Lawrence - Muralidharan 1

Introduction

Thomas Edison once said, Id put my money on the sun and solar energy. What a

source of power! This great man invented the first light source generated by electricity

and shaped the future of the world, so why not heed his exclamations and remarks to

brighten our own future? As of 2016, the worlds primary energy source relies on fossil

fuels. Naturally formed from the remains of once living organisms, the three main types of

fossil fuels - oil, natural gas, and coal - have fueled societies all around the world.

However, because fossil fuels are finite and extracting them causes irrevocable damage to

the environment, the dependence on fossils fuels have to be lessened. Extraction of fossil

fuels also generates air and water pollution, and the burning of fossil fuels emits toxins and

global warming emissions. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the

burning of fossil fuels was responsible for 79 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in

2010 (Dorsey). These greenhouse gases do not escape Earths atmosphere which insulate

the planet leading to potential catastrophic changes in the Earths climate. Steps have to be

made to retract these harmful effects, and the one essential step mankind can take is to

switch from fossil fuel to a more cleaner source: solar energy.

Solar energy is utilized in many diverse situations across the globe. In the U.S.

alone, there are over 20 gigawatts produced by operating solar panels with most of this

produced from the worlds largest solar thermal power plant in California's Mojave Desert

(Fehrenbacher). The world is slowly moving away from fossil fuels and moving towards

renewable energy. With solar energy becoming an increasingly important part of the
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future, methods have to be taken to create more efficient solar-capturing devices to further

maximize energy output.

The purpose of this experiment was to explore the significance of panel color and

angle of elevation on the voltage of custom-made dye-sensitized photovoltaic cells. This

research sought to modify and improve the construction of solar cells to allow for a more

efficient voltage production. Changing the panel color allows for the filtration of the

visible light spectrum and isolates a color to be absorbed by the solar cell, while changing

the angle of elevation changes the surface area of the panel in which light can strike. The

color of light striking the solar cells could have been tested as a different variable, but the

change in panel color and change in light would have the same effect and produce similar

results. The former of these two options, changing the panel color, was chosen as it more

applicable in the real world. Three solar cells were created with various panel colors (red,

violet, or transparent) and placed at different angles of elevation, either 60, 30, or 0, to

determine to effects of each variable. The particular type of solar cell used in this

experiment is a dye-sensitized titanium dioxide photovoltaic cell. These are different from

the silicon ones most commonly seen. Though, since both dye-sensitized cells and silicon

cells are photovoltaic, they generate electricity using the same underlying process. Each

solar cell, connected to a multimeter, was placed under a lamp to measure the voltage

produced by the cell. The voltages of the combinations of panel color and angle of

elevation were measured and then analyzed with the Design of Experiment statistical test.

The original hypothesis of the experiment was that the highest factor of both variable, the

violet panel color placed at 0, would produce greatest voltage.

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The results from this experiment has multiple real world applications, with one

being the ability to increase the efficiency of already-built solar cells or solar panels. While

the specific cells used in this experiment would never be used in a practical setting, the

research done on panel color could be related back to the more commonly used silicon

cells. In general, this research helps to reaffirm previously found results. First off, the

study of angle of elevation would be easily applicable to any form of solar cell, whether

its photovoltaic or thermal. Though it should be noted that the panel color of a silicon cell

or thermal cell may operate differently than the method used in this experiment, being

painted glass on a titanium dioxide based cell. The optimal angle of elevation, could allow

for solar cells to be placed at the angle that best collects the energy from the sun.

Information on the most effective panel color could also contribute to show why a solar

cell may or may not want to be a specific color.

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Review of Literature

Solar energy is any form of electrical energy that is produced from the light and

heat emitted by the sun. At the current point in time, solar energy accounts for only 0.4%

of the total energy usage of the United States (Solar). This amount is absolutely dwarfed

by the amount of solar radiation that hits the earth. Current civilization needs about 18

Terawatts of power to fuel all of their needs. The Earths atmosphere is hit by

approximately 10,000 times that amount, with 174,000 Terawatts, and the total solar

energy absorbed by the Earth is approximately 3,850,000 EJ per year - an exajoule is equal

to one quintillion or 1018 joules (Rhodes). If only a small amount of this energy was

captured, the energy crisis could be averted entirely.

The dye-sensitized solar cells used in this experiment use conductive glass, a thin

layer of titanium dioxide paste, raspberry juice, and an iodine solution as an electrolyte.

The most commonly seen solar cells are silicon based, which differ from the ones used in

this experiment. The variety constructed in this experiment are likely to be much less

effective than silicon cells. For one thing, hand constructed cells are more likely to have

errors that would result in them producing less voltage. The titanium dioxide cells in this

experiment would have to be handmade, instead of produced by machine like most silicon

based cells. Although, solar cells cannot absorb all of the Suns energy, improving them

will allow to capture more solar energy than before.

