Past Papers

13 December 2016 14:00

http://qualifications.pearson.com/content/dam/pdf/GCSE/Science/2011/Exam%
20materials/5PH2H_01_que_20121108.pdf

http://qualifications.pearson.com/content/dam/pdf/GCSE/Science/2011/Exam%
20materials/5PH1F_01_que_20121108.pdf

http://qualifications.pearson.com/content/dam/pdf/GCSE/Science/2011/Exam%
20materials/5PH1H_01_que_20121108.pdf

Physics Page 1
Solids Liquids and Gases
Monday, December 12, 2016 6:17 PM

Properties of solids:

Fixed positions in orderly rows.

This means that solids cannot flow because the particles cannot move from place to
place like liquids and gases.
Solids cannot be compressed or squash because the particles are packed together and
have no space to move into.

Liquids:

Liquids can take the shape of their container because the particles can move around each
other.
Liquids cannot be compressed or squashed because the particles are packed together
and have no space to move into.

Gases:

Gases flow and completely fill their container because the particles can move quickly in
all directions.
Gases can be compressed and squashed because there is plenty of space for the particles
to move into.

Kelvin Scale

-273 degrees = 0 Kelvin. (Absolute 0)

To work out kelvin from Celcius = C-273=K

Physics Page 2
Density and Pressure
Monday, December 12, 2016 8:20 PM

Density

Density is a measure of how "packed" a substance is. It tells us how much mass there is per unit
volume.

Experiment to determine Density

Place marble on a scale and record its mass. Get a measuring cylinder and fill it with ie. 90 ml of
water.
Place marble is in water. Subtract the original mass from new for volume. Use equation to find out
density.
Density (kg/m3)= mass ( in kilograms)/volume ( in M2)
1g/cm=1000kg/m
21 Cm= 21*10-2m
21 Cm2=21* 10-4m2
21 Cm3=21*10-6m3

Pressure

Pressure (in N/m2)= Force ( in Newtons)/ area (in m2)

Hydraulics:

The force stays the same as it passes from Area 1 (left) to Area 2 (on right)

Pressure in Liquids and Gases

Pressure in liquids act equally in all directions as long as the liquid is not moving. This is the same for
gases. The pressure in air is a staggering 100000Pa, but since the pressure inside our bodies are
similar, we dont feel the pressure. The pressure in air is also referred to as 1.0 atmosphere.

To calculate pressure in liquids use the following equation:

Physics Page 3
Pressure (in Pa) = Height/Depth (in m) x Density (in kg/m3) x Gravitational Field Strength (in N/kg)
Or p = hdg Note that g is usually 10N/kgv

Example: Justin Biebers (oh my god!) swimming pool has a depth of 3m. What is the total pressure
of the swimming pool? Take the gravitational field strength to be 10N/kg and the density of water to
be 1kg/m3 (ignore the swimming pool being chlorinated cause JBs swimming pool is always clean
anyways).

p = hdg (the actual equation is p=hpg, but Im not bothered finding that special p for density)
p = 3m x 1kg/m3 x 10N/kg
p = 30Pa

The Brownian Motion

Brownian Motion: The continual random movement of microscopic particles. When particles collide
into one another, this causes a change in speed and direction of the particles, making them
randomly move about.

Boyles Law

This is all summarized into the following equation:

Pressure1 x Volume1 = Pressure2 x Volume2

Or p1V1 = p2V2

Example: Atmospheric pressure is 100kPa. Some air in a sealed container has a volume of 2m3 at
atmospheric pressure. What would be the pressure of the air if you reduced its volume to 0.2m3?

100kPa = 100000Pa
P1V1 = p2V2
100000Pa x 2m3 = p2 x 0.2m3
200000 = 0.2p2
P2 = 1000000Pa
= 1000kPa

And in words

Boyles Law: At a constant temperature and with a fixed mass of gas, pressure is inversely
proportional to volume.

Question: How does a gas exert a pressure on the walls of its container?

Billions of tiny air particles move about in continual random motion. Particle collisions with the walls
of the container exerts a force, which gets distributed over the area of the wall of the container,
hence, exerting a pressure.

Physics Page 4
Pressure Law

Temperature also has an effect on the pressure of a gas. This is shown in an experiment set up on
the right. When water is heated gradually, the air is also heated, changing the reading on the
pressure gauge. Plot down the results and youd get a graph that looks something like this.

Wait a minuteshouldnt the pressure be at zero pascals? No. This is because pressure is NOT
proportional to temperate in Celsius. But what happens if you continue cooling the gas? Youd find
that when pressure is zero, the temperate would be at -2730C. This temperate is known as absolute
zero. When converted to kelvins (another type of measurement for temperature), absolute zero is
zero kelvins. But back to the point, what would happen if you converted the temperatures into
kelvins?

Converting between Kelvins and Celsius

Kelvins = Celsius + 273

Celsius = Kelvins 273

If you convert the temperatures into kelvins, this is what happens:

There is a positive correlation! This shows that pressure of gas is proportional to temperature in
Kelvin. This leads into the Pressure Law equation: (Note that temperatures must be in Kelvin)

Physics Page 5
Kelvin. This leads into the Pressure Law equation: (Note that temperatures must be in Kelvin)

Pressure1/Temperature1 = Pressure1/Temperature1
Or p1/T1 = p2/T2

Example: You take an empty tin and put the lid on tightly. You heat it using a Bunsen burner until the
temperature of the air inside is 500C. What is the pressure of the air inside the tin? The temperature
of the room is 200C and atmospheric pressure is 100kPa.

We must first convert the temperature in Kelvin, so:

T1 = 20 + 273 = 293K (This is the temperature OUTSIDE the tin)

T2 = 50 + 273 = 323K (This is the temperature INSIDE the tin)
p1/T1 = p2/T2
100kPa/293K = p2/323K
p2 = 110kPa

Now to summarise the Pressure Law:

Pressure Law: With a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume, pressure is proportional to
temperature (in Kelvins).

How to Calculate Change in Pressure:

Physics Page 6
Forces and Motion
05 January 2017 21:32

Physics Page 7
Speed and Velocity Time Graphs
18 December 2016 17:59

Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Speed

To calculate speed:

Speed (m/s) = Total Distance Moved / Time Taken

V = d/t

Understanding Distance-Time Graphs

The gradient of the line tells us the speed of the car. The steeper, the faster. Any curve shows
acceleration on a distance-time graph. A straight line means a steady speed. A horizontal line means
stationary. If the Line is positive, the object is travelling away from where it started. If the line is
negative, it is going back to where it started.

Physics Page 8
negative, it is going back to where it started.

Whats the difference between speed and velocity? Velocity is speed at a particular direction.

Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate at which objects change their velocity. To calculate acceleration:

Acceleration (m/s2) = (Final velocity Initial Velocity) / Time Taken

A = (V-U)/t

Velocity-Time Graphs

The steeper the gradient, the greater the acceleration / deceleration.

A horizontal line means the object is travelling at a steady speed.

The area under the line on a speed-time graph represents the distance travelled.

Physics Page 9
For the first four seconds: x 4 x 8 = 16m

For the next six seconds: 6 x 8 = 48m

Total Distance Travelled = 16 + 48 = 64m

Physics Page 10
Forces and Motion
Monday, December 12, 2016 6:19 PM

Force, Mass, and Acceleration

A stationary object will remain stationary if the sum of the different forces acting on it is 0.
However, if the object is already moving, it will remain at a constant speed, and keep going in the
same direction.

Factors that affect resultant force:

Size of Force

An object will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. The bigger the force, the greater the
acceleration.
Doubling the size of the (resultant) force doubles the acceleration.
Mass of Object
An object will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. A force on a large mass will
accelerate it less than the same force on a smaller mass.
Doubling the mass halves the acceleration.

resultant force (newton, N) = mass (kg) acceleration (m/s2)

Definitions:

1. Air resistance - drag

When an object moves through the air, the force of air resistance acts in the opposite
direction to the motion. Air resistance depends on the shape of the object and its speed.
2. Contact force
This happens when two objects are pushed together. They exert equal and opposite
forces on each other. The contact force from the ground pushes up on your feet even as
you stand still. This is the force you feel in your feet. You feel the ground pushing back
against your weight pushing down.
3. Friction
This is the force that resists movement between two surfaces which are in contact.
4. Gravity
This is the force that pulls objects towards the Earth. We call the force of gravity on an
object its weight. The Earth pulls with a force of about 10 newtons on every kilogram of
mass.

