Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Although well logging has made major advances over the last 70 years, several important reservoir proper-
ties are still not measured in a continuous log. Among these are producibility, irreducible water saturation
and residual oil saturation. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging has long promised to measure these,
yet it is only recently that technological developments backed up by sound research into the physics behind
Autumn 1995 19
For most elements the detected signals are decay of the NMR signal during each mea- 100% porosity
small. However, hydrogen has a relatively surement cyclecalled the relaxation Water in test tube
Signal amplitude
large magnetic moment and is abundant in timegenerates the most excitement among T2 = 3700 msec
both water and hydrocarbon in the pore the petrophysical community.
space of rock. By tuning NMR logging tools Relaxation times depend on pore sizes CMR porosity
to the magnetic resonant frequency of (right ). For example, small pores shorten
Water in pore space of rock
hydrogen, the signal is maximized and can relaxation timesthe shortest times corre-
T2 = 10 to 500 msec
be measured. sponding to clay-bound and capillary-
The quantities measured are signal ampli- bound water. Large pores allow long relax-
Time, msec
tude and decay (see All in a SpinNMR ation times and contain the most readily
Measurements, below ). NMR signal ampli- producible fluids. Therefore the distribution Relaxation curves. Water in a test
tude is proportional to the number of hydro- of relaxation times is a measure of the distri- tube has a long T2 relaxation time of
gen nuclei present and is calibrated to give bution of pore sizesa new petrophysical 3700 msec at 40C (upper curve).
Relaxation times of a vuggy carbonate
porosity, free from radioactive sources and parameter. Relaxation times and their distri- might approach this value. However,
free from lithology effects. However, the butions may be interpreted to give other water in rock pore space has shorter
relaxation times. For example, relax-
ation times for a sandstone typically
Precessional motion range from 10 msec for small pores to
500 msec for large pores. The initial
Spinning motion amplitude of the relaxation curve
gives CMR porosity.
All in a Spin
1. Murphy DP: NMR Logging and Core Analysis 3. Kenyon WE: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance as a Petro-
Simplified, World Oil 216, no. 4 (April 1995): 65-70. physical Measurement, Nuclear Geophysics 6, no. 2 NMR Measurements
2. For examples of laboratory T2 core measurements (1992): 153-171.
enabling direct comparison to log measurements and 4. Kenyon WE, Howard JJ, Sezinger A, Straley C, NMR measurements consist of a series of manip-
to laboratory T1 core measurements: Matteson A, Horkowitz K and Ehrlich R: Pore-Size
Straley C, Rossini D, Vinegar H, Tutunjian P and Mor- Distribution and NMR in Microporous Cherty Sand- ulations of hydrogen protons in fluid molecules.1
riss C: Core Analysis by Low Field NMR, Proceed- stones, Transactions of the SPWLA 30th Annual Log-
ging Symposium, Denver, Colorado, USA, June 11-14, Protons have a magnetic moment and behave like
ings of the 1994 International Symposium of the Soci-
ety of Core Analysts, Stavanger, Norway, September 1989, paper LL. small bar magnets, so that their orientations may
12-14, 1994, paper SCA-9404. Howard JJ, Kenyon WE and Straley C: Proton Mag-
netic Resonance and Pore Size Variations in Reservoir be controlled by magnetic fields. They also spin,
Kleinberg RL, Straley C, Kenyon WE, Akkurt R and
Farooqui SA: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of Rocks: Sandstones, paper SPE 20600, presented at the 65th which makes them act like gyroscopes.
T1 versus T2 , paper SPE 26470, presented at the 68th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 23-26, A measurement sequence starts with proton
Houston, Texas, USA, October 3-6, 1993. 1990.
alignment followed by spin tipping, precession,
Gallegos DP and Smith DM: A NMR Technique for
the Analysis of Pore Structure: Determination of and repeated dephasing and refocusing. Trans-
Continuous Pore Size Distributions, Journal of Colloid
and Interface Science 122, no. 1 (1988): 143-153.
verse relaxation and longitudinal relaxation limit
Loren JD and Robinson JD: Relations Between Pore how long a measurement must last. Only after
Size Fluid and Matrix Properties, and NML Measure-
ments, SPE Journal 10 (September 1970): 268-278.
completion of all these stepswhich takes a few
5. Freedman R and Morriss CE: Processing of Data From secondscan the measurement be repeated.2
an NMR Logging Tool, paper SPE 30560, to be pre-
sented at the 70th SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25,
1995.