There are two different processes that can allow for energy to be created from the

sun: thermal and photovoltaic. The thermal process relies on the sun heating water, which

then evaporates to spin a turbine which generates the energy. The photovoltaic (PV)
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process is the more common process solar panels use. PV solar cells convert solar energy

directly into direct current (DC) electricity. When the light energy from the Sun strikes the

solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material

(Knier).The raspberry dye within the cells is a photoactive material which can produce

electricity when it is sensitized by light. The dye catches photons of incoming ambient

light and uses their energy to excite the electrons spread throughout the dye. The PV cell

then pulls the electrons away from the first material and feeds them into a circuit. This

breaking away of electrons creates a potential difference in the circuit which allows for the

movement of current (shown below in Figure 1). Current is the flow of electrons through a

circuit.

(http://microlivingjohanna.blogspot.com/2010/11/swiss-scientists-develop-energy-saving.html)
Figure 1. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Figure 1 provides an illustration on how dye-sensitized solar cells produce

electricity. The dye absorbs the light, which in turns excites the electrons within the dye
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and energizes the electrons causing them to travel throughout the circuit formed within the

solar cell.

To comprehend how a circuit works, the concepts of electric current and electric

potential need to be understood. Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons

which is measured in amperes, the amount of charge that passes a point in a second

(Taylor). Electric potential, also known as voltage, is the work done per unit charge; it is

measured in volts, which is the amount of work done, measured in joules, divided by the

charge, in coulombs. These two components form the electric circuit generated by the PV

cell to convert the Suns rays into electrical DC current.

(http://www.pirate4x4.com/tech/billavista/Wiring/Part1/images/battery_circuit.jpg)
Figure 2. Flow of Electron Diagram

Figure 2 shows a diagram that illustrates how current operates in a simple circuit.

In the case of this experiment, the battery in the diagram would be replaced by a solar cell

and there would be a multimeter attached the circuit to measure the voltage. The electron

flow would be the same between a solar cell and a battery.

In this experiment, two factors are used to determine how to increase the efficiency

of solar cells: color of the cells and the angle of elevation of the cell. As observed by the
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human eye, light has various colors. These colors are determined by the wavelength that a

photon has. The wavelength is the distance between two peaks or two troughs of a wave.

The larger the wavelength is, or the more distance between peaks, the less energy is

contained by that photon. The color of light is also determined by wavelength. The visible

light spectrum, or what humans can physically see, is contained within the wavelengths of

400 to 700 nanometers (What Wavelength...). Four-hundred nanometers being violet

light, which is the highest energy light that humans can see. Photons can also go above and

below the visible spectrum. Light with a shorter wavelength than visible light is called

ultraviolet light, and has a wavelength range of about 380 to 10 nanometers. The color seen

by the human eye is actually the wavelength of light that is reflected off of an object. If an

object is red, it means that the object absorbs every other wavelength, and reflects back

only red light for your eye to see. Likewise, if an object is white, it reflects back all

wavelengths of visible light, and if it is black, it absorbs all visible light wavelengths.

Figure 3. Wavelengths of Colors

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Figure 3 illustrates the seven colors of the rainbow, along with the wavelength

associated with that color. As shown, red is the lowest energy color on the visible

spectrum, which also has the longest wavelength of 665 nm. Violet is the highest energy

visible color with the shortest wavelength of 400 nm (Colours of Light).

The next important factor in the amount of electricity that a PV cell generates is its

angle in relation to the sun. If a solar cell is laid completely flat under the sun, it would

make contact with the most light because the surface area for which the suns ray to hit is

large. For example, when solar panels are placed on roofs, the most cost-effective and

efficient way is to install solar panels parallel so that it would optimize surface area

(Markham). As the angle between the sun and the panel increases, the cell logically

generates less electricity as it comes into contact with less sunlight (Figure 2).

Figure 4. Energy Absorbed by Parallel Solar Panel vs. Angled Solar Panel

Figure 4 shows the energy absorbed by a parallel solar panel vs. an angled solar

panel. As shown, the Suns ray hit less of the surface area of the solar panel when the panel

is angled leading to less energy being captured.

After energy is collected by the solar cells, there needs to be a method for the

electricity to be stored. This storage method would be batteries. They are an integral part of
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a PV system, seeing as the system can no longer generate electricity once the sun leaves

the sky. PV panels must be able to charge batteries fast enough for them to have a suitable

charge by the time night strikes. Batteries are made up of three parts: the cathode, the

anode, and the electrolyte. The cathode and anode serve as the positive and negative ends

of the battery, while the electrolyte separates the two. The anode releases electrons, which

are transferred by the electrolyte to the cathode, which accepts them to complete the

circuit. Disposable batteries only operate until the chemical potential on both the cathode

and anode become equal, while rechargeable batteries allow for the process to be reversed.