Physics Page 11
The Three Laws of Motion
18 December 2016 20:57

Newtons Laws of Motion

Newtons 1st Law: If the forces on an object is balanced there is no resultant force the object will
either remain at rest or carry on moving at constant speed in a straight line. If the forces on an
object is unbalanced, the object will accelerate.

Newtons 2nd Law: Resultant force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s2) or F = ma

Newtons 3rd Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Terminal Velocity

An object moving through the air experiences air resistance or drag. The size of this depends on the
objects shape and speed. Objects falling through the air experiences two significant forces: weight
and drag.

When an object has just been released, there is a starting velocity of 0m/s. This means there is no
drag. The resulting downward acting force is just the weight force of the Earth.

When it starts moving, it has a drag force acting against it, m. As the object is accelerating, it is
getting faster. The faster the object moves, the bigger the drag force is.

The object then reaches a point where the drag force exactly balances the weight force. Acceleration
is now at zero and the falling object is moving a constant speed. The object has reached terminal
velocity.

When a skydiver jumps off the plane, she will accelerate until she reaches terminal velocity. When
her parachute opens, it will cause a sudden increase in drag force. This means that there will be an
unbalanced force acting upwards, causing her to decelerate. As she slows down, the drag force
decreases and a new terminal velocity is reached.

Or she simply forgets her parachute and dies

Physics Page 12
Stopping and Thinking Distance
18 December 2016 21:15

Thinking Distance and Braking Distance

Thinking distance is the time taken for the driver to respond or react. This can be increased if the
driver is tired, under the influence of alcohol/drugs or there is poor visibility.

Braking distance is the distance taken for the vehicle to decelerate to rest after the driver has hit the
brakes. This can be increased if the road is slippery or the tyres are screwed up.

Vehicles with a larger mass will have smaller rates of deceleration as you can see in F = ma.

Rearranging the equation gives a = F/m. If the braking force of two cars, one that weighs 1000kg and
one that weighs 1500kg for example, then the car with the bigger mass will come to rest at a longer
time than the other car.

Similarly if a car is breaking from higher velocity, it takes longer to stop.

Physics Page 13
Momentum
18 December 2016 21:17

Momentum

Momentum is quantity possessed by masses in motion. In other words, it is a measure of how

difficult it is to stop something that is moving. We can calculate it using the formula:

Momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s)

p=mxv

Remember momentum is a vector quantity.

Also, the rate of increase of momentum is proportional to the force applied. This leads us to:

Force = change in momentum/time taken

F = (mv mu)/t

Momentum is also conserved, therefore:

Momentum before the collision = Momentum after the collision

Collisions with no kinetic energy lost are called elastic collisions. These are usually collisions between
gas molecules (they continue moving in a container and does not end up in a pile at the bottom).

When a ball bounces off the ground, the collision is partially elastic the ball rebounds, regaining its
original shape, but loses some of its kinetic energy.

When two objects collide and stick together, the collision is inelastic.

Example:

A railway truck with a mass of 5000kg rolling at 3m/s collides with a stationary truck of 10000kg
(note that a stationary truck is 0m/s). At what speed do they move after the collision?

We have to take both momentums into consideration. If we picturise this somehow, when the trucks
collide, both trucks will move in the same direction as the moving truck, however, theyd move at a
slower speed because the crash has caused a loss in momentum of the moving truck. This
momentum is conserved however, when both trucks move the same direction they just do it a
different speed. Confusing I know.
5000kg
3m/s
10000kg
0m/s

Anyways we have to consider both momentums (the blue truck has a momentum of 10000 x 0 = 0 kg
m/s. It has no momentum. It doesnt need to be stopped because it is already stopped).

To get the point:

Momentum of Red Truck + Momentum of Blue Truck = Momentum of Both Trucks Moving Together
After Colliding
*Note: Conservation of momentum remember?

Therefore,

Physics Page 14
Therefore,

5000kg x 3m/s + 10000kg x 0m/s = (5000kg + 10000kg) x v

So v = 15000 kg m/s divided by 15000 kg = 1 m/s

So both trucks will move 1 m/s right

Remember you have to consider both speeds.

Car Safety

Cars are designed to have crumple zones, which collapse during a collision and increase the time
during which the car is decelerating, decreasing the force.

Example:

A car travelling at 20 m/s collides with a stationary lorry and is brought to rest in just 0.02s. A
woman in the car has a mass of 50 kg. What force does the woman experience?

Remember a stationary lorry has a momentum of 0 kg m/s.

Force = change in momentum/time taken

= (50 kg x 20 m/s 50 kg x 0)/0.02
= 50000N

Using the same example, if the car was to have a crumple zone and the deceleration time (time
taken) is increased from 0.02s to 1s, the impact causes a much smaller force of just 1000N to act on
the passage, greatly increasing the chances of survival.

Physics Page 15
Hooke's Law
17 December 2016 12:43

Hooke's Law Says that Extension is Proportional to Force.

1. The length of an upstretched metal wire is supported at the top and then a weight attached to
the bottom, it stretches. The weight pulls down with force F, producing an equal and opposite
force at the support.
2. This will also happen to helical springs and any object that will stretch without immediately
snapping or deforming.
3. Robert Hooke discovered in 1676 that the extension of a stretched wire is proportional to the
load, or force. This relationship is now called Hooke's law.
4. A metal spring (or any other object) will also obey Hooke's law if a pair of opposites forces are
applied

You can investigate Hooke's Law with a Spring.

1. Set up the apparatus as shown to the right. Make sure you have plenty of extra masses, and
measure the weight of each (with a balance).
2. Measure the length of the spring (e.g. with an accurate mm ruler) when no load is applied.
Ensure the ruler is vertical (e.g. with a set square) and measure the spring at eye level. (This is
the springs natural length)
3. Add one mass at a time and allow the spring to come to rest, then measure the new length of
the spring. The extension is the change in length from the original length. Adding a marker to
the top and bottom of the spring might make measuring lengths easier. Repeat this process
until you have enough measurements.
4. Once you're done, repeat the experiment and calculate an average value for the length of the
spring for each applied weight. This will make your results more reliable.

Hooke's law Stops Working when the Force is Great Enough.

1. There is a limit to the force you can apply for hookes law to stay true. The graph shows force
against extension for a typical metal wire.
2. The first part of the graph shows Hooke's law being obeyed - there is a straight line
relationship between force and extension.
3. When the force becomes great enough, the graph starts to curve. The point marked E on the
graph is called the elastic limit.
4. If you increase the force past the elastic limit, the material will be permanently stretched.
When all the force is removed, the material will be longer than at the started.
5. Some materials, like rubber, only obey Hooke's law for really small extensions.

A Material Can Return to its Original Shape After an Elastic Deformation.

1. If a material returns to its original shape once the forces are removed, it displays elastic
behaviour.

Physics Page 16
Turning Forces and Centre of Gravity
14 December 2016 17:58

A moment is the turning effect of a force

Formula is: Moment = Force * perpendicular distance between line of action and pivot.

1. The force on the spanner causes a turning effect or moment on the nut. A larger force means a
larger moment.
2. Using a longer spanner, the same force can exert a larger moment, because the distance from
the pivot is greater.
3. To get the maximum moment, you need to push at right angles (perpendicular) to the spanner.
4. Pushing at any other angle means a smaller moment because the perpendicular distance
between the line of action and the pivot is smaller.

The centre of gravity hangs directly below the point of suspension.

