3/1/2017 RatesofHeatTransfer

ThermalPhysicsLesson1HeatandTemperature

RatesofHeatTransfer
IntroductiontoThermalPhysics
TemperatureandThermometers
ThermometersasSpeedometers
WhatisHeat?
MethodsofHeatTransfer
RatesofHeatTransfer

Onpreviouspagesofthislesson,wehavelearnedthatheatisaformofenergytransferfromahigh
temperaturelocationtoalowtemperaturelocation.Thethreemainmethodsofheattransfer
conduction,convectionandradiationwerediscussedindetailonthepreviouspage.Nowwewill
investigatethetopicoftherateofheattransfer.Thistopicisofgreatimportancebecauseofthe
frequentneedtoeitherincreaseordecreasetherateatwhichheatflowsbetweentwolocations.For
instance,thoseofuswholiveincolderwinterclimatesareinconstantpursuitofmethodsofkeeping
ourhomeswarmwithoutspendingtoomuchmoney.Heatescapesfromhighertemperaturehomesto
thelowertemperatureoutdoorsthroughwalls,ceilings,windowsanddoors.Wemakeeffortstoreduce
thisheatlossbyaddingbetterinsulationtowallsandattics,caulkingwindowsanddoors,andbuying
highefficiencywindowsanddoors.Asanotherexample,considerelectricitygeneration.Household
electricityismostfrequently manufactured
byusingfossilfuelsornuclear fuels
.Themethodinvolves
generatingheatinareactor.Theheatistransferredtowaterandthewatercarriestheheattoasteam
turbine(orothertypeofelectricalgenerator)wherethe electricityisproduced
.Thechallengeisto
efficientlytransfertheheattothewaterandtothesteamturbinewithaslittlelossaspossible.
Attentionmustbegiventoincreasingheattransferratesinthereactorandintheturbineand
decreasingheattransferratesinthepipesbetweenthereactorandtheturbine.
Sowhatvariableswouldaffecttheheattransferrates?Howcantherateofheattransferbecontrolled?
ThesearethequestionstobediscussedonthispageofLesson1.Ourdiscussionwillberestrictedto
thevariablesaffectingtherateofheattransferbyconduction.Oncethevariablesaffectingtherateof
heattransferarediscussed,wewilllookatamathematicalequationthatexpressesthedependenceof
rateuponthesevariables.

TemperatureDifference
Inconduction,heatistransferredfromahottemperaturelocationto
acoldtemperaturelocation.Thetransferofheatwillcontinueaslong
asthereisadifferenceintemperaturebetweenthetwolocations.
Oncethetwolocationshavereachedthesametemperature,thermal
equilibriumisestablishedandtheheattransferstops.Earlierinthis
lesson,wediscussedthetransferofheatforasituationinvolvinga
metalcancontaininghightemperaturewaterthatwasplacedwithina
Styrofoamcupcontaininglowtemperaturewater.Ifthetwowatersamplesareequippedwith
temperatureprobesthatrecordchangesintemperaturewithrespecttotime,thenthefollowinggraphs
areproduced.

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Inthegraphsabove,theslopeofthelinerepresentstherateatwhichthetemperatureofeach
individualsampleofwaterischanging.Thetemperatureischangingbecauseoftheheattransferfrom
thehottothecoldwater.Thehotwaterislosingenergy,soitsslopeisnegative.Thecoldwateris
gainingenergy,soitsslopeispositive.Therateatwhichtemperaturechangesisproportionaltothe
rateatwhichheatistransferred.Thetemperatureofasamplechangesmorerapidlyifheatis
transferredatahighrateandlessrapidlyifheatistransferredatalowrate.Whenthetwosamples
reachthermalequilibrium,thereisnomoreheattransferandtheslopeiszero.Sowecanthinkofthe
slopesasbeingameasureoftherateofheattransfer.Overthecourseoftime,therateofheattransfer
isdecreasing.Initiallyheatisbeingtransferredatahighrateasreflectedbythesteeperslopes.Andas
timeprogresses,theslopesofthelinesarebecominglesssteepandmoregentlysloped.
Whatvariablecontributestothisdecreaseintheheattransferrateoverthecourseoftime?Answer:the
differenceintemperaturebetweenthetwocontainersofwater.Initially,whentherateofheattransfer
ishigh,thehotwaterhasatemperatureof70Candthecoldwaterhasatemperatureof5C.Thetwo
containershavea65Cdifferenceintemperature.Asthehotwaterbeginstocoolandthecoldwater
beginstowarm,thedifferenceintheirtemperaturesdecreaseandtherateofheattransferdecreases.
Asthermalequilibriumisapproached,theirtemperaturesareapproachingthesamevalue.Withthe
temperaturedifferenceapproachingzero,therateofheattransferapproacheszero.Inconclusion,the
rateofconductiveheattransferbetweentwolocationsisaffectedbythetemperaturedifference
betweenthetwolocations.

