(CONTINUATION TO AMINO ACID BIOSYNTHESIS)

Living cells assimilate nitrogen by incorporating it into the amino acids glutamic acid and
glutamine.

1. First, glutamic acid is formed by reaction between ammonia and -ketoglutaric acid.
2. Additional ammonia can be accepted by adding it to glutamic acid to give glutamine.
3. The second reaction, requiring investment of metabolic energy, is used in ammonia
deficient environments. In some bacteria, direct amination of pyruvate to alanine occurs
with consumption of NADH. Also, certain bacteria can directly aminate fumarate to
aspartate.
4. All of the remaining amino acids are formed by conversion of glutamate or by transfer of
its amino group to other carbon skeletons.

(CONTINUATION TO PHOTOSYNTHESIS)

CALVIN CYCLE - The dark reactions, which constitute the Calvin cycle, named after Melvin
Calvin, the biochemist who elucidated the pathway, reduce carbon atoms from their fully
oxidized state as carbon dioxide to the more reduced state as a hexose.

The Calvin cycle comprises three stages

1. The fixation of CO2 by ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate to form two molecules of 3

phosphoglycerate.

2. The reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate to form hexose sugars.

3. The regeneration of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so that more CO2 can be fixed.

 GLUCONEOGENESIS PATHWAY

The complete route of gluconeogenesis is

shown in the figure below, side by side with
the glycolytic pathway. Gluconeogenesis
employs four different reactions, catalyzed
by four different enzymes, for the three
steps of glycolysis that are highly exergonic

(and highly regulated). In essence, seven of

the ten steps of glycolysis are merely
reversed in gluconeogenesis. The six
reactions between fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate and PEP are shared by the two
pathways, as is the isomerization of
glucose-6-P to fructose-6-P. The three
exergonic, regulated reactionsthe
hexokinase (glucokinase),
phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase
reactionsare replaced by alternative
reactions in the gluconeogenic pathway.
The conversion of pyruvate to PEP that
initiates gluconeogenesis is accomplished
by two unique reactions. Pyruvate
carboxylase catalyzes the first, converting
pyruvate to oxaloacetate. Then, PEP
carboxykinase catalyzes the conversion of
oxaloacetate to PEP. Conversion of
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-
phosphate is catalyzed by a specific phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase.

The final step to produce glucose, hydrolysis of glucose-6-phosphate, is mediated by glucose-

6-phosphatase.