This article was downloaded by: [New York University]

On: 20 May 2015, At: 08:14

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urqe20

Effects of Sit up Exercise Training on Adipose Cell Size

and Adiposity
a a a b
Frank I. Katch , Priscilla M. Clarkson , Walter Kroll , Thomas McBride & Anthony Wilcox
c

a
Department of Exercise Science
b
University Health Service , University of Massachusetts , Amherst , MA , 01003 , USA
c
Department of Physical Education , University of Kansas , Manhattan , KS , 66506 , USA
Published online: 22 Feb 2013.

To cite this article: Frank I. Katch , Priscilla M. Clarkson , Walter Kroll , Thomas McBride & Anthony Wilcox (1984) Effects of
Sit up Exercise Training on Adipose Cell Size and Adiposity, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 55:3, 242-247, DOI:
10.1080/02701367.1984.10609359

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1984.10609359

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX
RESEARCH QUARTERLY
FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
1984, VOL. 55, No.3, PI'. 242-247
Effects of Sit Up Exercise Training
On Adipose Cell Size and Adiposity
FRANK I. KATCH, PRISCILLA M. CLARKSON,
WALTER KROLL and THOMAS McBRIDE
University of Massachusetts
ANTHONY WILCOX
University of Kansas
The present experiment evaluated the effects of a 27-day sit up
exercise training program on adipose cell size and adiposity. Fat
biopsies were taken from the abdomen, subscapular, and gluteal
Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:14 20 May 2015
sites by needle aspiration in l3 experimental and 6 control male
subjects before and after a five days/week progressive training
regimen. Day 1 consisted of 10 bouts of l O-sec exercise, 7 sit
ups/bout, with Itt-sec rest intervals; on day 27, 14 bouts of 30-
sec exercise were performed, 24 sit ups/bout with lO-sec rest
intervals. The total number of sit ups done was 5004. Fat cells
were isolated using collagenase and photographed to determine
cell diameter. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant
decreases in cell diameter at the three biopsy sites (p<.O 1), but
no significant differences in the rate of change (pre to post) in
cell diameter between sites for the experimental and control
groups (p>.05). Body weight, total body fat (underwater
weighing), and [atfolds and girths remained unaltered. The
results demonstrate that (l) the conventional sit up exercise does
not preferentially reduce adipose cell size or subcutaneous fat
thickness in the abdominal region to a greater extent compared to
other adipose sites, and (2) significant changes in fat cell size
may occur in the absence of changes in fatfolds, girths or total
body composition.
Key words: adipose cellularity, spot reduction, body
composition, sit up exercise, adiposity.
h e needle biopsy procedure to determine adipose
tissue cellularity permits a rather precise quantifica-
tion of changes in body composition consequent to
nutritional and exercise intervention regimens
(Bjorntorp, Grimby, Sanne, Sjostrom, Tibblin, & Wil-
helmsen, 1972; Bjorntorp, Carlgren, Isaksson, Krot-
kiewski, Larsson, & Sjostrom, 1975; Bray, 1970). Only
a few studies, however, have evaluated the effects of
specific, relatively localized exercise on body com-
position by examining changes in fat cell size (Bjorn-
torp, deJounge, Krotkiewski, Sullivan, Sjostrom, &
Stenberg, 1973). A basic issue concerns whether local
"spot" exercise reduces regional fat accumulation at
a particular body site.
Proponents of spot reducing cite such evidence as
significant decreases in triceps subcutaneous fatfolds
following specific arm weight lifting exercise (Olson
RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT VOL.
242
& Edelstein, 1968), or reductions in abdominal cir-
cumferences by performing 6 daily, 6-sec isometric
contractions (Mohr, 1965). Other investigators, on the
basis of photographic analysis (Schade, Hellebrandt,
Waterland, & Carns, 1962), changes in segment vol-
umes (Carns, Schade, Liba, Hellebrandt, & Harris,
1960), fatfold and girth measures of the active and
inactive arms of tennis players (Cwinup, Chelvam, &
Steinberg, 1971), and fatfold and body density de-
terminations (Noland & Kearney, 1978), report no
significant decreases in fat thickness at selected body
sites or in gross body composition when comparing
the effects of general and localized exercise training.
We are aware of only one study that has used a direct,
invasive procedure to evaluate the effects of selective
exercise training on adipose cellularity. Krotkiewski,
Aniansson, Grimby, Bjorntorp, and Sjostrom (1979)
reported no change in fat cell size or thickness of
adipose tissue in the thigh region following a daily 5-
week training program consisting of 30 maximal knee
extensions performed on an isokinetic device. The use
of a direct procedure such as the fat biopsy would
seem to offer a better alternative than indirect tech-
niques such as fatfolds or girths to assess selective site
changes; indirect techniques may simply be insensitive
to evaluate true cellular changes in adiposity. This
may be particularly true for fatfolds, where measure-
ment unreliability is a problem inherent in the tech-
nique (Katch & Katch, 1980).
In the present experiment, the conventional sit up
exercise was performed in an effort to significantly
reduce fat thickness (and adipose cell diameter) to a
greater extent in the abdominal area than in the rel-
atively unexercised gluteal and subscapular regions.
Proponents of "spot" exercise training would argue
that the conventional hook lying sit up exercise is an
effective aid in helping to reduce fat thickness in the
abdominal region. If such a notion is valid, it follows
that performing a regimen of sit up exercise should