20 Oilfield Review
1
Signal amplitude
NMR Applications and Examples
processed to give
The T2 distribution measured by the Schlum- T2 distribution. The
berger CMR Combinable Magnetic Reso- CMR tool measures
nance tool, described later, summarizes all decaying NMR sig-
the NMR measurements and has several nal amplitude (top),
which is the sum of
Signal amplitude
petrophysical applications: all the decaying T2
T2 distribution mimics pore size distribu- signals generated
tion in water-saturated rock by hydrogen pro-
the area under the distribution curve tons in the measure-
equals CMR porosity ment volume. Sepa-
rating out ranges of
permeability is estimated from logarith- T2 values by a
mic-mean T2 and CMR porosity mathematical
empirically derived cutoffs separate the T2 inversion process
distribution into areas equal to free-fluid produces the T2 dis-
tribution (bottom).
porosity and irreducible water porosity.3 0
The curve repre-
Application and interpretation of NMR 0 100 200 300 400 sents the distribu-
measurement rely on understanding the Time, msec tion of pore sizes,
rock and fluid properties that cause relax- and the area under
ation (see NMR Relaxation Mechanisms, the curve is CMR
porosity. Interpreta-
page 26 ). With this foundation of the mech- tion of pore size dis-
anisms of relaxation, the interpretation of T2 tribution and loga-
0.03
distribution becomes straightforward. rithmic mean T2 are
T 2 Distribution In porous media, T 2 used to calculate
such parameters as
relaxation time is proportional to pore size.4 permeability and
At any depth in the well the CMR tool free-fluid porosity.
probes a rock sample that has a range of
Signal Distribution
Autumn 1995 21
Porosity Wiggle In an example taken from a carbonate
Dolomite reservoir, T2 distributions from X340 ft to
X405 ft are biased towards the high end of
Calcite Bound-Fluid Volume
CMR Porosity 100-msec Line the distribution spectrum indicating large
Anhydrite 25 p.u. 0 0.1 msec 1000 pores ( left ). Below X405 ft, the bias is
towards the low end of the spectrum, indi-
Quartz Hydrocarbon 750-msec Vug Line
CMR Perm cating small pores. This not only provides a
1:240 ft Bound Water 0.1 md 1000 Free Water 0.1 msec 1000 qualitative feel for which zones are likely to
produce, but also helps geologists with
Perf Illite Perm Cap Bound Water T2 Distribution
facies analysis.
Lithology-independent porosityTradi-
tional calculations of porosity rely on bore-
X350 hole measurements of density and neutron
porosity. Both measurements require envi-
ronmental corrections and are influenced by
lithology and formation fluid. The porosity
derived is total porosity, which consists of
magnetic field, B1, perpendicular to the direction Precession and dephasingWhen protons are
z
of B0 (right). For effective spin tipping: tipped 90 from the B0 direction, they precess in
f = B0 the plane perpendicular to B0. In this respect
where f is the frequency of B1 called Larmor B 0 field they act like gyroscopes in a gravitation field
frequencyand is a constant called the gyro- (page 20, left).
magnetic ratio of the nucleus. For example, the At first all the protons precess in unison. While
Larmor frequency for hydrogen nuclei in a field of B 1 field y doing so they generate a small magnetic field at
550 gauss is about 2.3 MHz. the Larmor frequency which is detected by the
The angle through which spins are tipped is antenna and forms the basis of the NMR mea-
x
controlled by the strength of B1 and the length of surements. However, the magnetic field, B0, is
time it is switched on. For example, to tip spins not perfectly homogeneous, causing the protons
Spin tipping. Aligned protons are tipped 90 by
by 90as in most logging applicationsa B1 to precess at slightly different frequencies. Grad-
a magnetic pulse oscillating at the resonance, or
field of 4 gauss is switched on for 16 microsec- Larmor frequency. ually, they lose synchronizationthey dephase
onds (sec). causing the antenna signal to decay (next page).
The decaying signal is called free induction
decay (FID) and the decay time is called
22 Oilfield Review
CPMG Pulse Sequence
90 180
B1 amplitude
1 2 3 4 600
Start next
CPMG
sequence
Pulse sequence and refocusing. Each NMR mea-
160 320 320 Time, sec surement comprises a sequence of transverse mag-
Signal netic pulses transmitted by an antennacalled a
CPMG sequence. Each CPMG sequence starts with a
pulse that tips hydrogen protons 90 and is followed
1 6a 6b by several hundred pulses that refocus the protons
by tipping them 180 (top). After each pulse the
Amplitude
T2*the asterisk indicates that the decay is not a Similarly, the hydrogen protonsprecessing at
z
property of the formation. For logging tools T2* is slightly different Larmor frequenciescan be
comparable to the span of the tipping pulsea refocused when a 180 pulse is transmitted. The
B 0 field few tens of microseconds. 180 pulse is the same strength as a 90 pulse,
Refocusing: spin echoesThe dephasing but switched on for twice as long. As the protons
caused by the inhomogeneity of B0 is reversible. rephase, they generate a signal in the
y Imagine a race started by a starting gun, analo- antennaa spin echo.
gous to a 90 tipping pulse. The runners start off Of course, the spin echo quickly decays again.
in unison, but after several laps they become dis- However, the 180 pulses can be applied repeat-
x Dephasing in persed around the trackdue to their slightly dif- edlytypically several hundred times in a single
the x-y plane ferent speeds. Now the starter gives another sig- NMR measurement. The usual procedure is to
nal by firing a 180 pulse. The runners turn apply 180 pulses in an evenly spaced train, as
Transverse decay. As the protons precess about around and race in the opposite direction. The
the static field, they gradually lose synchronization. fastest runners have the greatest distance to
This causes the magnetic field in the transverse
travel back to the start. However, if the conditions
plane to decay. Dephasing is caused by inhomo-
geneities in the static magnetic field and by molecu- remain the samewhich is never the caseall
lar interactions. the runners arrive back at the same time (above).
