not ready signal to sender, so sender can stop transmitting more
segments. Receivers send ready signal when it becomes ready to receive next segments. This method has
two problems.

First, the receiver may respond to the sender with a not ready signal only when its
buffer fills up. While this message is on its way to the sender, the sender is still
sending segments to the receiver, which the receiver will have to drop because its
buffer space is full.

The second problem with the uses of this method is that once the receiver is ready
to receive more segments, it must first send a ready signal to the sender, which
must be received before sender can send more segments.

Windowing

In windowing a window size is defined between sender and receiver. Sender host will wait for an
acknowledgement signal after sending the segments equal to the window size. If any packet lost in the
way, receiver will respond with acknowledgement for lost packet. Sender will send lost packet again.
Window size is automatically set during the three step handshake process. It can be adjust anytime
throughout the lifetime of connection.

Connection Multiplexing/Application Mapping

Connection multiplexing feature allows multiple applications to connect at a time. For example a server
performs a number of functions like email, FTP, DNS, Web service, file service, data service etc.
Suppose server has a single IP address, how will it perform all these different functions for all the hosts
that want to connect with it? To make this possible transport layer assigns a unique set of numbers for
each connection. These numbers are called port or socket numbers. These port numbers allow multiple
applications to send and receive data simultaneously.

Port numbers are divided into following ranges by the IANA

Port number Descriptions

01023 Well-KnownFor common TCP/IP functions and applications

102449151 RegisteredFor applications built by companies

4915265535 Dynamic/PrivateFor dynamic connections or unregistered applications

Common TCP and UDP Port Numbers

TCP UDP

FTP 20, 21 DNS 53

Telnet 23 DHCP 67,68

SMTP 25 TFTP 69

DNS 53 NTP 123

HTTP 80 SNMP 161

POP 110

NNTP 119

HTTPS 443

Network Layer

Network layer is responsible for providing logical address known as IP address. Router works on this
layer. Main functions of this layer are following:-

Define IP address

Find routes based on IP address to reach its destination

Connect different data link type together like as Token Ring, Serial, FDDI, Ethernet
etc.

IP address
IP address a 32 bit long software address which made from two components:

Network component: - Defines network segment of device.

Host component :- Defines the specific device on a particular network segment

Subnet mask is used to distinguish between network component and host component.

IP addresses are divided in five classes.

Class A addresses range from 1-126.

Class B addresses range from 128-191.

Class C addresses range from 192-223.

Class D addresses range from 224-239.

 Class E addresses range from 240-254.

Following addresses have special purpose: -

0 [Zero] is reserved and represents all IP addresses;

127 is a reserved address and it is used for testing, like a loop back on an interface:

255 is a reserved address and it is used for broadcasting purposes.

IP packet
Network layer receive segment from transport layer and wrap it with IP header that is known as
datagram.

Datagram
Datagram is just another name of packet. Network layer use datagram to transfer information between
nodes.

Two types of packets are used at the Network layer: data and route updates.

Data packets
Data packets are used to transport the user data across the network. Protocols used by data packets are
known as routed protocol. For example IP and IPv6

Route update packets

These packets are used to update the route information within internetwork. Routers use these packets.
Protocols that send route update packets are called routing protocols; for example RIP, RIPv2, EIGRP,
and OSPF

Data link layer

Main functions of data link layer are

Defining the Media Access Control (MAC) or hardware addresses

Defining the physical or hardware topology for connections

Defining how the network layer protocol is encapsulated in the data link layer frame

Providing both connectionless and connection-oriented services

Defines hardware (MAC) addresses as well as the communication process that

occurs within a media.
MAC Address
MAC address is a 48 bit long layer two address. It is also known as hardware address. This address is
burnt with device by manufacturing company.

The first six hexadecimal digits of a MAC address represent its manufacture company.

MAC addresses only need to be unique in a broadcast domain.

You can have the same MAC address in different broadcast domains.

Frame
Data link layer receive packet from network layer and wrap it with layer two Header that is known as
frame. There are two specifications of Ethernet frame.

1. Ethernet II

2. 802

Key points to remember:-

Ethernet II does not have any sub layers, while IEEE 802.2/3 has two: LLC and MAC.

Ethernet II has a type field instead of a length field (used in 802.3).

802.2 use a SAP or SNAP field to differentiate between encapsulated layer-3

payloads.

With a SNAP frame, the SAP fields are set to 0xAA and the type field is used to
indicate the layer-3 protocol.