1. You can think of the centre of gravity of an object as the point through which the weight of a
body acts.
2. A freely suspended object will swing until its centre of gravity is vertically below the point of
suspension.
3. This means you can find the centre of gravity from any flat shape like this:
a. Suspend the shape and a plumb line from the same point, and wait until they stop moving.
b. Draw a line along the plumb line.
c. Do the same thing again, but suspend the shape from a different pivot point.
d. The centre of gravity is where your two lines cross.
4. But you dont need to go to all that trouble for simple shapes. You can quickly guess where the
centre of gravity is by looking at the lines of symmetry.

Physics Page 17
Principle of Moments
14 December 2016 18:06

The principle of moments is: if an object is balanced then: Total anticlockwise moments = total clockwise moments.
(example 1) page 13
Forces are not always equal across all supports.

1. If a light rod is being supported at both ends, the upwards force provided by each supported won't always be the
same.
2. If a heavy object is placed on the rod, the support closest to the object will provide a larger force.

(Example 2)

If the moments are not equal:

If the total anticlockwise moments do not equal the total clockwise moments, there will be a resultant moment, so the
object will turn.

Physics Page 18
Energy
Monday, December 12, 2016 6:19 PM

There are many different energy forms:

Kinetic The energy in moving objects

Heat - energy felt as heat
Gravitational Potential Energy Energy stored in raised objects
Light - energy seen as light
Sound Energy released by vibrating objects
Chemical Stored energy in food, fuel and batteries
Elastic Potential Stored energy in stretched and squashed objects
Electrical Energy in moving charges or static electrical charges
Internal Energy
Strain Energy
Nuclear Energy Energy stored in the nuclei of atoms

Energy can be transferred from one form to another, but energy is never lost!

For example, in a light, electrical energy is transferred to light energy, and some energy is lost as
heat. The amount of heat lost determines the efficiency of the light. We can show this using a
Sankey diagram.

Sankey Diagrams and Calculating Efficiency

Here is an example of a Sankey diagram for an electric bulb:

As you can see, only 10J of energy is actually coming out as light energy, and therefore this lamp is
very inefficient. In Sankey diagrams, the useful energy always comes out the top and the waste
energy is shown coming out the bottom.
Calculating Efficiency from Sankey Diagrams:

Efficiency = Useful Energy Output/Total Energy Input * 100

Efficiency is always expressed as a percentage.

Physics Page 19
Energy Transfer
18 December 2016 17:50

Energy Transfer

Energy transfer may take place by:

Conduction

Transfer of thermal energy through a substance without the substance itself moving. Metals are
good thermal conductors. Something like plastic is not, and therefore, it is a good insulator.
Conduction is carried out when particles transfer their energy to other particles. These gain energy
and then pass it on to other particles, and so on. In thermal conductors, there are free electrons that
can move easily through the structure of the conductor to speed the energy transfer.

Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward movement of
warmer, less dense regions of fluid. Hot air tends to rise and cool air tends to fall. This is because
cool air is denser as the particles are less spread out. ACs and heaters are therefore, positioned
differently. The AC is positioned near the ceiling, so cool air that comes out of it will fall, whereas,
heaters are placed on the floor so hot air can rise from it. In cooking ovens, a heating element is
placed at the bottom of the oven. It heats the nearby air, which makes it rise. Woolen clothing trap
air, which forms an insulating layer to prevent heat loss. Convection can be seen by placing
potassium manganate (VII) into a beaker of water on a Bunsen burner. The hotter water expands
and floats up to the beaker. Colder water sinks to take its place and gets heated too. Meanwhile the
hot air starts to cool and sink. This makes a circulating current, called convection current.

Radiation
Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infra-red (IR) waves. IR waves travel in a straight line,
and are used in special cameras and other devices. It can travel through a vacuum. We receive heat
from the Sun through radiation.

IR waves can be reflected and absorbed by different materials. Shiny surfaces are good reflectors.
Dark surfaces are poor reflectors, but good absorbers of heat radiation.

Physics Page 20
House Insulation

Heat can be lost through walls by conduction. Conduction is the main way heat is lost in a house.
Heat however, can be lost through convection in the roof.

Below are ways to reduce energy transfers.

Ways to Reduce Heat Transfer in a House

Walls

The picture on the right shows cavity wall insulation. The outer layer is made with bricks which

Physics Page 21
The picture on the right shows cavity wall insulation. The outer layer is made with bricks which
have good insulating properties, are strong and have good weathering properties. The inner layer is
built with thermal bricks which have very good insulation properties. They are also light, relatively
cheap and quick to work with. In the middle, there is an air cavity, which uses air as an insulator.
However, air can still be lost through convection, therefore, glass fibre matting or foam can be
injected into the air cavity to trap air. The panels are usually surfaced with aluminium foil to reflect
IR waves.

Double Glazing

This is a typical double glazed window. Glass is a poor conductor. Two layers of glass are used to trap
a layer of air for insulation. Some double glazing uses a special glass to increase the greenhouse
effect (heat radiation from the Sun can get in but radiation from inside the house is mainly reflected
back again).

Loft Insulation

Physics Page 22
 Roof insulation in modern houses uses similar panels to those used in the wall cavities, trapping a
thick layer of air. This takes advantage of the poor conducting property of air, whilst also preventing
convection currents circulating. Again, reflective foil is used to reduce radiation heat loss.

Other Ways to Reduce Energy Transfer

Reduction or elimination of draughts from poorly fitting doors and windows.

Curtains to reflect/absorb heat.
Carpets to prevent loss of heat through the floor.

In Humans and Animals

Fire fighters use protective clothing to reduce the amount of heat getting to their bodies.
Clothes trap air around the body to provide insulation.
Hats are the human equivalent of loft insulation.
Marathon runners or people suffering from hypothermia are wrapped in thin, highly reflective
blankets.
Birds fluff up their feathers to trap air.
Some huddle together for warmth.
Other animals curl into small balls this minimizes the exposed surface area.

Physics Page 23
Energy Resources
18 December 2016 17:55

Energy Resources and Electricity Generation

Wind Wind is caused by huge convection currents in the Earth's KE Electrical

atmosphere, driven by heat energy from the Sun. The moving air Energy
has huge amounts of kinetic energy, and this can be transferred
into electrical energy using wind turbines. Advantages:
Renewable
Disadvantages:
Noisy, ugly, wind
level varies
Waves Wave machines use the up and down movement of waves to turn KE Electrical
electricity generators. Energy

Advantages:
Renewable
Disadvantages:
Difficult to
build/expensive
Tides Tidal barrages are built across the mouths of rivers. As water KE Electrical
moves in or out of the river mouth when the tide turns, the kinetic Energy
energy in the water is used to turn electricity generators.
Advantages:
Renewable
Disadvantages:
Expensive, harm
wildlife
Water Hydroelectric power (HEP) schemes store water high up in dams. GPE KE
The water has gravitational potential energy. As the water rushes Electrical Energy
down through pipes, this GPE is transferred to kinetic energy,
which turns electricity generators. Advantages:
Renewable
Disadvantages:
Ugly, disrupt
wildlife, expensive
Geother In some places the rocks underground are hot. Deep wells can be Thermal Energy
m-mal drilled and cold water pumped down to be heated by the rocks. It KE Electrical
returns to the surface as hot water and steam, where its energy Energy
can be used to drive turbines and electricity generators
Advantages:
Renewable
Disadvantages:
Deep drilling is
difficult
Solar Solar panels do not generate electricity. Instead they heat up Thermal Energy
Heating water directly. A pump pushes cold water from a storage tank Electrical Energy
through pipes in the solar panel. The water is heated by heat
energy from the Sun and returns to the tank. Advantages:
Renewable, quick
Disadvantages:
Suns heat energy

Physics Page 24
 Suns heat energy
varies
Solar Solar cells are devices that convert light energy directly into Light Energy
Cells electrical energy. You may have seen small solar cells on Electrical Energy
calculators. Larger arrays of solar cells are used to power road
signs, and even larger arrays are used to power satellites in orbit Advantages:
around Earth. Renewable
Disadvantages:
Sunshine varies,
expensive, not very
efficient
Fossil Coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels. Chemical energy Chemical Energy
Fuels from dead remains is stored within these. The energy is Heat Energy
transferred to thermal energy and light energy when the fuels Electrical Energy
burn.
Advantages:
Efficient
Disadvantages:
Scarce, causes
pollution
Nuclear The heat from the chain reaction caused by the radioactive decay Thermal Energy
Power of unstable uranium-236 nuclei is used to boil water, which KE Electrical
produces steam that turns turbines. Energy