Autumn 1995 23
producible fluids, capillary-bound water dolomite matrix to overlay the CMR porosity. relationships were developed from brine
and clay-bound water (below). If the lithology is not known or if it is com- permeability measurements and NMR mea-
However, CMR porosity is not influenced plex, CMR porosity gives the best solution. surements made in the laboratory on hun-
by lithology and includes only producible Also, no radioactive sources are used for the dreds of different core samples. The follow-
fluids and capillary-bound water. This is measurement, so there are no environmental ing formula is commonly used:
because hydrogen in rock matrix and in concerns when logging in bad boreholes.
kNMR = C (NMR )4 (T2, log )2
clay-bound water has sufficiently short T2 PermeabilityPerhaps the most important
relaxation times that the signal is lost during feature of NMR logging is the ability to where kNMR is the estimated permeability,
the dead time of the tool. record a real-time permeability log. The NMR is CMR porosity, T2, log is the logarith-
An example in a clean carbonate forma- potential benefits to oil companies are enor- mic mean of the T2 distribution and C is a
tion compares CMR porosity with that mous. Log permeability measurements constant, typically 4 for sandstones and 0.1
derived from the density tool to show lithol- enable production rates to be predicted, for carbonates.
ogy independence ( next page, top) . The allowing optimization of completion and A cored interval of a well was logged
lower half of the interval is predominantly stimulation programs while decreasing the using the CMR tool. The value of C in the
limestone, and density porosity, assuming a cost of coring and testing. CMR permeability model was calculated
limestone matrix, overlays CMR porosity. At Permeability is derived from empirical from core permeability at several depths.
X935 ft, the reservoir changes to dolomite relationships between NMR porosity and After calibration CMR permeability was
and density porosity has to be adjusted to a mean values of T2 relaxation times. These found to overlay all core permeability points
over the whole interval (page 26 ). Over the
zone XX41 m to XX49 m the porosity varied
CMR derived
CMR little. However, permeability varied consid-
erably from a low of 0.07 md at XX48 m to
Free-fluid
a high of 10 md at XX43 m. CMR perme-
ability also showed excellent vertical resolu-
tion and compared well to that of core val-
ues. The value of C used for this well will be
Clay- Capillary- applied to subsequent CMR logs in this for-
Producible
bound bound
fluids mation enabling the oil company to reduce
water water
coring costs.
Conventional Free-fluid indexThe value of free-fluid
logs index is determined by applying a cutoff to
the T2 relaxation curve. Values above the
Total
cutoff indicate large pores potentially
capable of producing, and values below
CMR porosity. Hydrogen in rock matrix and in clay-bound indicate small pores containing fluid that is
water has short relaxation times that are lost in the dead time of trapped by capillary pressure, incapable of
the CMR tool. CMR porosity includes only capillary-bound water producing.
and producible fluids and is not influenced by lithology. Total
porosityas measured by conventional logsalso includes clay-
bound water. The dotted line indicates that CMR porosity does
not include microporosity associated with hard shales.
close together as possible. The entire pulse CPMG Decay for a Rock physical properties such as movable fluid poros-
sequence, a 90 pulse followed by a long series ity, pore size distribution and permeability.
1.60
of 180 pulses, is called a CPMG sequence Irreversible dephasing is monitored by measur-
after its inventors, Carr, Purcell, Meiboom and ing the decaying amplitude of the spin echoes in
1.20
Gill.4 The echo spacing is 320 sec for the the CPMG echo train (left). The characteristic echo
Signal amplitude
Schlumberger CMR tool and 1200 sec for amplitude decay time is called the transverse
0.30
NUMARs MRIL tool. relaxation time, T2, because dephasing occurs in
Transverse relaxation, T2 The CPMG pulse the plane transverse to the static field B0.5
0.40
sequence compensates for dephasing caused by Longitudinal relaxation, T1 After a period of
B0 field imperfections. However, molecular pro- several times T2, the protons completely lose
0.00
cesses also cause dephasing, but this is irre- coherence, and no further refocusing is possible.
