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Fuel Processing Technology xxx (2016) xxxxxx

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fuproc

Research article

Experimental study on spray, combustion and emission characteristics of pine

oil/diesel blends in a multi-cylinder diesel engine
Haozhong Huang , Qingsheng Liu, Cheng Shi, Qingxin Wang, Chengzhong Zhou
College of Mechanical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Pine oil has a high caloric value, which makes it an appropriate biofuel for diesel engines. In this paper,
Received 1 June 2016
spray characteristics such as spray morphology, spray penetration and spray cone angle of pine oil-diesel
Received in revised form 14 July
2016 blends were investigated under various injection pressures using a constant volume spray chamber. The
Accepted 18 July 2016 effects of the injection pressure on the combustion and emission characteristics of pine oil-diesel blends
Available online xxxx were experimentally investigated in a four-cylinder diesel engine under medium EGR (24.6%). Four different
fuels including pure die- sel (P0), three blends of pine oil and diesel fuel denoted as P20 (20% pine oil and
Keywords: 80% diesel in volume), P40 (40% pine oil and 60% diesel in volume), and P50 (50% pine oil and 50% diesel in
Pine oil/diesel blends volume) were tested. Our results in- dicate that, as the injection pressure increases, the spray penetration of
Constant volume blended fuels increase, while the spray cone angle shows slightly change. And with the increasing of
chamber Engine
injection pressure, the peak values of heat release rate and in-cylinder pressure during the combustion of the
Spray
four blended fuels increase, the BSFC slightly increase, the emissions of soot, CO and THC decrease, however
characteristics
Combustion
NOx emissions increase. The effects of the increase of injec- tion pressure on soot emissions of pure diesel are
Emission greater than that of blended fuels. When the mixing ratio of pine oil exceeds 40%, the benecial effects of
injection pressure on soot emissions from the combustion of blend- ed fuels are weakened. At the same
injection pressure, the BSFC of P20 almost equals the value of P0. As the mixing ratio of pine oil increases,
the spray penetration and the spray cone angle of blended fuels increase, which enhanced the atomization
process and fuel evaporation. With the increase ratio of pine oil, the peak values of in-cylinder pressure and
heat release rate increase, the emissions of NOx, CO and THC increase and soot emis- sions decrease
dramatically. For the combustion of the tested fuels, the number concentration and mass concen- tration of
total PMs can be reduced by increasing the injection pressure or the amount of pine oil in the blends. At an
injection pressure of 100 MPa, the total PM number concentration and mass concentration of P50 are respec-
tively lower 86.30% and 96.55% than the values for pure
diesel.
2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Aiming at the investigation of oxygenated fuels applied to diesel

On the concerning of internal engine clean and high efcient
com- bustion, HCCI [1] and LTC show great potential [2]. LTC relies on
large amount of exhaust gas [35]. The application of LTC could
decrease soot and NOx emissions emitted from diesel engines. The
results show that with the increasing of EGR, the soot emitted from
engine increases at rst and then decreases, at medium or high EGR,
creating the soot- bump region is created, which is difcult to
eliminate [6]. Although fur- ther increase the rate of EGR can reduce
the smoke emissions, the fuel consumption is deteriorated. Changing
the physical and chemical prop- erties by the mixing of the
oxygenated fuel and the diesel is an impor- tant technical approach
to improving the performance and reducing the harmful substance
emission from diesel engine with LTC [7].
Corresponding author at: College of Mechanical Engineering, Guangxi University,
Daxuedong Road 100, Xixiangtang District, Nanning 530004, China.
E-mail address: hhz421@gxu.edu.cn (H. Huang).
en- gine, Rakopoulos et al. [810] have investigated the inuence on
emis- sion and performance of ethanol and n-butanol in a diesel
engine. The results show that the diesel blending with oxygenated
fuels in diesel can decrease the soot emission signicantly, and with
oxygenated fuels proportion increase, the soot emission further
decrease. Nabi et al. [11] have found that the soot emissions emitted
from diesel engine decreased linearly with the increase of fuel
oxygen content, and when the oxygen content of N 38%, can
completely eliminate soot emissions. As an oxygenated fuel,
compared with methanol and ethanol, n-butanol has better mutual
solubility with diesel, and higher heating value, better lubrication
performance. In recent years, many researchers spared no efforts to
concentrate on investigating butanol and found that butanol is a
promising additive for diesel [1217]. The n-butanol additive led to a
rapid decrease of soot emissions [18,19]. Zunqing Zheng et al.
found that diesel blending n-butanol improved soot emission, never-
theless, the maximum pressure rise rate increase [6]. A higher
fraction of n-butanol led to the cetane number decrease, the oxygen

