Non-destructive testing (NDT) As its name implies, is a trial NDP non-destructiv

e tests, which are made to materials, be they metals, plastics (polymers), ceram
ics or composites. Such trials, generally used to determine certain physical or
chemical property of the material in question. The main applications are found i
n PND:
• • • • • •
Detection of discontinuities (internal and surface). Determination of chemical c
omposition. Leak detection. Thickness measurement and corrosion monitoring. Adhe
sion between materials. Inspection of welded joints.
The NDP are very important in the continued industrial development. Thanks to th
em is possible, for example, the presence of defects in materials or welds equip
ment such as pressure vessels, where catastrophic failure can represent huge los
ses in money, human life and damage to the environment. The main PND are shown i
n the following Table, which have been added in English abbreviations.
Visual Inspection Test Type Magnetic Penetrant Testing, Ultrasonic Testing Magne
tic Particle mainly Radiographic abbreviation abbreviation in Spanish in English
IV LP VI RX PM UT PT MT UT RT ET AE IT LT
Electromagnetic Testing, Eddy Current mainly PE Leak Testing Acoustic Emission T
esting Infrared EA PI PF
Visual inspection Visual inspection (IV), is undoubtedly one of the Non Destruct
ive Testing (NDT) more widely used, as a result of this, one can obtain informat
ion quickly, the surface condition of the materials being inspected, with the si
mple use of the human eye. During the Fourth, in many cases, the human eye recei
ves help from some optical device, either to improve the perception of the image
s received by the human eye (glasses, magnifying glasses, etc.) Or to provide vi
sual contact in areas of difficult access, this is the case of the IV inside sma
ll diameter pipes, in which case you can use borescopes, whether they are rigid
or flexible, small camcorders, etc.. It is important to highlight that personnel
performing IV should be knowledgeable about the materials being inspected, as w
ell as the type of irregularities or discontinuities
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detect them. With this, we conclude that the personnel performing IV should have
a certain level of expertise in the implementation of the IV in a certain appli
cation (for example, the Fourth of welded joints). Liquid penetrant testing meth
od or liquid penetrant (LP), is based on the physical principle known as "capill
arity" and involves the application of a liquid, with good penetration character
istics in small openings on the clean surface of the material to be inspected .
Once sufficient time has elapsed, as for the freshly applied liquid penetrant, s
ignificantly penetrate any opening surface, perform a clean removal or excess fl
uid penetrating through the use of absorbent material (paper, cloth, etc .) and
then apply a liquid absorbent, commonly called a developer, different colored li
quid penetrant, which will absorb the liquid has penetrated into the surface ope
nings. Consequently, the areas in which they observe the presence of penetrating
fluid after application of the liquid absorbent, are areas that contain surface
discontinuities (cracks, holes, etc.) In the following figure, you can view the
overall implementation process LP method.
In general, there are two main techniques of the implementation process of the L
P: the difference between the two is that in a liquid penetrant are used that ar
e visible to the naked eye or using artificial white light in the second liquid
used pervasive that it is only visible to the eye when they are observed in the
dark, using black or ultraviolet light, which gives them a fluorescent appearanc
e. The two main techniques are commonly known as: Visible Penetrant and Fluoresc
ent Penetrant. Each of these can in turn be divided into three subtécnicas: thos
e in which fluid is removed with water use, those used in the removable liquid s
olvent and those in which fluids are used posemulsificables.
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Each of the existing techniques in the LP method has its advantages, disadvantag
es and associated tenderness. In general, the choice of technique to use depends
on the material in question, the type of discontinuities to detect and cost. Th
e following table shows the technical implementation of the LP.€Technical Techni
cal Sub-Visible Liquid Washable Washable water are washable with water Posemulsi
ficables solvent are solvent Posemulsificables Washable
Testing Fluorescent Magnetic Fluids
This method of nondestructive testing, is based on the physical principle known
as magnetism, which exhibit mainly ferrous materials like steel and consists of
the ability or power of attraction between metals. That is, when a metal is magn
etic, attracts at its ends or poles of other metals also capable of magnetic or
magnetized. According to the above, if a magnetic material has discontinuities i
n its surface, they act as poles, and as such, will attract any magnetic or ferr
omagnetic material that is close to them. Thus, a magnetic metal can be magnetiz
ed locally or globally and you can spread on its surface, tiny little pieces or
magnetic particles and observe any accumulation of the same, which is evidence o
f the presence of subsurface discontinuities and or on the metal surface. This m
echanism can be seen in the figure below:
This NDT method is limited to the detection of surface discontinuities and somet
imes sub-surface. Also, its application is also limited by its magnetic characte
r, ie can only be applied in ferromagnetic materials. Still, this method is wide
ly used in industry and some of its main applications are found in: Quality cont
rol or inspection of machined components. The detection of discontinuities in th
e production of welding. The programs of inspection and maintenance of critical
components in chemical and petrochemical plants (pressure vessels, pipes, storag
e tanks, etc.).