versible. These processes are related to petro- 0.1 sec After the CPMG pulse sequence is delivered the
0.40
protons return to their equilibrium direction paral-
24 Oilfield Review
1:240 ft Combined Model Density Porosity, Limestone
0 % 100 30 p.u. 10
X900
x x-y plane
decay
Autumn 1995 25
Caliper Many experiments have been made on
125 mm 375 rock samples to verify this assumption.6 T2
Bit Size Core Permeability Core Porosity distributions were measured on water-satu-
125 mm 375 .01 md 100 0.2 m3/m3 0 rated cores before and after they had been
Gamma Ray CMR Permeability CMR Porosity centrifuged in air to expel the producible
0 g API 150 .01 md 100 0.2 m3/m3 0
water. The samples were centrifuged under
SP Logarithmic Mean T2 CMR Free-Fluid Porosity
100 psi to simulate reservoir capillary pres-
-120 mV 30 1:120 m 1 msec 10000 0.2 m3/m3 0
sure. Before centrifuging, the relaxation dis-
tribution corresponds to all pore sizes. It
seems logical to assume that during cen-
trifuging the large pore spaces empty first.
Not surprisingly, the long relaxation times
XX40
disappeared from the T2 measurement (next
page, top).
Observations of many sandstone samples
showed that a cutoff time of 33 msec for T2
distributions would distinguish between
free-fluid porosity and capillary-bound
water. For carbonates, relaxation times tend
to be three times longer and a cutoff of 100
msec is used.7 However, both these values
will vary if reservoir capillary pressure dif-
fers from the 100 psi used on the cen-
trifuged samples. If this is the case, the
XX50
experiments may be repeated to find cutoff
times appropriate to the reservoir.
Comparison of log and core data. CMR porosity shows a good match with core poros-
In a fine-grained sandstone reservoir
ity measurements. Computed CMR permeability has been fine-tuned to match core example, interpretation of conventional log
permeability enabling CMR logs to replace conventional coring on subsequent wells. data showed 70 to 80% water saturation
6. Straley C, Morriss CE, Kenyon WE and Howard JJ: 7. Akbar M, Petricola M, Watfa M, Badri M, Charara M, Chang D, Vinegar H, Morriss C and Straley C: Effec-
NMR in Partially Saturated Rocks: Laboratory Insights Boyd A, Cassell B, Nurmi R, Delhomme JP, Grace M, tive Porosity, Producible Fluid and Permeability in
on Free Fluid Index and Comparison with Borehole Kenyon B and Roestenberg J: Classic Interpretation Carbonates from NMR Logging, Transactions of the
Logs, Transactions of the SPWLA 32nd Annual Log- Problems: Evaluating Carbonates, Oilfield Review 7, SPWLA 35th Annual Logging Symposium, Tulsa,
ging Symposium, Midland, Texas, USA, June 16-19, no. 1 (January 1995): 38-57. Oklahoma, USA, June 19-22, 1994, paper A.
1991, paper CC.
There are three NMR relaxation mechanisms that Grain surface relaxationMolecules in fluids Surfaces are not equally effective in relaxing
influence T1 or T2 relaxation times: grain surface are in constant motionBrownian motionand hydrogen protons. For example, sandstones are
relaxation, relaxation by molecular diffusion in diffuse about a pore space, hitting the grain sur- about three times more efficient in relaxing pore
magnetic field gradients and relaxation by bulk face several times during one NMR measurement. water than carbonates. Also rocks with a high
fluid processes.1 When this happens, two interactions may occur. content of iron or other magnetic minerals have
First, hydrogen protons can transfer nuclear spin larger than usual values of and, hence, shorter
1. Kleinberg RL, Kenyon WE and Mitra PP: On the Mecha- energy to the grain surface allowing realignment NMR relaxation times.
nism of NMR Relaxation of Fluids in Rocks, Journal of with the static magnetic field, B0 this con- Pore size also plays an important role in sur-
Magnetic Resonance 108A, no. 2 (1994): 206-214.
tributes to longitudinal relaxation, T1. Second, face relaxation. The speed of relaxation depends
2. Kleinberg RL and Horsfield MA: Transverse Relaxation
Processes in Porous Sedimentary Rock, Journal of Mag- protons may be irreversibly dephasedcontribut- on how frequently protons can collide with the
netic Resonance 88, no. 1 (1990): 9-19. surface and this depends on the surface-to-vol-
ing to transverse relaxation, T2. Researchers have
Sezginer A, Kleinberg RL, Fukuhara M and Latour LL:
Very Rapid Simultaneous Measurement of Nuclear Mag- shown that in most rocks, grain-surface relaxation ume ratio (S/V) (next page, bottom). Collisions
netic Resonance Spin-Lattice Relaxation Time and Spin- is the most important influence on T1 and T2. The
Spin Relaxation Time, Journal of Magnetic Resonance
92, no. 3 (1991): 504-527.
ability of grain surfaces to relax protons is called
surface relaxivity, .2
26 Oilfield Review
Pore diameter, microns
0.01 0.1 1 10
nFree-fluid porosity. Free-fluid porosity is
T2 original determined by applying a cutoff to the T2
T2 spun sample distribution curve. The area underneath
the curve above the cutoff gives free-fluid
distribution
0
5 10 15 20
centrifuge, p.u.