affect adipose measures in the abdominal region to a
greater extent than at other body areas. In the current
55 NO.3
 KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX
study, a vigorous 27-day sit up training program was
evaluated for changes in cell size, fatfold thickness,
and girths measured by anthropometry.
Method
The subjects were 19 male volunteers, all Cauca-
sian, who gave informed consent in accordance with
University Human Subjects Review procedures. The
mean age was 19.4 years (SD = 2.3), mean weight was
76.1 kg (SD = 7.3), and mean height was 175.4 ern
(SD = 4.8). Six of the 19 subjects did not participate
in sit up training and served as controls. The 13 ex-
perimental subjects were not members of varsity or
intramural sports teams, and none were participants
in any formal exercise programs. There were no sig-
nificant differences between the experimental and
control subjects for age, height, weight, or percent
body fat (p>.05). The general experimental proce-
Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:14 20 May 2015
dure was a pre-post test design. The 13 experimental
subjects participated in a 27-day sit up exercise pro-
gram. Adipose cell size and body composition were
measured in both groups before and the day following
the training period.
Determination of Adipose Cell Size
Fat biopsies, approximately 50 mg, were taken from
the abdominal (2.54 ern lateral to the umbilicus), glu-
teal (upper quadrant) and subscapular sites by needle
aspiration using extraction procedures described by
Lavau, Susini, Knittle, Blanchet-Hirst, and Green-
wood (1977). The fat sample was placed in 6 ml of
Krebs ringer phosphate buffer containing 10 mg col-
lagenase, 5 mM glucose and 2% albumin (fraction V).
The tissue was incubated at 37C for 30 min and shaken
gently every 10 min. During this time, all of the fat
cells were freed from the tissue. The cells were then
filtered through a 250 u nylon mesh to separate the
cells and stroma. A 50 ul aliquot of the concentrated
cell suspension was placed on a glass slide and pho-
tographed with a Bausch and Lomb photomicroscope
with a yellow filter and 4 x magnification. The film
was projected to the surface of an opaque, 92.3 by
92.3 ern digitizer screen (Science Accessories Corpo-
ration, Southport, CT) for a total magnification of
240 x . The diameter of at least 200 adipose cells from
each site were digitized with a sonic pen. The pen
generates a hypersonic impulse that is received by
microphone sensors placed around the perimeter of
the screen. The sensors transmit the impulses to the
digitizer and the X and Y coordinate values are then
input to the computer. Calibration was provided by
a photomicrograph of a stage micrometer taken at the
same time as the adipose cells (l u = .60 mm). The
projections of individual cell diameters were mea-
sured to 0.1 mm, which represented the resolution of
the digitizer apparatus. As individual cell diameters
RESEARCH Qt:ARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT VOL.
243
were digitized, they were automatically separated into
odd and even categories to obtain an index of relia-
bility. If the corrected split-half reliability did not ex-
ceed r = .85, the sample of 200 adipose cells was
remeasured.
The mean diameter of a minimum of 200 cells was
used as the criterion diameter score for each site on
the pre- and posttests. In a recent study from our
laboratory (Clarkson, Katch, Kroll, Lane, & Kamen,
1980), this method of scoring was the most valid pro-
cedure for establishing reliable estimates of cell di-
ameter. In addition, there was no significant difference
among four methods to measure fat cell size (Clark-
son, Kroll, Wai, & Kamen, 1981); this includes digi-
tization of the photographs, counting with a Zeiss
particle analyzer, hand measurement of the photo-
graphs and measurement of the projected cells on the
digitizer screen.
For the pretest, fat biopsies were taken by a phy-
sician at each of the three sites on 2 days at approx-
imately the same time, with no more than 6 days
separating the two biopsy days. This was done to es-
tablish a reliable and representative criterion value of
abdominal, gluteal, and subscapular cell diameter.
There were no significant differences in cell diameter
for any of the three sites from Day 1 to Day 2, and
an average of the Day 1 and Day 2 measures was used
as the pretest value.
Body Composition
All measures of body composition on the pretest
were taken on the day following the second biopsy.
Body weight was measured on a beam balance scale
to 50 g. Percent body fat was computed from body
density measured by the underwater weighing pro-
cedure (McArdle, Katch, & Karch, 1981) with correc-
tion for residual lung volume measured twice in
succession by oxygen dilution (Wilmore, 1969). Test-
retest reliability of residual volume was r = .97 with
a standard error of measurement of 46 ml. Per-
centage of body fat was calculated from density (D)
by the Siri equation, percent fat = 495/0 - 450 (Siri,
1961). Total body fat (kg) is percent fat/l00 x body
weight, and lean body weight (LBW) is body weight
- total fat weight.
Subcutaneous fat was measured in triplicate with a
Lange caliper by the same investigator (FK) at the
triceps, subscapula, iliac and abdominal sites on the
right side of the body with the subject standing. The
mean of the three trials at each site was used as the
criterion fatfold score (Katch & Katch, 1980). Selected
girth measures were taken with a doth anthropo-
metric tape of the right and left forearm, biceps re-
laxed and flexed, calf, and waist (natural contour),
abdomen at the umbilicus, and buttocks. All measures
were taken in duplicate following established proce-
55 No.3
 KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX

dures (Behnke & Wilmore, 1974) and the mean of performed (Lindquist, 1953). The ANOVA provided
the two trials used in subsequent calculations. Test- main effect F-ratios for among sites and pre- to post
retest reliability of all fat fold and girth measures on changes (condition) in fat cell diameter, as well as a
pre- and posttests ranged from r = .98 to .99. site-by-condition interaction. Significant differences
were found in cell diameter among sites; gluteal cells
Sit Up Exercise Training were 8.5% larger in diameter than abdominal and
Training consisted of the conventional hook lying subscapular cells, respectively. Cell diameter for the
sit up exercise performed on a gym mat with the knees abdomen was 7.4% larger than subscapular cell di-
bent at approximately a 90 angle, hands clasped be- ameter.
hind the neck with the elbows pointing in the forward
position, with no external support to hold the feet. Table 1
All subjects trained together in the late afternoon. Progressive Sit Up Training Program-
One of the subjects, experienced in leading exercise
Time per Sit Ups
classes, supervised the total time and cadence for each
Bout, Completed Total
bout of sit ups. Subjects performed the sit ups in un- Days Bout b sec per Bout Sit Ups
ison to a preestablished cadence, touching the elbows 1-6 10 increase to 20 10 7 630
to the knees on each sit up. A progressive method 7-12 10 increase to 20 15 10 900
was employed to increase the duration of sit ups per- 13-18 10 increase to 20 20 14 1260
Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:14 20 May 2015