Please cite this article as: H. Huang, et al., Experimental study on spray, combustion and emission characteristics of pine oil/diesel blends in
a
multi-cylinder diesel engine, Fuel Processing Technology (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.07.016
content

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.07.016
0378-3820/ 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: H. Huang, et al., Experimental study on spray, combustion and emission characteristics of pine oil/diesel blends in
a
multi-cylinder diesel engine, Fuel Processing Technology (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.07.016
2 H. Huang et al. / Fuel Processing Technology xxx (2016) xxx
xxx

and the ignition delay increase, which improves the soot and NOx Table 1
emis- sions [20]. Additionally, increasing n-butanol content in the Technical specication of test engine.
fuel re- duced the CO emissions, whereas it deteriorated the HC Model Specication
emissions [21]. However, incorporation of n-butanol led to sacricing
Number of cylinders 4
some com- bustion characteristics, due to its low cetane number and
Cylinder diameter (mm) 85
heat value. An indication higher specic fuel consumption and lower Number of valves per cylinder 4
thermal ef- ciency have to be compromised with an increase in n- Stroke (mm) 88.1
butanol [22]. Number of injector nozzle holes 8
Diameter of injector nozzle holes (mm) 0.17
Unlike other alcohol-based fuels, pine oil a oxygenated fuel, which
Shape of combustion chamber
is obtained from the resin of pine trees, is the renewable fuel, has a Total displacement (L) 1.99
high heating value. And the viscosity and boiling point of pine oil is Maximum torque (Nm) 286
lower comparable to diesel, which can improve the fuel vaporization Compression ratio 16.5
and at- omization after injection. These characteristics make pine oil Rated power (kW)/speed (r/min) 100/4000
appropri- ate for the using in diesel engines [23]. And some reports
are available concerning the application of pine oil in different diesel
engines [24 was equipped with a common rail fuel injection system with an
27]. R. Vallinayagam et al. [28] have studied the inuences of operat- ing range up to 160 MPa. A measurement, calibration and
different
diagnostic software (INCA, by ETAS) and a Bosch open-type ECU
ratio pine oil/diesel blends on combustion and harmful substance
(Engine Control Unit) controlled the common rail fuel injection
emit- ted from a single-cylinder, DI diesel engine under different
system. Through ECU, users accommodated parameters like
loads. The results show that pine oil signicantly decreases the CO,
injection fuel mass, injection timing, common-rail pressure. The T/C
HC, and soot emissions at the condition of full load, and increases the
(turbocharger) engine's intake pressure was controlled at 0.15 MPa
brake thermal efciency. Nevertheless, the NOx emission increases.
and the intake temperature was (30 2) C. The Exhaust Gas
However, limited reports are available concerning the inuence on
Recirculation rate was controlled by the EGR value, the EGR rate and
the performance and harmful substance emitted from a multi-
exhaust gas emission (NOx, CO, HC) were measured by Horiba MEXA
cylinder diesel engine fuelled with pine oil-diesel blends.
7100DEGR, soot emission was measured using the AVL 415S and the
In order to improve fuel evaporation and increase spray
particle emission were measured by the Cambustion DMS500. The
penetration to obtain an effective mixing with air, thus enhancing the
uncertainties of the apparatus were displayed in Table 2. The rates of
combustion process, it is very important to control the injection
heat release and pressure rise were calculated using the data
pressure for direct injection diesel engine. With the increasing of
obtained from the piezo-transducer. The heat release rate was
injection pressure, have smaller droplets of fuel, and have better
calculated using the following equation [37]:
atomization, which improving completed combustion and increasing
the output power [2933]. In- crease the injection pressure, increase
the local Air/Fuel ratio, the in-cyl- inder peak pressure and NOx
emissions [34]. For purpose of improving
the emission and performance, the investigation of injection pressure dQ dV dp
become a hot topic recent years [35]. Whereas the amount of angle incre- ment, and 200 consecutive pressure cycles were
research on pine-oil diesel blends is very limited to our knowledge. measured and stored at each operating point, with the recorded
However, the effects on the common emission characteristics and values being the mean one. The coefcient of variance (standard
combustion performance of a four-cylinder diesel engine fuelled with deviation divided by the mean value) for all reported quantities was
pine-oil/diesel with LTC under various injection pressures still have determined b 3% [36]. The testing engine
not investigated deeply. Only a few papers have investigated
combus- tion performance of pine-oil/diesel, there are very limited
studies on the emission characteristics including the particle
emission characteris- tics of pine-oil/diesel blends, and there are few
focuses on the spray characteristics of pine-oil/diesel blends under
various injection pres- sures. The objective of the present work is to
study the spray character- istics (spray morphology, spray
penetration and spray cone angle) of pine-oil/diesel blends under
various injection pressures, and the perfor- mance of four blended
fuels (blending 0%, 20%, 40%, and 50% by volume fraction of pine oil
with pure diesel) in terms of combustion and emis- sion
characteristics (including PM size distribution, PM number concen-
tration, and PM mass concentration) in a four-cylinder diesel engine
with LTC under different injection pressures.