Rock grain
Rock grain
Amplitude
Amplitude
Rock grain
nGrain surface relaxation. Precessing protons move about pore space colliding with other protons and with grain surfaces (left). Every
time a proton collides with a grain surface there is a possibility of a relaxation interaction occurring. Grain surface relaxation is the most
important process affecting T1 and T2 relaxation times. Experimenters have shown that when the probability of colliding with a grain sur-
face is highsmall pores (center)relaxation is rapid and when the probability of colliding with a grain surface is lowlarge pores
(right)relaxation is slower.
Autumn 1995 27
Clay Effective Porosity Free-fluid index
sandstone example.
Sandstone 25 p.u. 0 In this predomi-
CMR nantly shaly-sand-
Salt Wiggle
Bound-Fluid Volume stone (track 1), T2
distributions (track 5)
Limestone Effective Porosity 25 p.u. 0
fall mainly below
25 p.u. 0 Bound-Fluid Volume the 33-msec cutoff
Dolomite CMR Perm Hydrocarbon 33-msec Line
Water line, indicating
0.1 md 1000 Saturation Hydrocarbon capillary-bound
Anhydrite Water .001 msec 3
100 0 water. However,
1:240 ft Hydrocarbon Perm p.u. Water Irreducible Water T2 Distribution the ELAN interpreta-
tion (track 3)
made without CMR
datashows high
water saturation,
implying water pro-
duction. The ELAN
interpretation with
CMR data (track 4)
clearly shows that
most of the water is
irreducible. This
well produced at
30% water cut,
validating the
CMR results.
X400
are less frequent in large pores and they have a decays with characteristic time constant, Relaxation by molecular diffusion in magnetic
small S/Vrelaxation times are, therefore, rela- [2(S/V)]1. Therefore, field gradientsWhen there are gradients in the
tively long. Similarly, small pores have large a static magnetic field, molecular motion can
1/T2 = 2 S/V.
S/V and short relaxation times.3 cause dephasing and hence T2 relaxation. T1
For a single pore, the nuclear spin magnetiza- Similarly, relaxation is not affected. In the absence of such
tion decays exponentially, so the signal ampli- gradients, molecular diffusion does not cause
1/T1 = 1 S/V.
tude as a function of time in a T2 experiment NMR relaxation.
Rocks have a distribution of pore sizes, each A B0 gradient has two possible sources: the
with its own value of S/V. The total magnetization magnet configuration of the logging tool, and the
is the sum of the signal coming from each pore. magnetic susceptibility contrast between grain
The sum of the volumes of all the pores is equal materials and pore fluids in porous rocks.
to the fluid volume of the rockthe porosity. So Keeping the CPMG echo spacing to a mini-
the total signal is proportional to porosity and the mum, and keeping the applied magnetic field
overall decay is the sum of the individual decays, small reduce the contribution of diffusion to T2
which reflects pore size distribution. NMR mea- relaxation to a negligible level.
surements of porosity and pore size distribution
are the key elements of NMR interpretation.
28 Oilfield Review
across a shaly sandstone formation. How- tory measurements were performed on trate properties are well-known and can be
ever, on the CMR log most of the T2 distri- cores to determine whether NMR logging measured at the wellsite on surface. When
bution falls below the 33-msec cutoff indi- would improve log evaluation. fluid loss during drilling is low, as in the
cating capillary-bound water. Interpretation Cores showed a good deal of microporos- case of low-permeability formations, hydro-
including CMR data showed that most of ity holding a large volume of capillary- carbons may also be present in the flushed
the water was irreducible. The well has bound water. Free-fluid porosity was found zone (see The Lowdown on Low-Resistivity
since been completed producing economic in the traditional way by centrifuging the Pay, page 4). In these cases NMR tools may
quantities of gas and oil with a low water water-saturated cores. For this reservoir, measure fluid properties such as viscosity
cut (previous page ). The water cut may be however, capillary pressure was known to and so distinguish oil from water.