With renewable energy already the main alternative to fossil fuels, solar energy has

been researched with to determine its efficiency but with different factors. An example is

an experiment done by student researchers from Ireland where they compared the

difference between normal solar cells and ruthenium-dye solar cells (Andrei et al.). The

researchers created their two different solar cells and placed them under a light energy

source and then took measurements on how much of a difference there was between

energy absorption. It was concluded that ruthenium (Ru) dye sensitized solar cells

increased current density by 16.18 percent and increased power efficiency up to 25.5

percent. This experiment is drastically different from the experiment conducted by Andrei

and associates due to the fact that Andreis experiment used only one variable with the

ruthenium dye factor while in the current one, colors are being used to dye the cells and

there is a factor of angle of elevation. Another example of an experiment about solar

energy was conducted by Sudhakar K. and Noopur Jain at the Maulana Azad National

Institute of Technology in India (Sudhakar et al). In this experiment, the solar cells were
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dyed different colors from red to green to blue and the data analyzed was in the form of the

efficiency of the panel based on the output of the light, and the amount that the solar panel

collected after the light passed through the colored filter. The results found that red light

generated the most electricity, followed by green, yellow, orange, violet, and blue, in that

order. This experiment was again different from the current research because it did not

have the factor of elevation, but it is very similar to some aspects. Both the current research

and Sudhakars research use dyed solar cells to determine how much of the solar energy is

truly being absorbed.

With the potential of an energy crisis soon to devastate the Earth, the switch from

fossil fuel energy to clean, renewable energy has to be made. Solar energy provides a

viable option due to the fact the planet is struck by the Suns rays ubiquitously. With such

an opportunity, efficiency of solar cells have to be increased, so that society and

civilization can take the next step forward.

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Problem Statement

Problem:

What set of panel colors and angle of elevation will generate the highest electric

potential difference in a custom-made solar cell?

Hypothesis:

The highest factor of panel color (violet) and the lowest degree angle of elevation

(0) will generate the highest electric potential.

Data Measured:

The independent variables in this experiment are the panel colors (red, clear, or

violet) and the angle of elevation of the solar cells (0, 30, or 60). The dependent

variable is the electric potential difference (voltage) produced by the solar cells measured

in volts. The low, standard, and high for the panel color are red, clear, and violet,

respectively. The low, standard, and high angles of elevation are 0, 30, and 60,

respectively. A two-factor design of experiment was appropriate for analysis of this

experiment because there were two independent variables being tested. This type of

statistical test allows the effects of the independent variables as well as any interaction

effects to be determined and analyzed. For each of the five runs, seven trials were

conducted: three standards, and four combination trials of low and high color panel and

angle of elevation.
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Experimental Design

Materials:

(6) Conductive glass slides (12) Small binder clips

(2) Alligator clips 100 mL Acetic acid
475 mL Ethyl alcohol 300 mL 7% Lugol's Iodine Solution
12 g Titanium dioxide 50 mL Raspberry juice (Appendix C)
Multimeter 60-watt lamp
Scotch tape Graphite Pencil
Electric hot plate 100 mL Red and violet acrylic paint
Paint brush

Procedure:

Solar cell construction

1. Take two equally-sized conductive glass slides and clean them thoroughly with
ethyl alcohol.

2. Test the plate faces for conductivity using the multimeter; place the plates side by
side conductive side down.

3. Select the correct color of paint for the cell. (red, violet, or no color)

4. Thin out 10 mL of acrylic paint with 20 mL nail polish remover.

5. Paint the thinned out paint onto a non-conductive side of one of the pieces of
glass. Ensure that the paint is still largely transparent.

6. Tape down the plates so that the slides will retain their position.

7. Mix 12 grams of titanium dioxide with 20 mL of acetic acid to make it into a

paste; ensure that the paste is of even consistency.

8. Apply the titanium dioxide paste on the plate allowing it to spread evenly over the
plate surface. Remove the tape and separate the plates.

9. Place the conductive side up plate on the electric hot plate set at 450
Fahrenheit for 30 minutes. Clean the titanium dioxide off the conductive side
down slide and place it aside.
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10. Prepare the raspberry juice to dye the titanium dioxide (Appendix C).

11. Soak the titanium dioxide coated plated, coated side down, in the dye for ten
minutes; take the titanium dioxide coated plate of the dye and rinse it.

12. Clean the other plate with the ethyl alcohol and retest the cleaned plate to find its
conductive side.

13. Use a pencil to create a carbon layer on the conductive side of the other
conductive plate.

14. Place the carbon coated plate onto the titanium dioxide plate so that the coatings
touch; use two binder clips to hold them in place.