Material
Thefirstvariablethatwehaveidentifiedasaffectingtherateofconductiveheattransferisthe
temperaturedifferencebetweenthetwolocations.Thesecondvariableofimportanceisthematerials
involvedinthetransfer.Inthepreviousdiscussedscenario,ametalcancontaininghightemperature
waterwasplacedwithinaStyrofoamcupcontaininglowtemperaturewater.Theheatwastransferred
fromwaterthroughthemetaltowater.Thematerialsofimportancewerewater,metalandwater.What
wouldhappeniftheheatweretransferredfromhotwaterthroughglasstocoldwater?Whatwould
happeniftheheatweretransferredfromhotwaterthroughStyrofoamtocoldwater?Answer:therate
ofheattransferwouldbedifferent.ReplacingtheinnermetalcanwithaglassjaroraStyrofoamcup
wouldchangetherateofheattransfer.Therateofheattransferdependsonthematerialthroughwhich
heatistransferred.
Theeffectofamaterialuponheattransferratesisoftenexpressedintermsofanumberknownas
thethermalconductivity.Thermalconductivityvaluesarenumericalvaluesthataredeterminedby
experiment.Thehigherthatthevalueisforaparticularmaterial,themorerapidlythatheatwillbe
transferredthroughthatmaterial.Materialswithrelativelyhighthermalconductivitiesarereferredto
asthermalconductors.Materialswithrelativelylowthermalconductivityvaluesarereferredto
asthermalinsulators.Thetablebelowliststhermalconductivityvalues(k)foravarietyofmaterials,
inunitsofW/m/C.
Material k
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Aluminum(s) 237 Sand(s) 0.06

Brass(s) 110 Cellulose(s) 0.039
Copper(s) 398 Glasswool(s) 0.040
Gold(s) 315 Cottonwool(s) 0.029
CastIron(s) 55 Sheep'swool(s) 0.038
Lead(s) 35.2 Cellulose(s) 0.039
Expanded
Silver(s) 427 0.03
Polystyrene(s)
Zinc(s) 113 Wood(s) 0.13
Polyethylene(HDPE)(s) 0.5 Acetone(l) 0.16
Polyvinylchloride
(PVC)(s) 0.19 Water(l) 0.58

DenseBrick(s) 1.6 Air(g) 0.024

Concrete(Low
Density)(s) 0.2 Argon(g) 0.016

Concrete(High
Density)(s) 1.5 Helium(g) 0.142

Ice(s) 2.18 Oxygen(g) 0.024

Porcelain(s) 1.05 Nitrogen(g) 0.024
Source:http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Thermos/Thermos_HeatTransfer.html
Asisapparentfromthetable,heatisgenerallytransferredbyconductionatconsiderablyhigherrates
throughsolids(s)incomparisontoliquids(l)andgases(g).Heattransferoccursatthehighestratesfor
metals(firsteightitemsinlefthandcolumn)becausethemechanismofconductionincludesmobile
electrons(asdiscussedonapreviouspage).Severalofthesolidsintherighthandcolumnhavevery
lowthermalconductivityvaluesandareconsideredinsulators.Thestructureofthesesolidsis
characterizedbypocketsoftrappedairinterspersedbetweenfibersofthesolid.Sinceairisagreat
insulator,thepocketsofairinterspersedbetweenthesesolidfibersgivesthesesolidslowthermal
conductivityvalues.Oneofthesesolidinsulatorsisexpandedpolystyrene,thematerialusedin
Styrofoamproducts.SuchStyrofoamproductsaremadebyblowinganinertgasathighpressureinto
thepolystyrenebeforebeinginjectedintothemold.Thegascausesthepolystyrenetoexpand,leaving
airfilledpocketsthatcontributetotheinsulatingabilityofthefinishedproduct.Styrofoamisusedin
coolers,popcaninsulators,thermosjugs,andevenfoamboardsforhouseholdinsulation.Anothersolid
insulatoriscellulose.Celluloseinsulationisusedtoinsulateatticsandwallsinhomes.Itinsulateshomes
fromheatlossaswellassoundpenetration.Itisoftenblownintoatticsas loosefillcelluloseinsulation
.
fiberglassbatts
Itisalsoappliedas (longsheetsofpaperbackedinsulation)tofillthespacingbetween
2x4studsoftheexterior(andsometimesinterior)wallsofhomes.