estimated from the difference between be 25 psi, so the core samples were cen- A published example of the effects of
residual water saturation and water satura- trifuged accordingly. This showed that NMR hydrocarbon viscosity comes from Shells
tion from resistivity logs. measurements could provide a good esti- North Belridge diatomite and Brown shale
In another example, but this time in a mate of nonproducing micropores using a formations, Bakersfield, California, USA.10
complex carbonate reservoir, the oil com- T2 cutoff of 190 msec. In addition, perme- Both CMR logs and laboratory measure-
pany was concerned about water coning able grainstone facies could be distin- ments on cores show two distinct peaks on
during production. CMR log data showed guished from lower-permeability packstones the T2 distribution curves. The shorter peak,
low T 2 values below X405 ft indicating and mudstones with a cutoff of 225 msec. at about 10 msec, originates from water in
small pore sizes. Applying the carbonate contact with the diatom surface. The longer
cutoff of 100 msec showed that nearly all Additional Applications peak, at about 150 msec, originates from
the water was irreducible, which allowed Borehole NMR instruments are shallow- light oil. The position of the oil peak corre-
additional perforation (see page 22, top). To reading devices. In most cases, they mea- lates roughly with oil viscosity. The area
date no water coning has occurred. sure formation properties in the flushed under this peak provides an estimation of
Values for cutoffs can also be tailored to zone.9 This has some advantages as mud fil- oil saturation. (continued on page 32)
particular reservoirs and help with facies
analysis, as in the case of the Thamama 8. Kenyon WE, Takezaki H, Straley C, Sen PN, Herron M, Fordham EJ, Roberts TPL, Carpenter TA, Hall LD and
group of formations in Abu Dhabi Oil Com- Matteson A and Petricola MJ: A Laboratory Study of Hall C: Dynamic NMR Imaging of Rapid Depth Fil-
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Relaxation and Its Rela- tration of Clay in Porous Media, American Institute
panys Mubarraz field offshore Abu Dhabi, tion to Depositional Texture and Petrophysical Proper- of Chemical Engineering Journal 37, no. 12 (1991):
UAE.8 In this field, classical log interpreta- tiesCarbonate Thamama Group, Mubarraz Field, 1900-1903.
tion showed water saturation of 10 to 60%. Abu Dhabi, paper SPE 29886, presented at the SPE 10. Morriss CE, Freedman R, Straley C, Johnston M,
Middle East Oil Show, Bahrain, March 11-14, 1995. Vinegar HJ and Tutunjian PN: Hydrocarbon Satura-
However, some zones produced no water, 9. For research into the effects of particulate invasion on tion and Viscosity Estimation from NMR Logging in
making completion decisions difficult. Per- NMR measurements: the Belridge Diatomite, Transactions of the SPWLA
meability also varied widely even though Fordham E, Sezginer A and Hall LD: Imaging Multiex- 35th Annual Logging Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma,
ponential Relaxation in the (y, loge (T1) Plane with USA, June 19-22, 1994, paper C.
porosity remained almost constant. Labora-
Application to Clay Filtration in Rock Cores, Journal
of Magnetic Resonance A113, no. 2 (April 1995):
139-150.
Bulk fluid relaxationEven if grain surfaces mud filtrate can be measured at the wellsite to There is no diffusion contribution to T1,
and internal field gradients are absent, relaxation calculate the correction. because that process results in a dephasing
occurs in the bulk fluid. Bulk fluid relaxation can Relaxation processes summaryRelaxation mechanism. For the CMR tool, the surface relax-
often be neglected, but is important when water processes act in paralleltheir rates are additive: ation mechanism will usually be dominant for
is in very large poressuch as in vuggy carbon- the wetting phase, and the bulk relaxation mech-
atesand, therefore, hydrogen protons rarely (1/T2) total = (1/T2)S + (1/T2)D + (1/T2)B anism will dominate for the nonwetting phase.
contact a surface. Bulk relaxation is also impor-
tant when hydrocarbons are present. The nonwet- where (1/T2)S is the surface contribution, (1/T2)D 3. Sen PN, Straley C, Kenyon WE and Whittingham MS:
Surface-to-Volume Ratio, Charge Density, Nuclear Mag-
ting phase does not contact the pore surface, and is the diffusion in field gradient contribution, and
netic Relaxation and Permeability in Clay-Bearing Sand-
so it cannot be relaxed by the surface relaxation (1/T2)B is the bulk contribution. The corresponding stones, Geophysics 55, no. 1 (1990): 61-69.
mechanism. Also, increasing fluid viscosity equation for T1 is 4. Morriss et al, reference 10 main text.
Autumn 1995 29
History of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Logging
As far back as 1946, nuclear magnetic resonance logging tools for the next 30 years (below).2 ratory NMR techniques developed to characterize
(NMR) signals from hydrogen atom nuclei Schlumberger ran two versions of this tool in the core samples. Schlumberger also has a long tra-
protonswere first observed independently by 1960s and early 1970s under license from Chevron dition of research into NMR techniques and pro-
Purcell and Bloch, and have since been used and later developed a third-generation tool duced important work on relaxation mechanisms
extensively to characterize materials.1 Magnetic NML-Ccommercialized at the end of the 1970s.3 and pore-size distributions in the late 1980s.6
resonance imaging instruments are commonly During this time, continuing research into NMR Much of this work continues today.