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The detection of discontinuities (discontinuities by fatigue).
of
components
subjects
to
charges
cyclical
In general, there are two main ways or mechanisms by which they can apply the ma
gnetic particles, which are: wet and dry. When the particles are applied wet, th
ey are usually suspended in a liquid medium such as oil or water. In the applica
tion of the magnetic particles dry, they are suspended in air. Likewise, there a
re two main types of magnetic particles: those that are visible with natural or
artificial white light and those whose observation must be under black or ultrav
iolet light, commonly known as fluorescent magnetic particles. Each mode of appl
ication (wet or dry) and each type of magnetic particles (visible or fluorescent
) has its advantages and disadvantages. The medium and the type of particle is d
etermined using various factors among them we can cite: the size of the parts to
inspect the area to inspect the environment under which it will perform the tes
t, the type of discontinuities to detect and cost. The personnel performing thes
e tests, generally performed an analysis of the above factors to determine which
is the optimal medium and magnetic particle type to use for some specific appli
cation. Another important factor to consider is the manner or mechanism by which
the pieces are magnetized or to inspect the area, which can be achieved in diff
erent ways, either by using an electromagnetic yoke, contact tips, permanent mag
nets, etc . Ultrasound The ultrasound method is based on the generation, propaga
tion and detection of elastic waves (sound) through the materials. The figure be
low shows a sensor or transducer acoustically coupled to the surface of a materi
al. This sensor contains a piezoelectric element whose function is to convert el
ectrical pulses into small movements or vibrations, which in turn generate sound
with a frequency in the range of megahertz (inaudible to the human ear). The so
und or vibration, in the form of elastic waves, propagates through the material
until it completely loses its intensity or until it encounters an interface, ie
some other material such as air or water and, therefore, waves can undergo refle
ction, refraction, distortion, etc.. This may result in a change in intensity, d
irection and angle of propagation of the original waves.
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Thus, it is possible to apply the method of ultrasound to determine certain char
acteristics of materials such as: • • • • • • wave propagation speed. Grain size
in metals. Presence of discontinuities (cracks, blisters, laminations, etc..) A
dhesion between materials. Weld inspection. Wall thickness measurement.
As can be seen€with the ultrasound method is possible to obtain an assessment of
the internal condition of the material in question. However, the ultrasound met
hod is more complex in practice and in theory, which requires trained personnel
for application and interpretation of signs or test results and X-ray radiograph
y nondestructive testing method is based on the ability of penetration character
ized mainly X-rays and gamma rays. With this type of radiation can irradiate a m
aterial and, internally, this material has considerable internal changes and to
let, or retain such radiation, then it is possible to determine the presence of
such internal irregularities simply measuring or characterizing the radiation ra
diation incident on hold or released by the material. Commonly, a method of dete
rmining the radiation passing through a material, involves placing a radiographi
c film, whose function is to change the tone in the area receiving radiation. Th
is mechanism can be seen more easily in the figure below. At the top is a radioa
ctive source, which emits radiation at a metallic material, which in turn presen
ts internally a series of pores, which to contain air or some other type of gas,
leaving more of radiation passing than in any other part of the material. The r
esult is reflected in the radiographic film placed at the bottom of the metallic
material.