15. Apply two drops of iodide solution at the ends of the offset glass panels; let the
solution soak through the plate coatings so they are covered completely; wipe off
any excess solution.

16. Repeat steps 1 - 15 to create other solar cells.

Setup

17. Position the solar cell directly under the lamp; correct the angle of elevation to
ensure it is the one needed for the trial.

18. Connect an alligator clip to the positive end of the solar cell; attach the other end
of that alligator clip to one end of the multimeter

19. Connect another alligator clip to the negative end of the solar cell; attach the other
end of that alligator clip to the other end of the multimeter

20. Set the multimeter to record voltage in milliVolts.

Measurement

21. Change the precision of the multimeter until the most digits of the voltage is
shown.

22. Turn on the lamp for one minute.

23. Record the voltage produced by the solar cell with the multimeter.

24. Repeat steps 16 through 23 for all remaining trials.

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Diagram:

Figure 5. Materials Used

Figure 5 shows the various materials used to construct the solar cells. Pictured is

the painted conductive glass slides, droppers, spoons, paint brush, titanium dioxide

powder, acetic acid, conductive slides, cups, acetone, rubbing alcohol, red and violet paint,

raspberry juice, and multimeter, among other things.

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Figure 6. Diagram of the Circuit

Figure 6 is a diagram that shows how this experiment will work. It details the main

solar cell that will be exposed to the sun or a lamp. The multimeter can be connected to

each of the ends of the battery to measure the voltage of the battery.
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Data and Observations

Table 1
Factors Used in Experiment
Panel Color Angle of Elevation ()
(-) Standard (+) (-) Standard (+)
Red Clear Violet 60 30 0

Table 1 shows the values of the two factors employed in the experiment. Different

combinations of panel color and angle of elevation were used to construct and test solar

cells to see which would produce the highest electric difference (voltage). The values for

panel color were red (low), clear (standard), and violet (high); the values for angle of

elevation were 60 (low), 30 (standard), and 0 (high).

Table 2
Voltage Produced in milliVolts
Angle of
Color Order DOE 1 Order DOE 2 Order DOE 3 Order DOE 4 Order DOE 5
Elevation
Standard 1 14.1 1 13.9 1 14.2 1 14.3 1 14.1
+ + 3 13.6 5 11.1 2 9.4 6 10.2 3 10.9
+ - 6 7.8 6 6.4 5 5.8 2 6.8 2 7.1
Standard 4 13.8 4 14 4 13.9 4 14.1 4 14.1
- + 5 9.6 3 8.2 6 8.1 5 8.7 5 9.4
- - 2 5.8 2 5.4 2 4.1 3 4.3 6 3.9
Standard 7 13.7 7 14 7 14.1 7 13.8 7 13.9

Table 2 shows the various data collected over the course of trials. There were a

total of 5 2-factor DOE statistical tests ran, which resulted in 35 data points being

collected. Of which, 15 were standard, and there were 5 of each level of the variables. The

order of the trials was randomized beforehand. Refer to Appendix A for information on the

process used to randomize the trials.

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Table 3
Experimental Observations
Trial Observation
A different brand of paint was used on the violet panel, which caused the paint
3 to be less even and more spotty. This may have caused discrepancies in the
data.
The first run of this trial initially gave a much higher potential than any other
6
trial, and was re-ran in order to obtain data more in-line with the other trials.
The first run of this trial initially gave a much lower potential than what was
1 expected of it. The trial was re-ran in order to obtain a data more in-line with
the rest.
The titanium dioxide paste for the cell for this trial was heavily cracked during
5 construction. This may have limited the electric potential produced by this
slide.
The first run of this trial initially gave a much lower potential than what was
2 expected of it. The trial was re-ran in order to obtain data more in-line with the
rest.

Table 3 shows the various observations made over the course of data collection.

Many of the observations were problems that occurred on the first run of trials, or

discrepancies with the construction of process of the cells that may have caused them to

give data different than what would be expected.

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Figure 7. Construction of Solar Cells

Figure 7 shows the complete construction of the solar cells used in the experiment.

A conductive glass panel is painted over with a thin layer of either red or violet paint.

Next, a titanium dioxide paste was applied to another piece of conductive glass, which was

then baked on a hot plate and allowed to cool down. The titanium paste glass panel is

placed within raspberry dye, which is washed off twenty minutes later. The color glass

panel is then placed on top of the other panel and is clipped together. Iodine is applied

between the cracks to activate the cell.

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Figure 8. Setup for a Trial

Figure 8 shows the setup that was used to run a trial. The solar cell is shown with

the two wires connecting it to the multimeter, which shows a corresponding voltage in

milliVolts. The cell is propped up at an angle measured to be the one needed for that trial.

The lamp is turned on after the trial has been properly set up, and a voltage is recorded.