802.2 SAP frame is eight bits in length and only the first six bits are used for
identifying upper-layer protocols, which allows up to 64 protocols.

802.2 SNAP frame supports up to 65,536 protocols.

Physical Layer

Physical layer deals with communication media. This layer receive frame from data link layer and
convert them in bits. It loads these bits on actual communication media. Depending on media type these
bit values are converted in single. Some use audio tones, while others utilize state transitionschanges
in voltage from high to low and low to high.

Protocol data unit

Piece of data passed between layers collectively known as PDU (protocol data unit). Layers have
different terms to describe it like (segment in transport layer, packet in network layer, frame at data link
layer, and signal at physical layer.)

PDU include data file and a consistent body of information attached onto data at each successive layer.
This information is called header and footer. It includes instructions on how to restore the file to its
original state when it receives to the target system.

As a PDU passes through the layers, a header (and footer only on data link layer) is added to the packet
with information to the peer layer on the destination system for reconstructing the data on its way back
up through the layers of the destination network.

Data Exchange Process

In data exchange process, participating computers work in reverse mode. Layers on receiving computer
perform the same task in reverse mode.

The receiving device takes delivery of, handles, and translates the data from the sending device at a
particular layer. For example on sending computer presentation layer compress the data, same
presentation layer on receiving computer decompress the data.

On sending computer

Sending application access the application layer.

Application provides data to the presentation layer.

Presentation layer format the data as per network requirement and forward it's to
session layer.

Session layer initiate the connection and forward the data to the transport layer.

Transport layer broke down the large data file in smaller segments and add a header
with control information, which are bits designated to describe how to determine
whether the data is complete, uncorrupted, in the correct sequence, and so forth.

Segments are forwarded to the network layer. Network layer add its header, with
logical address and convert it in packet. Network layer forwards packet to data link
layer.

Data link layer attach its header and footer to the packet and convert it in frame.

Frames are forwarded to the physical layers that convert them in signals. These
signals are loaded in media.
On receiving computer

Physical layer receive signals from media and convert them in frames. Frames are
forwarded to the data link layer.

Data link layer check the frame. All tampered frame are dropped here. If frame is
correct, data link layer strip down its header and footer from frame and hand over
packet to network layer.

Network layer check the packet with its own implementations. If it's found
everything fine with packet, it strips down its header from packet and hand over
segment to transport layer.

Transport layer again do the same job. It verifies the segments with its own protocol
rules. Only the verified segments are processed. Transport layer remove its header
from verified segments and reassemble the segments in data. Data is handed over
the session layer.

Session layer keep track of open connection and forwarded the receiving data to
presentation layer.

Presentation form the data in such a way that application layer use it.

Application layer on receiving computer find the appropriate application from the
computer and open data within particular application.

In nutshell
At the sending device, each layer breaks the data down into smaller packets and adds its own header.

At the receiving device, each layer strips off the header and builds the data packets into larger packets.

Each protocol layer is blind to the headers of any other protocol layer and cannot process them.

TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP protocol model is another popular layer model that describes network standards. For CCNA
exam you should be aware about this model as well. This model has same names of layers as OSI
reference model has. Don't be confuse with same name, layers at both model have different functionality
in each model.

Let's see how TCP/IP model is different from OSI reference model

Application layer:
TCP/IP model combine the functionality of application layer, presentation layer and session layer from
OSI model in single application layer. In TCP/IP model application layer do all tasks those are
performed by upper layers in OSI model. Application layer deals with high level protocols, including
data presentation, compression and dialog control.

Transport layer:

In TCP/IP model transport layer provides quality of services. TCP protocol is used for reliable data
delivery. Flow control and error correction methods are used for guaranteed data delivery.

Internet layer:

In TCP/IP model Internet layer provide all the functionality that network layer provides in OSI model.
Internet layer is responsible for finding the correct path for datagram [packet].

Network access layer:

Name of this layer may confuse you as OSI model has a layer of same name. In TCP/IP model network
access layer deals with LAN and WAN protocols and all the functionality provided by physical and data
link layer in OSI model.

Cisco's three-layer hierarchical model

Cisco's three layer hierarchical model is a set of networking specification provided by Cisco. This model
describe which cisco device works on which layers.

Core Layer

High-speed layer-2 switching infrastructure works in this layer.

Distribution Layer

Distribution layer stands between access and core layers. Router and layer 3 switch works in this layer.

Access Layer

This layer provides user's initial access to the network via switches or hubs.

Thats all for this article. In next article I will explain another CCNA topic.

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