Advantages:
Efficient
Disadvantages:
Highly dangerous,
U-236 is scarce
Biomass Biomass fuels come from living things such as wood. Chemical Chemical Energy
energy stored in these are burned to release heat energy which Heat Energy
heats up water into steam. The steam is then used to turn turbines Electrical Energy
which generate electricity.
Advantages:
Renewable
Disadvantages:
Huge areas of land
are needed

Physics Page 25
Work
18 December 2016 17:54

Work

Work done is equal to energy transferred (because energy is the ability to do work). To calculate
work:

Work Done (joules) = Force (newtons) x Distance (metres)

W=FxD

Example: A weightlifter raises an object that weights 500N through a distance of 2m. Calculate the
work done:

W=FxD
= 500N x 2m
= 1000J

Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed because of its position. It increases with
height, if the mass and gravitational field is constant. If an object is raised above the ground, it gains
GPE. Once it is dropped, the GPE turns into kinetic energy. When the object reaches the ground, all
the KE is turned into heat, sound and other forms of energy. To calculate GPE:

Change in GPE (joules) = Mass (kg) x Gravitational Field Strength (N/kg) x Height (m)
GPE = m g h

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is movement energy. To calculate kinetic energy:

KE (joules) = x mass (kg) x velocity2 (m/s)

KE = mv2

*Note: work done = gain in GPE = gain in KE

Power

Power is the rate of transfer or energy or work. To calculate power:

Power (watts) = Work Done (joules) / Time Taken (seconds)

P = W/t

Physics Page 26
 Waves
Monday, December 12, 2016 6:18 PM

Waves can be described by their amplitude, wavelength and frequency. Normal = At the point of incidence
The speed of a wave can be calculated from its frequency and wavelength. where the ray strikes the mirror, a
line can be drawn perpendicular
to the surface of the mirror. This
Waves are vibrations that transfer energy from place to place without matter (solid, liquid or line is known as a normal line
gas) being transferred. The normal line divides the
angle between the incident ray
Some waves must travel through a substance. and the reflected ray into two
The substance is known as the medium and it can be solid, liquid or gas. equal angles.
Sound waves and seismic waves are like this. They must travel through a medium, and it is the
medium that vibrates as the waves travel through. From <https://www.google.co.uk/search?
A medium slows the wave down due to the change in density, so it bends towards the normal. q=normal+in+physics&oq=normal+in+phy
sics&aqs=chrome..69i57j0l5.3708j0j7
As the wave exits the medium, the decrease in density means the wave speeds up and bends away &sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8>
from the normal again.

Transverse and Longitudinal meaning:

Transverse waves transmit energy perpendicular to the direction of the wave. - example=sound waves
Longitudinal waves transmit energy along the direction of the wave. Example=EM waves

Physics Page 27
Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction
18 December 2016 18:33

Reflection

When waves strike a straight or flat barrier:

Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

Note that the red line is called the normal line.

When waves strike a concave barrier, they converge.

When waves strike a convex barrier, they diverge.

Refraction

Refraction is the change in direction when waves enter a medium. The length of the waves is altered
but the frequency isnt. When waves hit shallow water, theyll slow down and bend towards the
normal. When the waves leave the shallow water, it will bend away from the normal. This is due to
the change in density in the different mediums. (air is less dense than water)

Physics Page 28
Diffraction

If a barrier with a large gap is placed in the path of waves, the majority of the waves passing through
the gap continue in a straight line. There are regions to the left and right of the gap where there are
no waves. If the size of the gap is adjusted so that it is equal to the wavelength of the water waves,
they will diffract. Diffraction can also happen when waves pass a single edge. Examples of this
include radio waves that are diffracted as they pass over hills.

Physics Page 29
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
18 December 2016 18:35

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum of waves. At one end of the spectrum, the waves have
very long wavelengths. At the other end, the waves have very short wavelengths. All the waves have similar
properties:

They all transfer energy

They are all transverse waves
They all travel at the speed of light in vacuum (300 000 000m/s)
They can all be reflected, refracted and diffracted

Below is a picture that shows the order of the EM spectrum in decreasing wavelength and increasing
frequency. Learn them all (except for the actual wavelengths and frequencies).

*Frequency is Inversely Proportional to

Wavelength

Lowest Frequency (Largest Wavelength)

Wave Uses Dangers of Excessive Exposure

Radio Broadcasting and Communication This includes None
Waves television, telephone conversations, radio
broadcasts
Microwav Heating food and satellite communication Can directly heat internal body tissue
es serious damage can occur before pain is felt Increasing Frequency
Infrared Heating devices and night vision cameras Readily absorbed by skin and can cause skin
burns
Visible Used by us to see things, in photography and None
Light optical fibres
Ultraviole Used in fluorescent lamps and sterilizing water Causes skin to tan. Overexposure will lead to
t sunburn, blistering, skin cancer and
blindness
X-rays Observing internal structure of objects and Cell mutation and cancer
materials and medical applications
Gamma Sterilising food and equipment as well as treat Cell mutation and cancer
Rays certain types of cancer
Highest Frequency (Smallest Wavelength)

Physics Page 30
 Light and Refraction of Light
18 December 2016 18:36

Light

Light is a transverse wave that can be reflected, refracted and diffracted. When it strikes a flat
mirror/surface, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

The image seen in a mirror is called a virtual image. There are no rays of light actually coming from
the place where the image seems to be (inside the mirror). It cannot be reproduced on screen. Its
simply a misinterpretation of the brain. The opposite of this is a real image. The image produced in a
mirror is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. It is also laterally
inverted. This means when you raise your left hand, your mirror image raises his right hand.

To summarise:

The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front

The image is the same size as the object
The image is virtual
The image is laterally inverted

Refraction of Light

In vacuum, light travels at around 300 000 000m/s. However, when it enters a new medium such as
water, it travels more slowly and may cause a change in direction. This change in direction is called
refraction.

When white light passes through a prism, it emerges as a band of colours called a spectrum. Its
formed because white light is a mixture of colours and each colour travels through the prism at a
slightly different speed, so each colour is refracted by a different angle. The prism has a refractive
index for each colour and as a result, each colour emerges from the prism travelling at a slightly
different direction. This is called dispersion.

Physics Page 31
 Refractive Index
18 December 2016 18:37

Refractive Index

The refractive index (n) is a constant that determines the amount of refraction in a material. Its
formula is:

n = sin i / sin r r= angle of refractions and I = angle of incidence

The RF is simply a ratio between the sine of i and the sine of r, so there is no unit.

Finding the RF of a Glass Block

1. Set up a ray box and shine light into rectangular glass block.
2. Measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
3. Repeat step 2 a few times.
4. Use the formula to work out the refractive index (use degrees, not radians).

n=sin/sinr

Physics Page 32
Total Internal Reflection
18 December 2016 18:38

Total Internal Reflection

When a ray of light passes from an optically more dense medium into an optically less dense
medium such as from glass to air, the majority of the light is refracted away from the normal.
However, there is a small amount that is reflected from the boundary. Total internal reflection
occurs when all light is reflected from the boundary.

When the incidence ray is at an angle where the refracted ray is 900 to the normal, it is called the
critical angle. It is the angle at which anything bigger, and total internal reflection will occur. Its
formula:

n = 1/ sin c

Optical Fibres

The fibres are very narrow, so light entering the inner core always strikes the boundary of the two
glasses at an angle greater than the critical angle. Bundles of fibres carry sufficient light for images of
objects to be seen through them. Optical fibres are used in endoscopes to see inside the body. It
illuminates the object to be viewed.