The placement of the lamp remained the same throughout the entirety of the trials, and

external light was kept to an absolute minimum. The first image shows a cell using the

high value of angle of elevation, being 0. The second image depicts the low value of

angle of elevation, being 60.

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Data Analysis and Interpretation

The data collected during the experiment was quantitative: the electric potential

difference (voltage) produced by the solar cells measured in milliVolts. To ensure that the

data collected was reliable, the experiment followed the criteria of control, randomization,

and replication. In each trial, there were constants, such as the solar cells being placed

under the same lamp each time and each trial was conducted in a dark room to limit the

exposure to extra light; the only things substituted were the different panel colors and

angles of elevation. The standards in each of the factors, the clear glass pane and 30

elevation, are used as the controls to determine whether the factors had a significant effect.

The seven trials in each DOE were randomized (using the random integer function on the

calculator) to decide in what order the trials were to be performed (refer to Appendix A).

This randomization created homogeneous groups and potentially reduces bias or

judgement. In order to satisfy the need to replication, a total of five DOEs were ran. This

allowed for the conclusions drawn from the data to be more scientifically sound.

Additionally, replication removes the impact of lurking variables on any individual trial.

Since each trial was run just as the next was, any lurking variables (such as the

unnecessary light exposure and equipment malfunction) would have rendered themselves

negligible. The control allows to see if the treatment had an effect because lurking variable

will affect the control and treatment group equally.

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Table 4
Factors Used in Experiment
Panel Color Angle of Elevation ()

(-) Standard (+) (-) Standard (+)

Red Clear Violet 60 30 0

Table 4 shows the values of the two factors employed in the experiment. Different

combinations of panel color and angle of elevation were used to construct and test solar

cells to see which would produce the highest electric difference (voltage). The values for

panel color were red (low), clear (standard), and violet (high); the values for angle of

elevation were 60 (low), 30 (standard), and 0 (high).

Table 5
Averages for Five Runs
Runs
First Second Third Fourth Fifth
Panel Angle of Average
DOE DOE DOE DOE DOE
Color Elevation

(+) (+) 13.6 11.1 9.4 10.2 10.9 11.04

(+) (-) 7.8 6.4 5.8 6.8 7.1 6.78

(-) (+) 9.6 8.2 8.1 8.7 9.4 8.80

(-) (-) 5.8 5.4 4.1 4.3 3.9 4.70

Table 5 shows the electric difference produced in each trial (in milliVolts), in

addition to the average amount for each combination of panel color and angle of elevation.

The experimental grand average was found by averaging the four trial averages (standards

not included), which was 7.83 milliVolts.

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Standards (milliVolts)
14.1 13.9 14.2 14.3 14.1 13.8 14.0 13.9 14.1 14.1 13.7 14.0 14.1 13.8 13.9

Figure 9. Values of Standards

Figure 9 shows the values of the standards collected during the experiment. The

range of standards is 0.6, which means that the data collected is reliable and accurate.

Figure 10. Dot Plot of Standards

Figure 10 shows a graph of the standards data collected. Variability of the

standards (i.e., the range of standards) provides an indication of an experiments

consistency in design and execution. A range of standards equal to 0.6 milliVolts suggests

consistency in the experiment and thus reliability in the data collected. Although there

seems like there is an increasing or decreasing trend in the standards, the scale of the graph

has to be taken into consideration. The small range of standards further ensures their

accuracy.
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Double the range of standards is 1.2; this value will be used later when determining

whether variable effect values were statistically significant to the experiment (that is, less

than -1.2 or greater than 1.2).

Table 6
Effect of Panel Color
Panel Color

(Red) (Violet)

8.80 11.04

4.70 6.78

Average = 6.75 Average = 8.91

Figure 11. Effect of Panel Color

Table 6 and Figure 11 above show the effect of panel color. Subtracting the low

value (6.75) from the high value (8.91) resulted in about 2.16. This 2.16 value means that

as panel color was raised from its negative value to positive value, on average, the electric

potential difference (voltage) produced by the solar cells went up by 2.16 milliVolts. This

effect was significant to this experiment, since it was outside the bars set up at -1.2 and 1.2

(see Figure 14).

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Table 7
Effect of Angle of Elevation
Angle of Elevation

(60) (0)

6.78 11.04

4.7 8.8

Average = 5.74 Average = 9.92

Figure 12. Effect of Angle of Elevation

Table 7 and Figure 12 above show the effect of angle of elevation. Subtracting the

low value (5.74) from the high value (9.92) resulted in about 4.18. This 4.18 value means

that as voltage was raised from its negative value to positive value, on average, the electric

potential difference (voltage) produced by the solar cells went up by 4.18 milliVolts. This

effect was also statistically significant, as it was beyond the -1.2 and 1.2 parameters (see

Figure 14).