formed on a given day. Day 1 consisted of 10 bouts 19-24 10 increase to 20 25 15 1350

of l O-sec exercise, 7 sit ups/bout, with IO-sec rest in-
tervals between bouts. On successive days, the number
of bouts was increased by 2 until the sixth day, when
20 bouts was achieved. On day 7, the total number of
bouts was reduced to 10, but the exercise duration
per bout was increased to 15 sec. Ten sit ups were
done during this time period. For the next 5 days,
the number of bouts was again increased by 2 per day
until 20 bouts were achieved on day 12. Table 1 out-
lines the method employed to increase progressively
the number of sit ups during the 27-day training pe-
riod. On day 27, 24 sit ups were performed for 30
sees on each of the 14 bouts (336 sit ups). The total
sit ups done in the 27-day period was 5004. The cu-
mulative actual time spent to perform the 5004 sit ups
was 2 hr and 3 min, or, on the average, the equivalent
of 4 min 33 sec/day.
Results
Changes in Adipose Cell Diameter
Table 2 summarizes the pre- and posttest values of
cell diameter for the three sites. A full model repeated
measures treatments x treatments x subjects was
25-27 10 increase to 14 30 24 864
aThe 1O-sec rest interval remained constant between bouts
on all training days.
bThe number of bouts for each 6-day interval was increased
by 2 on successive days. For example, on days 1-6, 10,
12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 bouts, respectively, were performed.
The same was true for days 7-12,13-18 and 19-24. For
the last 3 days, 10, 12, and 14 bouts were performed.
For the pre- to posttest comparisons, cell diameter
decreased significantly (p<.01). The percentage change
in cell diameter was 6.4% for the abdomen, 5.0% for
the gluteal, and 3.7% for the subscapular. Converting
the diameter measure for each cell to an expression
of volume (4.19 x radius"), assuming the cells are
spherical, results in volume decreases of 17.9% for
the abdominal, 14.3% for the gluteal, and 10.6% for
the subscapular cells.
This interaction term (site x condition) was non-
significant (F = .18; p> .(5), and indicates that al-
though there were significant decreases in cell diameter
resulting from the sit up program, there were no dif-
ferences in the rate of change for cell diameter be-
tween sites. We interpret this to mean that the
significant reduction in fat cell diameter due to an

Table 2
Pre to Posttest Values of Adipose Cell Diameter (N =13)
Pre Post %
Diameter
Microns Mean SO Mean SO Change
Abdomen 82.64 16.50 77.39 15.80 6.4 .856 p<.01
Gluteal 90.31 8.77 85.79 11.11 5.0 .818 p<.01
Subscapular 76.53 14.12 73.73 14.64 3.7 .911 p<.01
apearson product-moment correlation coefficient.
bF-ratio based on full model repeated measures ANOVA. The overall F was significant for the p.re- and posttest
comparison (F = 21.2; P < .01), and for site-to-site differences (F = 15.8; P < .01). The interaction term
was not significant (F = 0.18; P > .05).