Physics Page 33
The Prismatic Periscope

Unlike normal periscopes (which use plane mirrors to reflect light), prismatic periscopes use glass
prisms. Light strikes the prism at an angle greater than the critical angle for glass. The light then gets
totally internally reflected twice before emerging parallel to the direction in which it was originally
travelling.

The final image created is sharper and brighter than those produced by a plane mirror periscope. As
well as that, no multiple images will be created.

Physics Page 34
 Sound
18 December 2016 20:56

Sound Waves

Sound waves are longitudinal waves that travel through gases, liquids and solids. They travel slower
in air, at around 340m/s and faster in solids. Sound waves cannot travel in vacuum. Sound waves can
be reflected, refracted and diffracted.

Frequency Range for Humans: 20Hz 20 000Hz (hertz)

Measuring the Speed of Sound

1. Stand 50m away from a large, blank wall and clap wood blocks. Listen for an echo. Set up a rhythm
of claps so that the echo comes exactly between two claps. Ask a friend to time 20 claps. During this
time, sound has travelled 2000m (to the wall and back 20 times). Divide this distance by the time to
work out the speed of sound.

2.

Turn on the single generator so it produces a known frequency (such as 1 kHz). Move the
microphones so that the two waves that form on the oscilloscope are exactly on top of each other.
This would show that the microphones are at 1 wavelength away from each other. Measure the
distance between the microphones. The speed of sound can be worked out using the formula v = f x

An image of a sound wave produced in a oscilloscope will look like this:

Physics Page 35
 To determine the frequency of a sound wave, find the time period for one complete wave and use
the relationship f = 1/T to find calculate the frequency.

The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the vibration (of the waves).
The pitch of the sound depends on the frequency of the vibration.

Letter

Description
P High pitched, loud
Q Low pitched, soft
R High pitched, soft
S Low pitched, soft

The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound.

Physics Page 36
Analogue and Digital signals
Monday, December 12, 2016 6:19 PM

Analogue Signals
Analogue signals can vary in their frequency and amplitude.

Digital signals

Digital signals have only two values - 1 or 0, on or off.

Disadvantages of Analogue and Advantages of Digital:

Signal strength is weakened (attenuated) as it travels long distances.
Analogue signal's pick up "noise" ( random extra signals which can distort
the original signal) - this is called electromagnetic interference (EMI)
You can send a much greater amount of information with digitals signal
per second due to multiplexing. This is where multiple bits of information
can be condensed into one single signal. This can then be demultiplexed
at the other end.
You cannot do this with analogue signals as it takes any value within a
range.
A use for this is fibre optic broadband.
Digital signal is better quality

Physics Page 37
Electricity
Monday, December 12, 2016 6:17 PM

Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Circuits - All or Nothing

1. In series circuits, the different components are all connected in a line, end to end, between
the +ve and -ve of the power supply.
2. You can't control which components current flows through - it either flows through all of the
components, or none of them.
3. When drawing a circuit diagram, all the components will be one after the other along a wire.
4. If you disconnect one component, the circuit is broken and they all stop.
5. This isn't very handy and it practice only a few things are connected in series e.g. fairy lights.

Current is the Same Everywhere:

1. In series circuits the same current flows through all parts of the circuit, i.e. A1 = A2.
2. The size of the current is determined by the total voltage of the cell/s and the total resistance
of the circuit: i.e. I = V/R
3. The total resistance of the circuit depends on the number of components and the types of
components used. More components = more resistance.

Parallel Circuits - Independence and Isolation

1. In parallel circuits, each component is separately connected t the +ve and -ve of the supply.
2. If you remove or disconnect one of them, it will hardly affect the others.
3. In a circuit diagram, each component is in its own loop in the circuit. To add a component in
parallel, just add another loop to the diagram.
4. This is how most things are connected so that you're able to switch everything on and off
separately. For example, household electrics - you can switch the light on in the kitchen but
leave the dining room light off.

Voltmeters and Ammeters are Exceptions to the Rule:

1. Ammeters and voltmeters are exceptions to the series and parallel rules.
2. Ammeters are always connected in series even in a parallel circuit.
3. Voltmeters are always connected in parallel with a component even in a series circuit.

Voltage and current in resistors

A resistor is an electrical component that restricts the flow of electric current.

A graph of current against potential shows you how the current flowing through a component
varies with the potential difference across it.
The current flowing through a resistor at a constant temperature is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it. This is called Ohm's law.
This is the graph of current against potential difference for a resistor at constant temperature:

Physics Page 38
 This is the graph of current against potential difference for a resistor at constant temperature:

When resistors are connected in series, the total resistance of two or more resistors is the sum
of their individual resistance.
When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance of two or more resistors is
less than that of either resistor by itself.
Potentiometers are variable resistors with a resistance control that is adjusted once and then
fixed.

Physics Page 39
Electricity and Static Electricity Questions
12 December 2016 21:32

Q) Explain what current, voltage, and resistance are in an electrical circuit.

A) Current is the rate of flow of electrical charge around a circuit.

Voltage is the driving force that pushes current round the circuit.
Resistance is anything in the circuit which slows the current down.

Q)What can LEDs be used to indicate the presence of?

A)Current. They are usually used to show that a circuit is switched on.

Q)Describe how the LDR varies with light intensity. Give an application of an
LDR.

A)In bright light, the resistance falls and in darkness the resistance is at its
highest.
An example of this in use is a burglar detector.

Q)Describe how the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature. Give

an application of a thermistor.

A)In hot temperatures the resistance drops and in cool temperatures, the
resistance is at its highest.
An example of this in practice is a car engine temperature sensor.
Q)What does the current in a series circuit depend on?

A)All the lamps working

Q)Why are parallel circuits more useful than series circuits?

A)If one bulb breaks, the others still work.

Enables you to be able to turn off individual components within the same circuit
All components get the same current, and the current doesn't change if you add
more components.

Q)Give the definition of a volt.

A)the difference of potential that would carry one ampere of current against one
ohm resistance.

Q)Give an example of an electrical conductor and an electrical insulator.

A)Any metal is an electrical conductor. An example of an electrical insulator

would be rubber.

Physics Page 40
Q)What causes the build-up of static electricity? Which particles move when
the static builds up?

A)Friction, caused by when two insulating materials are rubbed together. The
electrons move from one to the other, creating a big build-up of static.

Q)Give two examples of how static electricity can be helpful.

A)In an inkjet printer or a photocopier.

Q)Give an example of how static electricity can be a nuisance.

A)When your clothing crackles and when you pull it over your head it makes
your hair stand on end.

Q)Give two examples of how static electricity can be dangerous.

A)Lightning and the chance that a static charged fuel pipe could create a spark
that could blow your fuel tank.

Q)In a standard test circuit, where must the ammeter be placed? And where
must the voltmeter be placed?

A)The ammeter must always be placed in series. The voltmeter must be in

parallel with the component you are trying to measure.

Q)What is the difference between a.c. and d.c.

A)A.c. = alternating current (from mains) d.c. = definite current (i.e. from a
battery)

Q)Calculate the resistance of a wire if the voltage across it is 12 V and the

current through it is 2.5 A.

A) r=v/I 12/2.5 = 4.8 Ohms

Physics Page 41
Static Electricity
Monday, December 12, 2016 6:18 PM

Conductors Conduct Charge - Insulators Don't

1) Materials that are electrical conductors conduct charge easily - a current can flow through
them. They're usually metals, e.g. copper and silver.
2) Electrical insulators dont conduct charge very well - so a current can't flow. Examples include
plastic and rubber.

Build-up of Static is Caused by Friction

1) When two insulating materials are rubbed together, electrons will be scraped off one and
dumped on the other.
2) This will leave a positive electrostatic charge on one and a negative electrostatic charge on the
other.
3) Which way the electrons are transferred depends on the two materials involved.
4) Electrically charged objects attract small objects placed near them. (when a balloon is rubbed
against your hair, and put near paper cuttings, they jump onto the balloon)

Only Electrons Move - Never the Positive Charges

Both +ve -ve electrostatic charges are only produced by the movement of electrons. The positive
charges do not move. A positive static charge is always caused by electrons moving elsewhere.