Table 8
Interaction Effect
Angle of
Elevation

(-) (+)

Solid (+)
6.78 11.04
Panel Segment
Color Dashed (-)
4.7 8.8
Segment
Figure 13. Interaction Effect of Panel
Color and Angle of Elevation
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Table 8 and Figure 13 above show the interaction of panel color and angle of

elevation. The solid segment represents the results when panel color was held high (violet),

and the dashed segment represents the results when molarity was held low (red).

It can be noted that the slopes of the solid and dashed segments are almost the same

or nearly parallel. This suggests there was little interaction, or that the effect value was not

statistically significant.

The overall interaction effect was found by subtracting the slope of the dashed

segment (2.05) from the slope of the solid segment (2.13). The interaction of panel color

and angle of elevation in this experiment was approximately 0.08. The 0.08 value means

that as both variables were raised, the electric potential produced by the solar cells went up

by 0.08 milliVolts. This statement was supported by the fact that the (+,+) trial averaged

11.04 milliVolts, while the (-,-) trial averaged only 4.70 milliVolts.

When panel color was held high on its own, an average of 8.91 milliVolts were

produced by the solar cells (see Table 6). The solid segment, which represents the

interaction of panel color and angle of elevation, is shown above. When angle of elevation

was held low, the value was 6.78; this value was lower than the 8.91 expected originally.

However, when angle of elevation was held high, the value was 11.04; this value was

higher than the expected 8.91 milliVolts.

Additionally, when angle of elevation was held high, an average of 9.92 milliVolts

was produced (see Table 7). When panel color was held low, the solar cells only produced

8.80 milliVolts, once again lower than the original 9.92 milliVolts. However, when panel

color was held high, this value went up to 11.04 milliVolts. Not only was this higher than
 Lawrence - Muralidharan 26

the average of 9.92, it was also the greatest average in the experiment. Angle of elevation,

when held low, consistently produced lowered voltage from the solar cells, and when held

high, increased voltage. This statement is representative of the 4.18 angle of elevation

effect value.

Figure 14. Dot Plot of Effects

Figure 14 shows the effects of each variable: panel color (PC), angle of elevation

(A), and their interaction (PC & A). To determine if a variable was statistically significant

to a given experiment, its effect value was compared to double the range of standards. In

this case, the range of standards was 0.6 (from 13.7 milliVolts to 14.3 milliVolts).

Doubling the range of standards yields 1.2, so any effect value outside the bars at -1.2 and

1.2 was deemed statistically significant. This experiments statistically significant factors

were the individual effects of panel color (2.16) and angle of elevation (4.18), meaning that

both variables played a significant role in the electric difference produced by the solar cells

in the trials conducted, but with the highest effect value, angle of elevation proved to be

more statistically important.

The effect of each variable and their interaction effect together can be used to

create a prediction equation. Reference Appendix B for the prediction equation that allows

for the data to be theoretically replicated based on this statistical test.

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Conclusion

The purpose of this experiment was to determine which combination of factors

panel color and angle of elevation would produce the greatest electric potential

difference (voltage) by a solar cell. A major aspect that leads to the production of voltage

by a solar cell is how light is absorbed through the cell, so the designs used, altered the

qualities of the cell to allow for a certain light and a certain quantity to be absorbed. In

order to analyze the data and determine the significant effects of this experiment, a

Two-Factor Design of Experiment (DOE) statistical analysis was conducted.

Based on the data collected over the course of this experiment and final analysis,

the hypothesis stating that the high factor of panel color (violet) and high factor of angle of

elevation (0) would produce the greatest electric potential difference (voltage), was

accepted. As a result of the statistical analysis, it found that the panel color and angle of

elevation were most effective (the effects of panel color and angle of elevation were both

calculated to be 2.16 and 4.18 mV, respectively, and both effects are higher than twice the

range of standards, which was calculated to be 0.6). Therefore, the hypothesis can be fully

accepted. As also seen from the raw data, the violet panel color and the 0 degree angle of

elevation yielded the strongest voltage, which was 11.04 millivolts, in all trials that

required the high values of each of those variables. Meanwhile, in all the trials that

required the low values of each variable, the red panel color and the 60 degree angle of

elevation, the solar cells yielded the lowest voltage, which was 4.70 millivolts. The

difference between the averages of the violet panel color placed at a 0 elevation and the

red panel color placed 60 elevation indicate a significance between the two variables.
 Lawrence - Muralidharan 28