RESEARCH QL<\RTERLY HlR EXERCISE AND SPORT VOL. 55 No.3

244
 KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBIUDE, WILCOX

imposed sit up exercise regimen was similar at all
three sites.
Changes in Body Composition
Table 3 presents the pre- and posttest values for
body composition, fatfolds, and girth measurements
for the 13 experimental subjects. There were no sig-
nificant changes from pre- to posttest in body weight,
body density, percent fat and lean body weight, four
fatfolds, or the six girth measurements (p>.05).
Discussion
A crucial test of "spot" reducing is whether a sig-
nificantly greater change occurs in the predominant
body area being exercised compared to the relatively
inactive or unexercised body parts. In the present
study, the fact that there was no difference in the rate
of change in cell diameter among the three sites sug-
Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:14 20 May 2015
reduction. While there is activation of the lower limb
musculature in addition to abdominals and hip flexors
during the hook lying sit up exercise (Ricci, Marchetti,
& Figura, 1981), there is no evidence that such in-
volvement would playa quantitatively important role
in the primary act of trunk flexion or extension. There
is little reason to doubt that the abdominal muscula-
ture is predominantly involved in sit up exercise as
performed in this study (Flint, 1965; Partridge & Wal-
ters, 1959).
The lack of change in the fatfold and correspond-
ing girth measures would support the position that
relatively selective exercise training (such as sit ups),
unaccompanied by significant changes in body weight
and body composition, would not preferentially re-
duce the concentration of fat in a particular body area.
It does seem plausible that fat cell size may precede
observable changes in subcutaneous fat and girth

gests there was no preferential influence of a possible
lipolytic mobilizing factor or of enhanced adrenergic
responsiveness (Ostman, Arner, Engfeldt, & Kager,
1979). Because cell diameter decreased significantly
at the three sites, it seems reasonable to conclude that
the sit up regimen had a more general than specific
effect on the overall size (diameter and volume) of
the adipose cells. One could take the position, how-
ever, that performing the conventional sit up involves
muscle groups other than the abdominals (such as
gluteals or upper back musculature), and therefore
the reduction in cell diameter at the gluteal and sca-
pula sites would support the concept of selective fat
measures. At the present time, it is not known what
magnitude of change must occur in fat cell diameter
before such changes are reflected in fatfold and girth
measures. The present data suggest that changes in
fat cell diameter less than 6 to 7% are not accom-
panied by corresponding decreases in fatfolds and
girths.
In the present study, the number of sit ups done
on a daily basis probably exceeds that normally per-
formed by most people involved in recreational ex-
ercise programs. Also, the total number of sit ups
performed was increased on successive workout days
to ensure progression in the training program. This

Table 3
Pre to Posttest Changes In Body Composition,
=
Fatfolds and Girths for the Experimental Subjects (N 13)

Pre Post
Variable Mean SO Mean SO F&
Body Composition
weight, kg 76.96 6.90 76.09 7.92 NS
body density, g/ml 1.0722 .0008 1.0737 .0010 NS
% Fat 11.67 3.45 11.06 4.53 NS
total fat, kg 8.85 2.46 8.44 3.58 NS
lean weight, kg 67.22 7.01 67.59 7.48 NS
Fatfolds, mm
triceps 10.66 2.40 10.15 2.48 NS
scapula 12.95 3.37 12.95 3.54 NS
iliac 17.89 7.54 18.01 7.58 NS
abdomen 18.62 6.30 18.62 6.76 NS
Girths, cm
waist 83.00 5.04 84.01 4.95 NS
umbilicus 84.55 5.30 85.23 5.73 NS
buttocks 96.78 4.15 95.37 4.43 NS
forearm 28.92 1.37 28.87 1.44 NS
biceps flexed 35.23 2.87 35.32 2.91 NS
calf 36.95 1.52 36.59 1.67 NS
aRepeated measures analysis of variance. Not significant at p<.05. There were no significant
changes for anyof the abovevariables for thesix control subjects, norwerethereanysignificant
differences on the pre-test between the groups for the above measurements.