A charged conductor can be discharged safely by using an earth cable. This means the electrons will
all flow down to ground. But however, positive charges move up the cable from the earth, and
negative charges move down the cable to earth.

The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current.

As Charge Builds Up, So Does the Voltage, Causing Sparks

The greater the charge on an isolated object, the greater the voltage between it and the earth. If the
voltage gets big enough there's a spark which jumps across the gap. This is lightning (but on a huge
scale).

Like Charges Repel, Opposite Charges Attract

1) Two things with opposite electric charges are attracted to each other.
2) Two things with the same electric charge will repel each other.
3) These forces will get weaker the further apart the two things are.

Physics Page 42
Plug Safety Features and Hazards
18 December 2016 18:01

Plug Diagram:

The live wire provides a path which electricity from the power station travels along. The neutral wire
completes the circuit. The earth wire provides a low resistance path for the current to flow in case of
a fault.

Hazards of Electricity Plugs

Hazard What Makes It Dangerous

Frayed Cables Can expose metal wires. Touching these would give an electric shock.
Heat may cause fire.
Long Cables Might trip someone.
If put in a bunch, the high current will cause it to heat up and
potentially cause a fire.
It could lead to the earth wire being easily pulled out.
Damaged Plugs May expose parts of the plug that are carrying electricity.
Water Around Sockets Water conducts electricity at high voltages, Touching the water can
cause an electric shock.
Pushing Metal Objects into Metals conduct electricity. Push a metal object into a socket and you
Sockets get an electric shock and die.

Safety Features

Safety How It Helps

Feature
Insulation/ Most modern appliances are made from an insulator like plastic. Electrical parts are
Double covered with plastic so if a fault develops, the dangerous parts wont be touched by
Insulation the user. Double insulation doesnt require an earth wire.
Earthing Appliances with metal casing should be connected to the earth wire so if the live wire
becomes frayed or breaks, and comes into contact with the casing, the earth wire
provides a low resistance path for the current for the electricity to pass back down to
the earth without giving the user an electric shock.
Fuses A fuse is found in a plug and contains a think piece of wire made from a metal with a
low melting point. If too large a current flow through the circuit, the fuse wire melts,
shutting the circuit off, preventing you from getting a shock and the ignition of an
electrical fire. The blown fuse must be replaced. When choosing the right fuse, you
choose the next biggest choice from the current rating of your device.
Circuit A modernized form of a fuse. If a large current flows in a circuit, the switch opens,
Breakers breaking the circuit. Once the fault has been corrected, the reset button can be
pressed so it can be used again.

Physics Page 43
Electrical Heating
18 December 2016 18:29

Electrical Heating and How It Is Used

Wiring in a house is designed to let current pass through it easily it has a low resistance.

However, things such as kettles or toasters have wires with high resistance. As the current passes
through the element, energy is transferred and the element heats up. This heating effect is also used
in dishwashers, cookers, washing machines etc.

It is also used in lights. Normal light bulbs have a very thin filament which gets so hot when current
passes through it that it glows white. This effect is what causes electric fires too, but can be used in
fan heaters, hair dryersetc.

Physics Page 44
 Ohms Law and Resistance
18 December 2016 18:29

Resistors and Resistance

Resistors are used in circuits to control the sizes of currents and voltages. Without one, the voltage
across a bulb may cause too large a current to flow through and cause the bulb to blow. An extra
amount of energy is needed to push charges through the resistance, and this can cause a rise in
temperature as the energy may be converted to heat.

There are two types:

Fixed resistors They have a fixed amount of resistance.

Variable resistors Resistance can be varied to increase/decrease the current. It is used in the
remote control to alter the volume of the TV, and also used to control the speed of a motor.

Ohms Law

To calculate resistance:

Voltage (V) = Current (A) x Resistance ()

V = IR

Ohms Law: The current that flows through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference (voltage) across its ends, provided its temperature remains the same.

Physics Page 45
Basically, current flowing through a wire/resistor is directly proportional to the voltage. It also
means that resistance stays constant.

However, this is not the case for a metal filament bulb. Resistance of the bulb increases because
temperature increases. When temperature increases, the positive atoms vibrate more vigorously,
impeding the flow of electrons. You get a curve (left picture).

Physics Page 46
 Thermistors, LED's and Diodes
18 December 2016 18:30

Thermistors

Thermistors are used as temperature sensors, for example, in fire alarms. It is made from
semiconducting material such as silicon or germanium.

At low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is high, and little current can flow through them.
At high temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is low, and more current can flow through
them.

Light-Dependent Resistors (LDR)

LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used to detect light levels, for example, in automatic security
lights, photographic equipment, automatic lighting controls and burglar alarms.

In the dark and at low light levels, the resistance of an LDR is high, and little current can flow through
it.
In bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low, and more current can flow through it.

Diodes

Diodes are resistors that direct the flow of current to one direction only. Current can only flow
through one direction due to a part of the diode with low resistance and cannot flow the opposite
way due to the high resistance at the other end of the diode. Diodes are used in rectifier circuits that
convert alternating current to direct current. It can also make logic gates (something in the
Cambridge syllabus and thank GOD it is not Edexcel).

All these resistors can be investigated by sticking them into a circuit and adjusting the voltage, then
comparing it with the current and then plotting a graph.

Physics Page 47
Circuit Symbols
18 December 2016 18:32

Open Switch

Closed Switch

Lamp

Cell

Battery

Voltmeter

Resistor

Fuse

Ammeter

Variable resistor

Thermistor

Light dependent resistor (LDR)

Physics Page 48
 Radioactivity
Monday, December 12, 2016 6:15 PM

The three types of radiation:

Alpha

Made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons - same as a helium nucleus.

Very ionizing - when it hits cells, it does a lot of damage as it is large.
Not very penetrating - as it is large, it cannot penetrate much more than paper.

Beta

This is a fast moving electron emitted from the nucleus of an atom.

Medium ionizing slightly damages cells.
Medium penetrating ability can enter skin, which makes it a health risk to humans.

Gamma

A high energy EM wave, which also has a very high frequency.

Is the only type of radiation which is also an EM wave.
Not very ionizing at all because it is very small.
As it is an EM wave - it is very penetrating and would pass straight through skin, and most other
things. The only thing to stop gamma is thick lead, as this is very dense.

Uses of Radiation:

Alpha radiation is used for smoke detectors. A circuit is made by a steady stream of alpha particles
being emitted. This is because the particles are so big they can't pass through smoke, so if smoke gets
in the way, the circuit is incomplete and the alarm sounds. As the alpha isnt
penetrating, the smoke
Beta Radiation is used for tracers and monitoring the thickness of materials. Doctors may use alarm case is enough to
radioactive chemicals called tracers for medical imaging. Certain chemicals concentrate in different stop it escaping into the
damaged or diseased parts of the body, and the radiation concentrates with it. Radiation detectors house and potentially
placed outside the body detect the radiation emitted and, with the aid of computers, build up an harming people.
image of the inside of the body.
Radiation is used in industry in detectors that monitor and control the thickness of materials such as
paper, plastic and aluminium. The thicker the material, the more radiation is absorbed and the less
radiation reaches the detector. It then sends signals to the equipment that adjusts the thickness of
the material.
Must wear protection so that
the gamma radiation doesn't
Gamma Radiation is used for sterilising medical equipment and food. This is more effective than
harm the human
other methods such as boiling the equipment because it can be done through plastic bags, where
there is no chance of bacteria contaminating the food/equipment after the sterilising.