used as diagnostic tools in medicine today. interpretation produced some outstanding contri- In the late 1980s the first experimental pulsed-
Oil industry interest followed in the 1950s butions. Seevers developed a relationship NMR logging tools were developed. A major dis-
with several patents for NMR logging tools filed between relaxation time and permeability of sand- advantage of early logging tools was having to
by companies such as California Research stones in 1965, and Timur developed the concept dope the mud system with magnetite to eliminate
Corporation, Schlumberger Well Surveying of free-fluid index and new methods to measure the NMR signal from the borehole. To make the
Corporation, Texaco Incorporated and Socony permeability using NMR principles in 1968.4 The technique more widely acceptable meant a radi-
Mobil Oil Company. relationship between pore size, fluid and matrix cal design change to profit from advances in
The first NMR log was run in 1960. Developed properties was presented by Loren and Robinson pulsed-NMR technologymore commonly used
by Brown and Gamson of Chevron Research Com- of Shell Oil Company in 1969.5 in the laboratory for core measurements.
pany, the tool used the Earths magnetic field for The 1970s and 1980s saw continuation of this A patent for a pulse-echo NMR logging tool
proton alignmentthe principle underlying NMR work by many oil companies in parallel with labo- was filed by Jackson in 1978. This was followed
Time
x Net
Earth Tool
Receive Free-fluid
Rotating index
Earth f
frame of L
reference
Principle of early NMR tools. The Schlumberger NML Nuclear Magnetism Logging tool measured transverse relaxation, T2. Protons in the
formation are aligned to the Earths magnetic fieldconsidered to be homogeneous on these scales. A horizontally-mounted coil tips the
protons 90 (Borehole). They then start to precess about the Earths field and gradually relax back towards it (Magnetization). The same coil
measures the decaying horizontal magnetization as protons relax. The envelope of the decaying signal gives T2 (NML Signal). T2 amplitude
was extrapolated back to the start of the measurement to give NML porosity, assumed equal to free-fluid index. One big drawback with this
type of tool was that the borehole signal had to be eliminated by doping the mud system with magnetitenot very popular with drillers.
30 Oilfield Review
S
Bearth N
Bpolarization
in the late 1980s and 1990s by designs from
N NUMAR and Schlumberger (left).7
The two tools currently available are the
Schlumberger second generation, pulse-echo
NMR toolthe CMR tooland NUMARs MRIL
S
Magnetic Resonance Imager Log.8 Both use per-
manent magnets, instead of the Earths magnetic
field, to align protons, and a system providing
controllable radio-frequency (rf) magnetic pulses
allowing T2 measurements. The use of perma-
nent magnets means that the position of the mea-
surement volume can be controlled by tool
S S N designeliminating borehole doping.
N S N
Permanent magnet S N Borehole NMR tool designs. Earth-field tool proposed by Brown and Gamson in
1960 (top left) was the principle behind three generations of Schlumberger NML
Static magnetic field lines tools. Inside-out NMR uses permanent magnets and pulsed NMR technology (top
right). This configuration was first proposed by Jackson in 1984. The MRIL Mag-
Radio frequency coil netic Resonance Imager Log built by NUMAR Corporation in 1990 (bottom left) was
the first commercial pulsed NMR tool. A side-looking inside-out configuration
Radio frequency field lines
invented by Schlumberger is the basis for the CMR tool commercialized this year
Sensitive zones (bottom right). The top two figures are side views of the borehole and the bottom
two figures are cross sections.
1. Bloch F, Hansen W and Packard ME: The Nuclear Induc- 4. Seevers DO: A Nuclear Magnetic Method for Determining Kenyon WE, Day PI, Straley C and Willemsen JF: A
tion Experiment, Physical Review 70 (1946): 474-485. the Permeability of Sandstones, Transactions of the Three-Part Study of NMR Longitudinal Relaxation Proper-
Bloembergen RM, Purcell EM and Pound RV: Relaxation SPWLA 7th Annual Logging Symposium, Tulsa, Okla- ties of Water-Saturated Sandstones, SPE Formation
Effects in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Absorption, homa, USA, May 8-11, 1966. Evaluation 3, no. 3 (1988): 622-636.
Physical Review 73 (1948): 679. Timur A: Effective Porosity and Permeability of Sand- Kenyon et al, reference 4 main text.
Jackson J and Mathews M: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance stones Investigated Through Nuclear Magnetic Reso- 7. Jackson JA and Cooper RK: Magnetic Resonance Appa-
Bibliography, The Log Analyst 34, no. 4 (May-June nance Principles, Transactions of the SPWLA 9th Annual ratus, US Patent No. 4,350,955, August 1980.
1993): 35-69. Logging Symposium, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
Jackson JA: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Well Log-
June 23-26, 1968, paper K.
2. Brown RJS and Gamson BW: Nuclear Magnetism ging, The Log Analyst 25 (September-October 1984):
Logging, Journal of Petroleum Technology 12 5. Loren JD and Robinson JD: Relations Between Pore 16-30.