2. Experimental apparatus and procedures

2.1. Test engine and apparatus

The test was conducted on a four-cylinder diesel engine. The

major parameters of the engine are given in Table 1 and the test
system is displayed in Fig. 1.
As displayed in Fig. 1. The engine speed was maintained at 1800
rpm (corresponding to the maximum brake torque conditions) in this
test. A pressure sensor (Kistler 6052CU20) was used to measure the
cylinder pressure. The pressure was recorded with a step of 1 crank
 H. Huang et al. / Fuel Processing Technology xxx (2016) xxx 3
p xxx V
d 1 d 1 d
1

where is the specic heat ratio, V is the instantaneous cylinder

volume and p is the in-cylinder pressure.

2.2. Test
fuels

Pine oil was blended with diesel, and four blends of 0%, 20%, 40%,
and
50% by volume fraction of pine oil were tested, and will be denoted
by P0, P20, P40, and P50 according to R. Vallinayagam [26]. The EGR
ratio was kept at about 24.6%, based on our previous studies, where
we dem- onstrated that this EGR value was a turning point before
a drastic

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental

system.
Table 2
Uncertainties and experimental measurement
techniques/instruments.

Measurement Uncertainty Measurement technique

NOx 0.5% F.S. Chemiluminescent analyzer (CLA) principle

CO 0.5% F.S. Non-dispersive infrared analyzer (NDIR)
principle
HC 0.5% F.S. Flame ionization detector (FID) principle
EGR 0.5% F.S. Non-dispersive infrared analyzer (NDIR)
principle
Soot 0.1% Light transmittance method
Load 0.2% Strain gauge type load cell
Speed
Table 3 0.1% Magnetic pickup principle
Temperature
Properties of fuels. 0.15% Thermocouple
Air ow rate 1% Orice meter
a b
Diesel fuel 1% Volumetric measurement
Diesel Pine oil
measurement
Cetane number 54 38.9
N-butanol 1% Volumetric measurement
Oxygen content (%)
measurement 36
1
Density (gmL ) 0.82 0.893
Gas fuel 1%
1 Volumetric measurement
Lower heat value (MJkg ) 42.8 41.78
measurement
Boiling point (C) 260 188222 Fig. 2. Schematic of experimental apparatus.
Pressure pickup 0.1% Magnetic pickup principle
Condensation point (C) 0 11
Crank angle encoder 0.2% Magnetic pickup principle
Flash point (C) 57 60
Stoichiometric ratio 14.3 10.25
1
Latent heat 180360 400500
increase in ofsoot
evaporation
emission(kJkg
2 1
[13].@Due
25 C)
to the different properties of the
Kinematic viscosity (mm s @ 20 C) 3.09 1.763
test- ed fuels, the soot values of the four blended fuels are various at
a
24.6%
The EGR, as the
properties interpretation
of diesel is displayed
are from ASTM D975. in the following sections. b
The properties of pine oil are tested in Energy Research Institute of Guangzhou,
Table 3 presented the physicochemical characteristics of diesel China.
and pine oil. It shows that pine oil has high oxygen concentration and
the similar heating value as diesel, but cetane number is lower than
diesel.

2.3. Operating conditions and test

procedure

During the experiment, four different injection pressures (100

MPa,
120 MPa, 140 MPa, and 160 MPa) were tested separately. The load
was kept at 0.7 MPa (40% load) for the four fuels. For each condition,
the en- gine performance and exhaust emission of four fuels (P0, P20,
P40 and P50) were evaluated. The engine was operated with diesel
fuel for warm-up process of 10 min before each operating condition.
For the purposes of reducing experimental error, each operating case
was per- formed three times and all tests was conducted on the same
day.