Nuclear Fission Splitting of nuclei

Because they have a huge
Nuclear power reactors use a reaction called nuclear fission. The fission is a source of energy for half-life (4.5 billion years)
the generation of power.
Two isotopes in common use as nuclear fuels are uranium-235 and plutonium-239.
Fission is another word for splitting. The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission.
Uranium or plutonium isotopes are normally used as the fuel in nuclear reactors. Their atoms
have relatively large nuclei that are easy to split, especially when hit by neutrons.
When a uranium-235 or plutonium-239 nucleus is hit by a neutron, the following happens: This is a chain reaction:
The nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei daughter nuclei, which are radioactive This would become an explosion if
Two or three more neutrons are released the control rods weren't preventing
Some energy is released 2 of the three nuclei released.
The additional neutrons released may also hit other uranium or plutonium nuclei and cause
them to split. Even more neutrons are then released, which in turn can split more nuclei. This is
called a chain reaction.
The chain reaction in nuclear reactors is controlled to stop it moving too quickly - by the control
rods.
The nuclear reactor is surrounded in a big lead box - known as a shield. This prevents any
radioactive substances escaping.

Risks of Nuclear Radiation

Physics Page 49
Risks of Nuclear Radiation

Ionising radiation Can damage Cells and Tissues

1) Beta and gamma can penetrate the skin and soft tissues to reach the delicate organs inside the
body. This makes gamma and beta sources more hazardous than alpha when outside the body.
If they get inside the body, their radiation usually just passes straight out without doing much
damage.
2) Alpha radiation cant penetrate the skin, but it's very dangerous if it gets inside the body. Alpha
sources do all their damage in a very localised area.
3) When radiation enters your body, it will collide with molecules in your cells. These collisions
cause ionisation, which damages or destroys the molecules.
4) Lower doses tend to cause minor damage without killing the cell. This can cause mutations in
cells which then divide uncontrollably - this is cancer.
5) Higher doses tend to kill cells completely, causing radiation sickness if a large part of your body
is affected at the same time.
6) The extent of harmful effects depends on how much exposure you have had to the radiation,
and its energy and penetration.

Radiation is Also Used to Treat Cancer

1) Once cancer's started, patients can be given radiotherapy to kill the cancer cells and stop them
dividing.
2) This usually involves using a high dose of gamma rays, carefully directed to zap the cells in the
tumour whiles minimising the dose to the rest of the body.

Radioactive Waste is Difficult to Dispose of Safely

1) Most radioactive waste from nuclear power stations and hospitals is low-level. This king of
waste can be disposed of by burying it in secure landfill sites.
2) High-level waste is the really dangerous stuff - a lot of it stays highly radioactive for tens of
thousands of years, so it has to be treated very carefully. It is often sealed in glass blocks, which
are then sealed in metal canisters. These could then be buried deep underground.
3) However, it is difficult to find suitable places to bury high-level waste. The site has to be
geologically stable (not suffer from earthquakes) since big movements in the rock could disturb
the canisters and allow radioactive material to leak out. If this material gets into the
groundwater, it could contaminate the soil, rivers, plants, etc., and get into our drinking water.

Use Protection if You're Working with Radioactive Materials

1) It is important to minimise your exposure when you're working with radioactive sources.
2) Never allow skin contact with a source, always hold it with tongs and at arm's length.
3) Keep the source pointed away from the body and avoid looking directly at it.
4) Store radioactive sources in a sealed lead box whenever they are not being used.

People Who Regularly Work with Radioactivity Need to Take Extra

Precautions

1) Medical workers who use radioactivity need to wear lead aprons and stand behind lead screens
during procedures.
2) Industrial nuclear workers wear full protective suits to prevent tiny radioactive particles being
inhaled or lodging on the skin or under fingernails etc..
3) Workers can also use remote controlled robot arms to carry out tasks in highly radioactive
areas.

Physics Page 50
Half Life
18 December 2016 21:03

Physics Page 51
Radioactivity Questions
14 December 2016 07:59

What is a Decay?
During Radioactive Decay, what can a Nucleus Emit?
Is Radioactive Decay a Random Process?
What are the Three Types of Radioactivity called?
What does the Nucleus of an Atom contain?
What is the Atomic Number?
What is the Mass Number?
What is an Isotope?
How can a Nucleus be Unstable?
How can an Unstable Nucleus change into a More Stable form?
What is a Radioactive Isotope?
What is a Radionuclide?

What does an Alpha Particle consist of?

How is an Alpha Particle written?
Does an Alpha Particle have More Mass than a Beta Particle?
Does an Alpha Particle have More Penetrating Ability than a Beta Particle?
Is an Alpha Particle More Ionising than a Gamma Ray?
What happens to the Mass Number when an Alpha Particle is emitted?
What happens to the Atomic Number when an Alpha Particle is emitted?
What is a Decay Series?

What is a Beta Particle?

Where does a Beta Particle come from?
What is the Charge on a Beta Particle?
How is a Beta Particle written?
Does a Beta Particle have More Mass than an Alpha Particle?
Does a Beta Particle have More Penetrating Ability than an Alpha Particle?
Is a Beta Particle More Ionising than a Gamma Ray?

Physics Page 52
 Is a Beta Particle More Ionising than a Gamma Ray?
What happens to the Mass Number when a Beta Particle is emitted?
What happens to the Atomic Number when a Beta Particle is emitted?
What does a Neutron in the Nucleus become when a Beta Particle is emitted?

What is a Gamma Ray?

What is the Charge on a Gamma Ray?
How is a Gamma Ray written?
Does a Gamma Ray have More Mass than an Alpha Particle?
Does a Gamma Ray have More Penetrating Ability than an Alpha Particle?
Is a Gamma Ray More Ionising than a Beta Particle?
What happens to the Mass Number when a Gamma Ray is emitted?
What happens to the Atomic Number when a Gamma Ray is emitted?
What happens to the Nucleus when a Gamma Ray is emitted?

What is Penetrating Ability?

What does Penetrating Ability depend on?
What type of Radioactivity will be Stopped by Paper?
What type of Radioactivity will be Stopped by Air?
What type of Radioactivity will be Stopped by Aluminium?
What types of Radioactivity are called Ionising Radiation?
How can Radioactivity form Ions?
What does the Ability of Radioactivity to form Ions depend on?
What does Radioactivity do to Photographic Film?
What is a Film Badge?
What Windows are used in a Film Badge?
What does a Geiger-Muller Tube Detect?
What Gas is used to fill a Geiger-Muller Tube?
What is a Becquerel?
What is Background Radiation?
Name two Places where Background Radiation comes from.
Why is the Background Count not Constant?
How can you get an Accurate Reading for the Background Count?

Physics Page 53
 What is a Definition of Half-life?
What does it mean if Nuclei are Stable?
Can a Half-life be Less than one Second?
Can a Half-life be More than one Billion Years?
How can Half-life be measured from a Graph of Count Rate against Time?
If a Count Rate is 544 Bq now, what is it after 15 Hrs if the Half-life is 3 Hrs?
If a Count Rate is 2016 Bq now, and 63 after 35 Days, what is the Half-life?
What is Radiodating?
How old is a Rock with 1 K-40 (Half-life 13 Billion Years) to 3 Ar-40?
What is Carbon Dating?
Where does Carbon-14 in the Environment come from?
What are Archaeological Specimens?
Name two Things which can be Dated using Carbon Dating.
Name one Thing which can not be Dated using Carbon Dating.

What type of Radioactivity would be used in the making of Aluminium Foil?

Would the Radioactivity used to make Aluminium Foil have a Long Half-life?
What type of Radioactivity would be used in a Smoke Detector?
How does the presence of Smoke make the Detector set off the Alarm?
What is a Radioactive Tracer?
What type of Radioactivity could Detect a Leak in an Underground Pipe?
Would the Radioactivity used to Detect a Leak have a Long Half-life?
What type of Radioactivity could be Injected into Blood?
Would the Radioactivity Injected into Blood have a Long Half-life?

What is Sterilisation?
What type of Radioactivity would be used in Sterilisation?
Give one Example of the use of Radioactivity for Sterilisation.
What is a Mutation?
How can a Mutation lead to Cancer?
What does Exposure mean?
What does Intensity mean?
Physics Page 54
 What does Intensity mean?
What is External Radiation?
Are all forms of External Radiation Harmful?
Which form of External Radiation is Least Harmful?
What is Internal Radiation?
Are all forms of Internal Radiation Harmful?
Which form of Internal Radiation is Least Harmful?
Give two Safety Precautions used when handling a Radioactive Source.