Area
Anothervariablethataffectstherateofconductiveheattransferistheareathroughwhichheatisbeing
transferred.Forinstance,heattransferthroughwindowsofhomesisdependentuponthesizeofthe
window.Moreheatwillbelostfromahomethroughalargerwindowthanthroughasmallerwindowof
thesamecompositionandthickness.Moreheatwillbelostfromahomethroughalargerroofthan
throughasmallerroofwiththesameinsulationcharacteristics.Eachindividualparticleonthesurfaceof
anobjectisinvolvedintheheatconductionprocess.Anobjectwithawiderareahasmoresurface
particlesworkingtoconductheat.Assuch,therateofheattransferisdirectlyproportionaltothe 3/5
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surfaceareathroughwhichtheheatisbeingconducted.

ThicknessorDistance
Afinalvariablethataffectstherateofconductiveheattransferisthe
distancethattheheatmustbeconducted.Heatescapingthrougha
Styrofoamcupwillescapemorerapidlythroughathinwalledcupthan
throughathickwalledcup.Therateofheattransferisinversely
proportionaltothethicknessofthecup.Asimilarstatementcanbe
madeforheatbeingconductedthroughalayerofcelluloseinsulation
inthewallofahome.Thethickerthattheinsulationis,thelowertherateofheattransfer.Thoseofus
wholiveincolderwinterclimatesknowthisprinciplequitewell.Wearetoldtodressinlayersbefore
goingoutside.Thisincreasesthethicknessofthematerialsthroughwhichheatistransferred,aswellas
trappingpocketsofair(withhighinsulationability)betweentheindividuallayers.

AMathematicalEquation
Sofarwehavelearnedoffourvariablesthataffecttherateofheattransferbetweentwolocations.The
variablesarethetemperaturedifferencebetweenthetwolocations,thematerialpresentbetweenthe
twolocations,theareathroughwhichtheheatwillbetransferred,andthedistanceitmustbe
transferred.Asisoftenthecaseinphysics,themathematicalrelationshipbetweenthesevariablesand
therateofheattransfercanbeexpressedintheformofanequation.Let'sconsiderthetransferofheat
throughaglasswindowfromtheinsideofahomewithatemperatureofT1totheoutsideofahome
withatemperatureofT2.ThewindowhasasurfaceareaAandathicknessd.Thethermalconductivity
valueofthewindowglassisk.Theequationrelatingtheheattransferratetothesevariablesis
Rate=kA(T1T2)/d
TheunitsontherateofheattransferareJoule/second,alsoknownasaWatt.Thisequationis
applicabletoanysituationinwhichheatistransferredinthesamedirectionacrossaflat
rectangular wall
.Itappliestoconductionthroughwindows,flatwalls,slopesroofs(withoutany
curvature),etc.Aslightlydifferentequationappliestoconductionthroughcurvedwallssuchas
the walls
ofcans,cups,glassesandpipes.Wewillnotdiscussthatequationhere.

ExampleProblem
Toillustratetheuseoftheaboveequation,let'scalculatetherateofheattransferonacolddaythrough
arectangularwindowthatis1.2mwideand1.8mhigh,hasathicknessof6.2mm,athermal
conductivityvalueof0.27W/m/C.Thetemperatureinsidethehomeis21Candthetemperature
outsidethehomeis4C.
Tosolvethisproblem,wewillneedtoknowthesurfaceareaofthewindow.Beingarectangle,wecan
calculatetheareaaswidthheight.

Area=(1.2m)(1.8m)=2.16m2.

Wewillalsoneedtogiveattentiontotheunitonthickness(d).Itisgiveninunitsofcmwewillneedto
converttounitsofmetersinorderfortheunitstobeconsistentwiththatofkandA.

d=6.2mm=0.0062m
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Nowwearereadytocalculatetherateofheattransferbysubstitutionofknownvaluesintotheabove
equation.

Rate=(0.27W/m/C)(2.16m2)(21C4C)/(0.0062m)
Rate=2400W(roundedfrom2352W)

Itisusefultonotethatthethermalconductivityvalueofahousewindowismuchlowerthanthe
thermalconductivityvalueofglassitself.Thethermalconductivityofglassisabout0.96W/m/C.Glass
windowsareconstructedasdoubleandtriplepanewindowswithalowpressureinertgaslayerbetween
thepanes.Furthermore,coatingsareplacedonthewindowstoimproveefficiency.Theresultisthat
thereareaseriesofsubstancesthroughwhichheatmustconsecutivelypassinordertobetransferred
outof(orinto)thehouse.Likeelectricalresistorsplacedinseries,aseriesofthermalinsulatorshasan
additiveeffectontheoverallresistanceofferedtotheflowofheat.Theaccumulativeeffectofthe
variouslayersofmaterialsinawindowleadstoanoverallconductivitythatismuchlessthanasingle
paneofuncoatedglass.

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