RESEARCH QUARTERLY roa EXERCISE AND SPORT VOL. 55 NO.3

245
 KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX
was done to increase the relative strenuousness of sit
up exercise. The basic assumption is that the subcu-
taneous fatty layer in the abdominal region is pref-
erentially affected to a greater extent by exercise of
the underlying abdominal musculature than the but-
tocks or subscapular regions. All subjects performed
the sit up exercise at the same cadence to ensure a
constant rate of performance. It was of interest to
observe that although subjects complained frequently
of severe localized fatigue, heart rate palpated in the
lying position immediately following the workouts
throughout training did not exceed 130 beats per
minute. In two subjects, heart rate was monitored
electrocardiographically by telemetry on days 7 and
26 of the experiment. For these subjects, with a tread-
mill-assessed maximal oxygen uptake of 55
ml-kg - Imin - 1and maximum heart rate of 197 beats
per minute, heart rate during sit ups did not exceed
Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:14 20 May 2015
127 beats per minute during any of the bouts per-
formed on a given day. If we assume a work intensity
of 65% max \702 (the same percentage as maximum
heart rate), then for their body weight of 70 kg and
resting \702 of 4.3 ml'kg-1'min- 1, the net kcal cost
for the average daily exercise session of 4 min, 33 sec
is approximately 50 kcal, or 1400 kcal for the 27 -day
training session. Apparently, the metabolic stress of
sit up exercise was not very great, as confirmed in a
recent study (Ricci, Marchetti, & Figura, 1981). It seems
unlikely, therefore, that sit up exercise by itself could
produce a substantive alteration in total body fat con-
tent.
Previous studies on the effects of selective site ex-
ercise training have relied on gross measures of tissue
change (fatfolds, girths, and volume) as opposed to
the cellular methods employed in this study. Inter-
estingly, the correlations are only moderate between
abdominal and subscapular fat folds and correspond-
ing cell diameters assessed by needle biopsy (Clarkson
et al., 1980). For the 16 male subjects in that report,
the correlation between subscapular fatfold and sub-
scapular cell diameter was r = .76; for the abdominal
fatfold and abdominal cell diameter, the correlation
was r = .71. With only about 50% of the variance
shared in common between these two expressions of
adiposity, it is likely that fatfold assessment of sub-
cutaneous fat thickness can mask true changes in adi-
pose cell size.
In summary, the results of the present experiment
have demonstrated that sit up exercise training did
not preferentially reduce the diameter of abdominal
adipose cells, and did not significantly alter the thick-
ness of the abdominal subcutaneous fat layer or ab-
dominal circumference. If only fatfold and girth
measures are taken, it is possible to mask cellular
changes in adiposity when there are no accompanying
changes in gross body composition. It seems likely that
RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE A:\D SPORT
246
to reduce the fat content at a given body site, total
body composition must be altered; a relatively selec-
tive exercise regimen of sit ups does not solely affect
the specific fat accumulation in the abdominal area.
We conclude that sit up exercise as performed under
the conditions of this experiment will not be effective
in reducing significantly the observable fat thickness
in the abdominal region.
References
Behnke, A. R., & Wilmore,]. H. (1974). Evaluation and reg-
ulation of body build and composition. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bjorntorp, P., Carlgren, G., Isaksson, B., Krotkiewski, M.,
Larsson, B., & Sjostrom, L. (1975). Effect of an energy
reduced dietary regimen in relation to adipose tissue
cellularity in obese women. American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 28, 445-452.
Bjorntorp, P., Grimby, G., Sanne, H., Sjostrom, L., Tibblin,
G., & Wilhelmsen, L. (1972). Adipose tissue fat cell size
in relation to metabolism in weight stable, physically
active men. Hormone Metabolism Research, 4, 178-182.
Bjomtorp, P., deJounge, K., Krotkiewski, M., Sullivan, L.,