(August 1960): 199-207. Size Fluid and Matrix Properties, and NML Measure-
Kleinberg RL, Griffin DD, Fukuhara M, Sezginer A and
ments, paper SPE 2529, presented at the 44th SPE
3. Herrick RC, Couturie SH and Best DL: An Improved Chew WC: Borehole Measurement of NMR Characteris-
Annual Fall Meeting, Denver, Colorado, USA, September
Nuclear Magnetism Logging System and its Application to tics of Earth Formations, US Patent No. 5,055,787,
28-October 1, 1969.
Formation Evaluation, paper SPE 8361, presented at the October 1991.
54th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Loren JD: Permeability Estimates from NML Measure-
8. Kleinberg et al, reference 12 main text.
Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, September 23-26, 1979. ments, Journal of Petroleum Technology 24 (August
1972): 923-928. Miller MN, Paltiel Z, Gillen ME, Granot J and Bouton JC:
Chandler RN, Kenyon WE and Morriss CE: Reliable Spin Echo Magnetic Resonance Logging: Porosity and
Nuclear Magnetism Logging: With Examples in Effective 6. Kenyon WE, Day PI, Straley C and Willemsen JF: Com-
Free Fluid Index Determination, paper SPE 20561, pre-
Porosity and Residual Oil Saturation, Transactions of the pact and Consistent Representation of Rock NMR Data
sented at the 65th SPE Annual Technical Conference and
SPWLA 28th Annual Logging Symposium, London, Eng- for Permeability Estimation, paper SPE 15643, presented
Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 23-
land, June 29-July 2, 1987, paper C. at the 61st SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibi-
26, 1990.
tion, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, October 5-8, 1986.
Autumn 1995 31
T2 distribution measurements were also
made on crude oil samples having viscosi-
ties of 2.7 cp to 4300 cp (below ). Highly
viscous oils have less mobile hydrogen pro- Permanent magnet
tons and tend to relax quickly. The CMR log
Bowspring
showed the T2 oil peak and correctly pre- eccentralizer Borehole wall
dicted oil viscosity. It also showed that the
upper 150 ft of the diatomite formation
undergoes a transition to heavier oil. Electronic Antenna
Capillary pressure curves, used by cartridge
reservoir engineers to estimate the percent-
age of connate water, may also be predicted
from T 2 distributions. Typically these
14 ft
curvesplots of mercury volume versus
pressureare produced by injecting mer-
cury into core samples. Under low pressure
the mercury fills the largest pores and, as
pressure increases, progressively smaller
CMR skid
pores are filled. The derivative of the capil-
Wear plate
lary pressure curve approximates the T2 dis-
tribution. Some differences in shape are
expected as mercury injection measures
pore throat sizes, whereas NMR measure-
Sensitive zone
ments respond to the size of pore bodies.11 Permanent magnet
Other applications and techniques are
likely to follow with more complex opera-
nCMR tool. The CMR tool (left) is only 14 ft [4.3 m] long and is combinable with many
other Schlumberger logging tools. The sensor is skid-mounted to cut through mud cake
414 msec and have good contact with the formation over most hole sizes. Contact is provided by
3.6 cp an eccentralizing arm or by powered calipers of other logging tools. Two powerful per-
manent magnets provide a static magnetic field (right). By design the tool measure-
ment volume is a region of about 0.5 in. to 1.25 in. [1.3 cm to 3.2 cm] into the formation
and stretches the length of the antenna about 6 in. [15 cm], providing the tool with
excellent vertical resolution. The area in front of the antenna does not contribute to the
3.9 msec signal, which allows the tool to operate in holes with a certain amount of rugosity, simi-
865 cp lar to density tools. The antenna acts as both transmitter and receivertransmitting the
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.0
CPMG magnetic pulse sequence and receiving the pulse echoes from the formation.
T2
32 Oilfield Review
olution logginga 6-in. [15-cm] long mea-
surement aperture is provided by a focused
magnetic field and antenna.
Two permanent magnets generate the
focused magnetic field, which is about
1000 times stronger than the Earths mag-
netic field. The magnets are arranged so
that the field converges to form a zone of
constant strength about one inch inside the
formation. NMR measurements take place
in this region.
By design, the area between the skid and
the measurement volume does not
contribute to the NMR signal. Coupled with
skid geometry, this provides sufficient
immunity to the effects of mudcake and
hole rugosity. The rugose hole effect is simi-
lar to that of other skid-type tools such as
the Litho-Density tool.
The measurement sequence starts with a
wait time of about 1.3 sec to allow for com-
plete polarization of the hydrogen protons
in the formation along the length of the skid
(for measurement principles, see All in a
SpinNMR Measurements, page 20 ).
Then the antenna typically transmits a train
of 600 magnetic pulses into the formation
at 320-msec intervals. Each pulse induces
an NMR signalspin echofrom the
aligned hydrogen protons. The antenna also
acts as a receiver and records each spin
echo amplitude. T2 distribution is derived
from the decaying spin echo curve, some-
times called the relaxation curve.
Autumn 1995 33