The results of this experiment can be validated through scientific reasoning. The

first factor, the panel color, proved to be significant because different photons carry

different amounts of energy. On the visible light spectrum, the longer the wavelength, the

lower the frequency and energy the photon possesses. When red light is compared to violet

light, red has a longer wavelength and lower frequency. By painting the cells a certain

color, the front side of the glass acts as a filter on the light passing through it. When a light

is passed through a filter, everything except the filters original color is blocked allowing

for filters original color to pass through. For example, in the experiment, the colored panel

on the solar cell functions as a filter. The red-colored panel blocks out every other color

except red, while the violet-colored panel blocks out every other color except violet. As

stated before, different visible light photons possess different amounts of energy depending

on frequency. In the visible light spectrum, red has the lowest amount of energy, while

violet has the highest amount of energy. This made red the lowest factor and violet the

highest factor of the panel color variable in the experiment. Energy plays an integral role in

how dye-sensitized solar cells work. The raspberry dye within the cells is a photoactive

material which can produce electricity when it is sensitized by light. The dye catches

photons of incoming ambient light and uses their energy to excite the electrons spread

throughout the dye. The dye then transfers the excited electrons into the titanium dioxide

layer, which then travel through the electrical circuit formed within the solar cell by the

conductive panel, carbonized panel, and an electrolyte (such as potassium iodine in the

experiment) (illustrated below in Figure 15).

 Lawrence - Muralidharan 29

(http://gcell.com/wp-content/uploads/DSSC_cycle-300x283.jpg)

Figure 15. Electrical Circuit Within the Cell

Figure 15 illustrates how the electricity gets produced within a solar cell. The light

is absorbed by the dye, which in turns excites the electrons within the dye. The energized

electrons then travel through the circuit formed between the two conductive plates,

titanium dioxide, dye, and the graphite layer creating electricity.

With different types of visible light passing through the solar cell, different photon

energies are absorbed by the dye. In this experiment, the dye absorbed more energy from

the visible violet light than the red light leading to more excited and energized electrons

traveling through the circuit producing more electricity with the violet panel color.

The second factor, angle of elevation, also proved to be significant. An angle of

elevation perpendicular to the direction that the sunlight is coming from makes the most

difference because more light is able to hit something if it has a larger surface area.
 Lawrence - Muralidharan 30

Increasing the angle of elevation, to make it point away from the sun, decreases the width

of the panel that would come into contact with light. The more of the cell that is in contact

with sunlight, the higher the voltage of the cell should be. In the experiment, the highest

value of angle of elevation, 0, produced the most voltage. This idea is illustrated in Figure

16 below.

Figure 16. Angle of Elevation Illustration

Figure 16 is an illustration of how angle of elevation can impact the amount of

sunlight that hits a solar cell. The red light shows the horizontal length of the cell that

would be exposed to the sunlight. The cell perpendicular to the suns rays has the longest

horizontal area, while the 45 degree cell has a slightly shorter distance. The vertical cell

has a non-existent horizontal distance.

Though the experiment was valid, one work in the scientific field contradicted the

results. An experiment conducted by the Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology

 Lawrence - Muralidharan 31

found that a red filter over the solar panels increase the efficiency and the voltage produced

(Sudhakar et al). This experiment does not go in depth into why the solar panels were more

responsive to red light. However, the major difference between the two experiments is that

the current research dealt with photovoltaic solar cells, while Sudhakars research dealt

with solar thermal panels. Photovoltaic directly converts the suns light into electricity,

while solar thermal concentrates the light from the sun to create heat and that heat is used

to make electricity with a generator. This research and results could provide insightful

knowledge on how to efficiently produce voltage from photovoltaic solar cells. Solar

energy is a growing field, and contributions on how to expand and make it better and

always helpful.

The primary design weakness of this experiment was error when creating the cells.

During the construction of the cells, the titanium dioxide coating often cracked while it

was soaking in the raspberry juice. These cracks had the potential to impact the flow of

current through the cell, which would result in a lower measured voltage. It was found

during the construction of the cells that the titanium dioxide would crack less if it was left

to set for a few hours after cooking on the hot plate. Due to a tighter time table, the cells

could not be left to set for much longer than 12 hours. Leaving them to set for longer may

have resulted in them cracking less, making the results of the three cells more consistent

with each other. Another potential error in the construction of the cells was the amount of

time that the titanium dioxide was left to cook or left in the raspberry juice. The cells were

cooked for only an approximate amount of time, meaning that some of the cells may have

been cooked for longer or shorter periods of time. They may have also been left in the
 Lawrence - Muralidharan 32

raspberry juice for unequal amounts of time. While running the trials, the same light bulb

was used at the same distance in order to make each trial as alike as possible. Though the

method used to set the angle of elevation was less than exact, using a protractor to

approximately set the cell at the correct angle. Small differences in the angle may have

caused small variations in the data. It is unclear how much these construction and

procedural errors may have impacted the results, but they are important to note.