Sjostrom, L., & Stenberg,]. (1973). Physical training in
human obesity. III. Effects oflong-term physical train-
ing on body composition. Metabolism, 22, 1467-1475.
Bray, G. A. (1970). Measurement of subcutaneous fat cells
from obese patients. Annals of Internal Medicine, 73, 565-
569.
Carns, M. L., Schade, M. L., Liba, M. R., Hellebrandt, F. A.,
& Harris, C. W. (1960). Segmental volume reduction
by localized versus generalized exercise. Human Biology,
32, 370-376.
Clarkson, P. M., Katch, F. I., Kroll, W., Lane, R., & Kamen,
G. (1980). Regional adipose cellularity and reliability of
adipose cell size determination. AmericanJournal ofClin-
ical Nutrition, 33, 2245-2252.
Clarkson, P. M., Kroll, W., ws..j.. & Kamen, G. (1981). A
comparison of four methods to measure fat cell size.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 34, 2287-2290.
Flint, M. (1965). Abdominal exercise involvement during
the performance of various forms of sit-up exercise.
American Journal of Physical Medicine, 44,224-234.
Gwinup, G., Chelvam, P., & Steinberg, T. (1971). Thickness
of subcutaneous fat and activity of underlying muscles.
A nnals of Internal Medicine, 74, 408-411.
Karch, F. I., & Katch, V. L. (1980). Measurement and pre-
diction errors in body composition assessment and the
search for the perfect prediction equation. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 51, 249-260.
Krotkiewski, M., Aniansson, A., Grimby, G., Bjorntorp, P.,
& Sjostrom, L. (1979). The effect of unilateral isokinetic
strength training on local adipose and muscle tissue
morphology, thickness, and enzymes. European Journal
of Applied Physiology, 42, 271-281.
Lavau, M., Susini, c., Knittle, .l- Blanchet-Hirst, S., &
Greenwood, M. R. C. (1977). A reliable photomicro-
graphic method for determining fat cell size and num-
ber: Application to dietary obesity. Proceedings of the
Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 156, 251-
256.
VOL 55 NO.3
 KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX
Lindquist, E. F. (1953). Design and analysis of experiments in
psychology and education. New York: Houghton Mifflin
Co.
McArdle, W. D., Karch, F. I., & Katch, V. L. (1981). Exercise
physiology, energy, nutrition, and human performance. Phil-
adelphia: Lea & Febiger.
Mohr, D. R. (1965). Changes in waistline and abdominal
girth and subcutaneous fat following isometric exer-
cises. Research Quarterly, 36, 168-173.
Noland, M., & Kearney,J. T. (1978). Anthropometric and
densitometric responses of women to specific and gen-
eral exercise. Research Quarterly, 49, 322-328.
Olson, A. L., & Edelstein, E. (1968). Spot reduction of sub-
cutaneous adipose tissue. Research Quarterly, 39, 647-
652.
Ostman, J., Arner, P., Engfeldt, P., & Kager, L. (1979).
Regional differences in the control of lipolysis in hu-
man adipose tissue. Metabolism, 12, 1198-1205.
Partridge, M. J., & Walters, C. E. (1959). Participation of
the abdominal muscles in various movements of the
Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:14 20 May 2015
trunk in man: An electromyographic study. Physical
Therapy Review, 39, 791-800.
Ricci, B., Marchetti, M., & Figura, F. (1981). Biomechanics
of sit-up exercises. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 13, 54-59.
RESEARCH QUARTERLy.-oR EXERCISE AND SPORT VOL.
247
Schade, M., Hellebrandt, F. A., Waterland, J.C., & Carns,
M. L. (1962). Spot reducing in overweight college
women: Its influence on fat distribution as determined
by photography. Research Quarterly, 33,461-471.
Siri, W. E. (1961). Body composition from fluid spaces and
density. In J. Brozek & A. Henschel (Eds.), Techniques
for measuring body composition. Washington, DC: National
Academy of Sciences National Research Council, p. 223-
244.
Wilmore, J. H. (1969). A simplified method for the deter-
mination of residual lung volume. Journal of Applied
Physiology, 1969,27,96-100.
Submitted: August 27, 1981
Accepted: August 31, 1983
Frank I. Katch, Priscilla M. Clarkson and Walter Kroll are in the De-
partment of Exercise Science and Thomas McBride is with the University
Health Service, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003. Anthony
Wilcox is in the Department of Physical Education, University of Kansas,
Manhattan, KS, 66506.
55 No.3