What was the Plum Pudding Model?

What did Rutherford and Marsden fire Alpha Particles at?
Did some of the Alpha Particles go straight through?
Did some of the Alpha Particles change direction?
Did some of the Alpha Particles bounce back towards the Source?
What takes up Most of the Space of an Atom?
Where is Most of the Mass of an Atom?
What is Fission?
Does Fission of a Nucleus release a Large Amount of Energy?
Where does this Energy come from?
What is this Energy used for in a Nuclear Power Station?
What is a Chain Reaction?
How is the Speed of a Chain Reaction controlled?
Give two Advantages of Nuclear Power.
Give two Disadvantages of Nuclear Power.

Physics Page 55
Radioactivity and Particles
Tuesday, December 13, 2016 12:42 PM

At the Centre of Every Atom is a Nucleus

The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. It takes up most of the mass of the
atom, but takes up virtually no space - its tiny.
The electrons are negatively charged and are really really small.
They whizz around the outside of the atom. Their paths take up a lot a lot of space, giving the
atom its overall size.
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number, or proton number.
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called the mass number, or
nucleon number.

Isotopes are Atoms with Different Numbers of Neutrons

1. Many elements have a few different isotopes. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of
protons but with a different number of neutrons. (same atomic number but different mass
number)
2. e.g. there are two common isotopes of carbon. The carbon-14 isotopes has two more
neutrons than the normal carbon-12.
3. Usually each element only has one or two stable isotopes - like carbon-12. the other isotopes
tend to be radioactive - the nucleus is unstable, so it decays and emits radiation. Carbon-14 is
an unstable isotope of carbon.

Radioactive Decay is a Random Process

1. The nuclei of unstable isotopes break down at random. If you have 1000 unstable nuclei, you
can't say when any one of them is going to decay, and you cant do anything at all to make a
decay happen.
2. Each nucleus just decays quite spontaneously in its own good time. It's completely unaffected
by physical conditions like temperature or any sort of chemical bonding etc.
3. When the nucleus does decay it spits out one or more of the three types of radiation - alpha,
beta and gamma.
4. In the process, the nucleus often changes into a new element.

Background Radiation is Everywhere All the Time

There's low level background nuclear radiation around us all the time. It comes from:
Substances here on earth - some radioactivity comes from air, food, building materials, soil,
rocks
Radiation from space (cosmic rays) - these come mostly from the sun.
Living things - there's a little bit of radioactivity material in all living things.
Radiation due to human activity - e.g. fallout from nuclear explosions, or nuclear waste
(though this is usually only a tiny percentage of the total background radiation).
Rocks such as granite.

Physics Page 56
Magnets and Magnetic Fields
14 December 2016 17:18

Magnets Produce Magnetic Fields

1. All magnets have two poles - north and south

2. Magnetic field lines ( or lines of force) are used to show the size and direction of magnetic
fields.
3. They always point from north to south.
4. Placing the north and south poles of two permanent bar magnets near each other creates a
uniform field between the two bar magnets.

You can use compasses and iron fillings to look at magnetic field patterns

1. Compasses and iron fillings align themselves with magnetic fields.

2. You can use multiple compasses to see the magnetic field lines coming out of a bar magnet or
two bar magnets.
3. You could use iron fillings to see magnetic field patterns. Just put the magnets under a piece of
paper and scatter the iron fillings on top.

Magnetism can be induced

1. Magnets affect magnetic materials and other magnets.

2. Like poles repel each other and opposite poles attract.
3. Both poles attract magnetic materials (that aren't magnets)
4. When a magnet is brought near a magnetic material then that material acts like a magnet.
5. This magnetism has been induced by the original magnet.
6. The closer the magnet and the magnetic material get, the stronger the induced magnetism will
be.

Physics Page 57
Electromagnetism
14 December 2016 17:26

A current-carrying wire creates a magnetic field.

1. An electric current in a material produces a magnetic field around it

2. The larger the electric current, the stronger the magnetic field.
3. The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of the current.

The magnetic field around a straight wire

1. There is a magnetic field around a straight, current-carrying wire.

2. The field is made up of concentric circles with the wire in the centre.

The magnetic field around a flat circular coil.

1. The magnetic field in the centre of a flat circular coil is similar to that of a bar magnet.
2. There are concentric ellipses (stretched coils) of magnetic field lines around the coil.

The magnetic field around a solenoid

1. The magnetic field inside a current-carrying solenoid ( a coil of wire ) is strong and uniform.
2. Outside the coil, the field is just like the one around a bar magnet.
3. This means that the ends of a solenoid act like the north pole and south pole of a bar magnet.
This type of magnet is called an electromagnet.

Magnetic materials can be "soft" or "hard"

1. A magnetic material is considered "soft" if it loses its induced magnetism quickly, or "hard" if it
keeps it permanently.
2. Iron is an example of a soft magnetic material. Steel is an example of a hard magnetic
material.
3. Iron is used in transformers because of this property - it needs to magnetise and demagnetise
50 times a second (mains electricity in the UK runs at 50Hz)
4. You can increase the strength of the magnetic field around a solenoid by adding magnetically
"soft" iron core through the middle of the coil.

Physics Page 58
Transformers
14 December 2016 17:42

Transformers change the voltage - but only alternating voltages.

1. Transformers change the size of the voltage of an alternating current.

2. They all have two coils, the primary and the secondary, joined with an iron core.
3. When an alternating voltage comes across the primary coil, the magnetically soft (iron) core magnetises and
demagnetises quickly. This induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil.
4. The ratio between the primary and secondary voltages is the same as the ratio between the number of turns
on the primary and secondary coils.
5. Step up transformers step the voltage up. They have more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil.
6. Step down transformers step the voltage down. They have more turns on the primary coil than the
secondary.

The transforming equation:

Input (primary) voltage/Output (secondary) voltage = number of turns on primary/ number of turns on secondary.

Transformers are 100% efficient so Power in = Power out.

Power supplied formula is: Power = Voltage*Current

Transformers make transmitting mains electricity more efficient.

1. Step up and step down transformers are used when transmitting electricity across the country.
2. The voltage produced by power stations is too low to transmitted efficiently. Power = VI, so the lower the
voltage the higher the current for a given amount of power, and current causes wires to heat up.
3. Step - up transformers are used to boost the voltage before it is transmitted.
4. A step-down transformer is used at the end of the journey to reduce the voltage so it's more useful and safer
to use.

Physics Page 59
Space
05 January 2017 21:39

Physics Page 60
Gravity and the Universe
14 December 2016 18:16

Our solar system is in the milky way galaxy.

1. A galaxy is a large collection of starts.

2. Our sun is just one of the many billions of stars which form the Milky Way Galaxy. Our sun is
about halfway along one of the spiral arms of the milky way.
3. The distance between neighbouring stars in the galaxy is often millions of times greater than
the distance between the planets in our solar system.
4. The force which keeps the stars together in a galaxy is gravity. Galaxies rotate, like most other
things in the universe.

The universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies.

1. Galaxies themselves are often millions of times further apart than the stars within a galaxy.
2. So from this you can infer that the universe is mostly empty space and is infinitely large.

Gravity provides the force that causes orbits.

1. If an object is travelling in a circle it is constantly changing direction, which means there must
be a force acting on it.
2. An orbit is a balance between the forward motion of the object and a force pulling it inwards.
3. The planets move around the sun in almost circular orbits. The forces that make this happen
are provided by the gravity between each planet and the sun.
4. Gravity is also responsible for other types of orbits that exist within the solar system:
a. The moon orbits the earth. Other planets also have moons orbiting them, but they have
other names. Ours is just called "moon"
b. Artificial satellites that are made by man and put into space by rockets also orbit the
earth.
c. Comets are small lumps of icy rock which orbit the sun. unlike planets, which have a
circular orbit, comets have an elliptical orbit.

Orbital Speed is Calculated using this Formula:

Velocity/speed of Orbit = square root of (Gravitational Force * Mass / Radius)

Physics Page 61