There are multiple ways that this research into solar cells could be expanded. First

off, future research could move away from testing with a single photovoltaic cell and

instead do more testing with a module or an array of photovoltaic cell. A module is just a

number of solar cells electrically connected to each other, while an array is a number of

modules connected together. Improving the electricity produced by modules and arrays

may be beneficial to orbiting satellites and space stations that rely on the Suns rays to

function. Another potential research topic, would be to investigate long-term storage

methods for the electricity collected from the solar cells. Because the cells would not be

able to generate electricity at night, a solar cell powered system would require a large-scale

storage method so the electricity supply remains reliable throughout the entire night. In

order to expand on this experiment in particular, a variety of other panel colors could be

used, as well as using silicon based photovoltaic cells instead of the titanium dioxide cells

used in this experiment. To go along with the research into angle of elevation, future

research could go into how to design the area surrounding the solar cell, such as using

more reflective materials to attempt to get more photons to hit the cell. Another possible

research that can stem from this includes the use of raspberry juice and how it affects the
 Lawrence - Muralidharan 33

voltage production of solar panels. All of these topics would potentially further the

knowledge in this field above what this experiment has put forward.

In summary, the hypothesis that the high value of panel color (violet), and the high

value of angle of elevation (0), would produce the highest voltage, was accepted.

Potential errors in the data could be attributed to errors made during the construction of the

cells, such as cracks in the titanium dioxide coating. The production of the cells would be

made much more standard across all cells, by letting the titanium dioxide set for longer and

timing out the construction more precisely. These production errors may or may not have

had a significant impact on the data collected, though it would be impossible to know their

effect for sure. For the time being, it can reasonably be assumed that the hypothesis for this

experiment is correct.
 Lawrence - Muralidharan 34

Acknowledgements

We are thankful for everyone that assisted and guided us over the course of this

research. One such person we would like to acknowledge is Mrs. Cybulski, for assisting us

with the formatting and for guiding us while we were writing the content of this paper. We

would also like to thank Mr. McMillan for helping us to understand the science behind our

experiment. We are also appreciative of Mr. Supal, who provided the room where we

conducted our testing. Lastly, we would like to thank Mrs. Hilliard for assisting us with the

construction of our solar cells, as well as providing crucial supplies.

 Lawrence - Muralidharan 35

Appendix A: Randomization of Trials

Materials:

TI-Nspire Calculator

Procedure:

1. Assign each trial an integer from one to n (n being the total number of

trials.)

2. In the Calculate tab on the calculator, press menu.

3. Scroll down to 5: Probability and press enter.

4. Scroll down to 4: Random and press enter.

5. Scroll down to 6: Seed and press enter.

6. Type in a seed. It can be any number you wish.

7. Repeat steps 3 and 4.

8. Scroll down to 2: Integer and press enter.

9. Type in one comma n (n is the number previously assigned to the

highest value) Ex.(1,5) The number that appears will be the first trial.

10. Repeat steps 7 through 9, assigning each trial to however many times it is

necessary to generate a number. If a number is repeated, ignore it and

continue.
 Lawrence - Muralidharan 36

Appendix B: Prediction Equation & Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Y = 7.83 + 1.08(PC) + 2.09(A) + 0.04(PC&A) + noise

Figure 17. Prediction Equation

Figure 17 shows the prediction equation. Using this equation, the voltage of a solar

cell could be theoretically calculated using the panel color and angle of elevation variables.

In the equation, PC is a variable for panel color, A is a variable for the angle of elevation,

and PC&A is a variable for the interaction effect of panel color and angle of elevation.

Noise is a non-numerical value that accounts for design flaws, human error, or other events

that could have affected data.

Y = 7.83 + 1.08(PC) + 2.09(A) + noise

Figure 18. Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 18 shows the parsimonious prediction equation. This equation included only

the grand average plus any statistically significant variables (those whose effect values are

outside -1.2 or 1.2). Both panel color and angle of elevation were included, but their effects

were halved in the equation.

Y = 7.83 + 1.08(1) + 2.09(1) + noise

Y = 11
Figure 19. Parsimonious Prediction Calculation

Figure 19 shows a prediction of 11 milliVolts. This would serve as a prediction for

when both the color panel variable (violet) and angle of elevation (0) are held high. The

average of the data collected for the (+, +) trials was 11.04, which is very close to the

predicted value of 11 milliVolts.

 Lawrence - Muralidharan 37

Appendix C: Making the Raspberry Juice

Materials:

12 oz Great Value Whole Red Raspberries

Juice Strainer
(2) Bowls
500 mL Water
Stove

Procedure:

1. Fill a bowl with 500mL water, and place the bowl on the stove.

2. Pour the raspberries into the water and let them boil.

3. Put the soft, cooked berries through your juice strainer, and use the other

bowl to capture the contents.

 Lawrence - Muralidharan 38

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