As can be seen on X-ray method is extremely important because it allows us to ge
t a glimpse of the inner condition of the materials. Hence it is widely used in
applications such as:
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• • • •
Medicine. Evaluation of Welding. Quality control in the production of different
products. Others
However, this method also has its limitations. The equipment needed to perform a
radiographic test can represent a serious limitation when considering the cost
of acquisition and maintenance. Moreover, since in this test method are handled
radioactive materials, it is necessary to have a permit approved for use, as wel
l as with radiation detectors to ensure the integrity and health of the personne
l performing the tests radiographic ELECTROMAGNETIC electromagnetic tests based
on measurement or characterization of one or more electrically generated magneti
c fields and induced in the test material. Different conditions such as disconti
nuities or differences in electrical conductivity may be the cause of the distor
tion or modification of the induced magnetic field (see figure below). The most
used technique in the electromagnetic method is that of Eddy Currents. This tech
nique can be used to identify a wide variety of physical, structural and ferroma
gnetic metal in metallic materials and non-metallic materials that are electrica
lly conductive. Thus, the technique is mainly used for the detection of surface
discontinuities. Its main applications are in the measurement or determination o
f properties such as electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, grain size,
hardness, physical dimensions, etc.., It also serves to detect overlaps, cracks
, porosity and inclusions.
Such tests offer the advantage that the test results are obtained almost instant
ly, as well as all that is required is to induce a magnetic field, there is no n
eed for direct contact with the material tested in this minimizes the possibilit
y of causing any damage to the test material. However, the technique is limited
to the detection of surface discontinuities and conductive materials.
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The leak testing leak detection tests are a type of nondestructive test that is
used in pressurized systems or components that work in a vacuum, for the detecti
on, leakage detection and measurement of fluid that escapes from them. Leaks are
holes that can occur in the form of cracks, fissures, cracks, etc.., Where you
can seclude or a fluid leak. Leak detection is of great importance, since a leak
may affect the safety or performance of various components and greatly reduce i
ts reliability. Generally, the leak detection tests are performed: To prevent le
akage of materials that can interfere with the operation of any system. To preve
nt fire, explosion and environmental pollution or harm to human. To detect unrel
iable components or those where the leak exceeds the standards of acceptance.€Th
e purpose of the tests is to ensure the reliability and service of components an
d prevent premature failure of systems that contain working fluid under pressure
or vacuum. Components or systems which are usually performed leak tests are: co
ntainers and components sealed to prevent entry of contamination or preserve the
fluids internally. For example, electronic devices, integrated circuits, motor
and sealed contacts. Sealed systems to prevent loss of fluid content. For exampl
e, hydraulic and cooling in the petrochemical industry: valves, pipes and contai
ners. Vacuum vessels and components to ensure if there is a rapid deterioration
of the vacuum system over time. For example, cathode ray tubes, items packed in
vacuum and expansion joints. Vacuum generator systems to ensure that leaks are m
inimized and improve performance. Flight tests commonly used are based on one or
more of the following principles: TYPES OF LEAK TESTING This test is commonly a
pplied in gas leak detection in high pressure lines. Depending on the nature of
the leak, the gas to escape, produces an ultrasonic signal that can be detected
with a sensitivity of about 10-3 cm3 / s. This essay is based on the principle o
f generation or release of air or gas from a container, when it is immersed in a
liquid. Instruments are frequently used in pressurized piping and process vesse
ls. Proof is rather qualitative than quantitative, since it is difficult to dete
rmine the volume of the leak. Is to spray ink penetrating high-pressure areas wh
ere you want to detect leaks. If you have a leak, the differential pressure of t
he system will filter the ink into the low pressure side of the specimen tested.
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Ultrasound
By bubbling
For Penetrating Inks
For Pressure Measurement
This kind of test is used to determine whether there are acceptable leakage flux
es, to determine whether hazardous conditions and to detect defective parts and
equipment. You can get a relatively accurate leak indication to know the volume
and system pressure and pressure changes over time causing the leak. Some advant
ages of this method are that it can measure the total flow of the leak regardles
s of the size of the system and fluids is not necessary to use tracers.
For Detection of Halogen (Halogen Diode)
This type of test is more sensitive than previous ones. Leaks as small as 10-5 c
m3 / s can be detected easily. The two limitations of this trial are needed spec
ial track gases and the use of high temperature heaters, which is inconvenient i
n hazardous environments. It is considered the technique of leak detection, both
industrial and laboratory, more versatile. It has the same limitations that the
test for detection of halogens because it requires helium as a design and, on t
he spectrometer is maintained at high temperature by heating filaments. However,
helium is completely inert and less expensive than halogen gases. The sensitivi
ty is of the order of 10-11 cm3 / s. In this technique, using short-lived radioi
sotopes as tracers to test fluid hermetically sealed cavity and closed-circuit p
ipe. The loss of flow or tracer gas detection unexpected sites are evidence of l
eakage. This technique has the same sensitivity to the test by Helio spectromete
r, but is more expensive and is necessary to provide adequate safety measures du
e to radiation.
For Helio Spectrometer
With radioisotope tracers
The choice of method to use is usually based on the type of flight to detect the
type of service component and the cost of the test. In any case it is necessary
, as in other methods of nondestructive testing, the staff is qualified to compl
ete them in the implementation of the same acoustic emission Today, one of the m
ethods of nondestructive testing newer and that has been taking great applicatio
n worldwide in the inspection of a wide variety of materials and structural comp
onents, is undoubtedly the method of Acoustic Emission (AE). This method detects
internal changes in materials or in other words, detects micro-movements that o
ccur in materials when, for example: there is a microstructural change, as are t
he phase transformations in metals, crack growth, fracture the fragile products
of corrosion, deformation, etc.. The detection of these mechanisms by EA, is bas
ed on the fact that when they occur,€part of the energy released is transmitted
to the outside of the material in the form of elastic waves (sound), ie, they em
it sound (acoustic emission). The detection of elastic waves is done by using pi
ezo-electric sensors, which are installed on the surface of the material. The se
nsors, as in the ultrasound method, make the elastic waves into electrical pulse
s and sends them to a data acquisition system, which is performed the same analy
sis.
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Infrared The main technique used in testing the infrared Infrared Thermography (
IT). This technique is based on the detection of hot or cold areas by analyzing
the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Infrared radiation is transmi
tted in the form of heat via electromagnetic waves through space. Thus, by using
instruments capable of detecting infrared radiation, it is possible to detect s
urface discontinuities and sub-surface materials. Generally, IT technology is us
ed one or more cameras that provide infrared image (thermogram), in which hot sp
ots are different from cold areas due to different colors. As an example, we can
see below thermography, in which the yellow and red represent hot areas and the
 blue and violet shades represent cold areas.
In this way one can obtain a typical thermogram of a part or component without d
iscontinuities. Subsequently, if there is any gap, it will interrupt the normal
flow or temperature gradient, which will be evident in the thermogram.
The TI technique offers great advantages: no physical contact is required, the t
est is performed quickly even in large areas, the test results are obtained in t
he form of an image or picture, which speeds up the evaluation of the data. In g
eneral, there are two main techniques for IT: Thermography passive and active th
ermography. Infrared thermography techniques involves simply getting a thermogra
m of the component in question, without the application of energy. The component
itself provides the energy to generate the infrared image. Examples of the appl
ication of this technique we found for example in the evaluation of a running en
gine, industrial machinery, electrical conductors, etc..
Passive Thermography
In this technique, to obtain a thermogram, it is necessary to induce a certain e
nergy to the material or component. Many components, given their conditions of o
peration and service are evaluated on a static thermography or temperature, whic
h leads to the thermogram obtained present a uniform pattern or thermal gradient
is in such situations Activa active thermography is used. Thus, this technique
can be used in the detection of laminations or inclusions, which represent varia
tions in heat conduction and therefore are evident in the thermogram. Today, inf
rared thermography is used successfully in many applications, among which we men
tion: sub-surface discontinuities and surface such as corrosion, electrical resi
stance, inclusions, loss of material, cracks, residual stresses, weaknesses
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in thickness of coating, etc. The main drawback may be the cost of equipment. Ho
wever, the results are obtained rapidly and evaluation is relatively simple and
therefore does not require much training in the use and application of the techn
ique
The inspection of atmospheric storage tanks, pressure vessels, pipes, bridges, r
eactors, transformers, etc.. Are just some examples of the many applications tha
t have the EA method worldwide. It is important to mention that the method of EA
, only indicates areas of acoustic activity associated with the presence of disc
ontinuities and provides no information about the type, size and orientation of
the discontinuity that noise generated by tourism. As such, this method often us
ed complementarily with other methods of inspection. First, with the EA method d
etected activity areas with significant noise and then applies some other non-de
structive method such as ultrasound or magnetic particles and obtained the detai
ls of the discontinuity that generated this activity sounds. Currently, many inv
estigations are being carried out in order to determine areas of activity not on
ly sound but also the type of discontinuity that is generated. These investigati
ons include further studies on the waveform of signals€processing by neural netw
orks algorithms, modes of wave propagation, finite elements, etc.
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