2.4. The spray characteristics

experiment

The spray experimental apparatus consists of a constant volume

spray chamber, high-speed camera, common-rail injection system,
etc. (see Fig. 2). The constant volume spray chamber which is a metal
cuboid resistant to high temperature and pressure and has three
transparent windows that is used to acquire the pictures of internal
spray. It could simulate the situation of diesel engine in-cylinder
combustion while in- vestigate the effects of ambient pressure,
temperature, injection pres- sure and fuel properties on the spray
characteristics. The common-rail injection system could control the
injection quantity, injection pressure and injection timing accurately.
The spray morphology was acquired by

Please cite this article as: H. Huang, et al., Experimental study on spray, combustion and emission characteristics of pine oil/diesel blends in
a
multi-cylinder diesel engine, Fuel Processing Technology (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.07.016
the FASTCAM-SA7 high-speed camera. A photo-processing program
which was based on MATLAB was used to handle the spray pictures.
The spray morphology of four fuels were acquired from the spray pic-
tures to calculate the spray cone angle and spray penetration after
image segmentation and other procedures.
In this spray experiment, the ambient pressure in the constant vol-
ume spray chamber was 5 MPa (the common in-cylinder pressure for
diesel engine when fuel is injected) with ambient temperature of
room temperature. The common-rail injection system was operated
to start fuel injection. Meanwhile, high-speed camera was applied to
col- lect the spray pictures. Twenty spray pictures in every 0.1 ms
were se- lected to calculate the spray cone angle and spray
penetration of every spray picture. Fig. 3 displays the denitions of
the spray cone angle and spray penetration.

3. Experimental results and discussion

3.1. The spray characteristics of four blended fuels under different

injection pressures

The spray morphology of P0 and P50 development under 120 MPa

injection pressure is shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 respectively. The spray
morphology is usually affected by the fuel properties, air drag forces,
in- ternal turbulence in the spray and injector technology [38]. It can
be seen that the length of spray morphology increases with the
spray times. Fig. 6 shows the spray characteristics (spray
penetration and spray cone angle) of different fuels at 120 MPa
injection pressure. It could be seen from the gure that with the
increasing of spray times, the spray penetration of four fuels
increases. In addition, the spray

Fig. 3. Denitions of spray parameter.

Please cite this article as: H. Huang, et al., Experimental study on spray, combustion and emission characteristics of pine oil/diesel blends in
a
multi-cylinder diesel engine, Fuel Processing Technology (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.07.016
 50

Spray penetration/mm
P0 Injection pressure: 120MPa
40 P20
P40
30 P50
20
10
0 50

Spray cone angle/

Fig. 4. Spray morphology of P0 (time in s) under 120 MPa injection pressure.
penetration of P50 is the longest followed by P40, P20 and P0. This is
be- cause of higher momentum possessed of pine-oil with higher
density. It can be noted that the spray cone angle of four blended fuels
are almost the same and P0 has the smaller spray cone angle at all
spray times. The smaller spray cone angle of P0 may be due to its high
viscosity [39]. So the fuels blended with pine-oil show comparatively
good atomization compared to diesel fuel.
Fig. 7 illustrates the effects of injection pressure on spray
character- istics (spray penetration and spray cone angle) of P50. It
can be ob- served that the spray penetration increases over time
for all the injection pressures and the spray cone angle shows
slightly change under various injection pressures. The spray
penetration has a descend- ing of 160 MPa N 140 MPa N 120 MPa N 100
MPa. This may be because of increasing the injection pressure, the
spray velocity increases and the higher kinetic energy [39], which
enhanced the atomization process and fuel evaporation.
3.2. Effects of injection pressure on the combustion performance of the
pine oil/diesel blended fuels
Fig. 8 displays the variations of in-cylinder pressure and heat
release rate as a function of the injection pressure for the four tested
blended fuels. It is possible to observe that the peak values of in-
cylinder pres- sure and heat release rate increase as the injection
pressure increases, and the starting points of combustion are brought
forward. This is due to the fact that, on the one hand, with the
increasing of injection pres- sure, the spray penetration, the spray
cone angle increase (see Fig. 6, Fig. 7) and the kinetic energy of spray
oil can be enhanced by increasing the injection pressure, thus
expanding the motion space of spray oil and improving the
atomization degree of the fuel [29]; on the other hand, as the
injection pressure increases, the ignition delay period of the blended
fuel oil varies slightly (see Fig. 14) so the injection duration can be
short- ened. Therefore, the mixing time between fuel oil and air is
prolonged, enhancing the air utilization ratio in the cylinder and the
mixed air vol- ume, and accordingly improving the combustion
process.
Fig. 9 displays the variations of in-cylinder pressure and heat
release
rate of the four blended fuels at the injection pressure of 120 MPa. As
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time/s
Fig. 6. The spray characteristics of different
fuels.
process. However, when the amount of pine-oil further increases, due
to the lower cetane number, which leads to an excessive delay in
heat release(see Fig. 14). The heat release time of P50 are delayed to
an in- stant in which the piston is far from the TDC (Top Dead
Center), thus leading to a signicant decline in the maximum in-
cylinder pressure during combustion.
Fig. 10 presents the variation of the maximum pressure rise rate
of the four tested fuels as a function of the injection pressure. As the
injec- tion pressure increases, the maximum pressure rise rate of the
four fuels increases. Under the same working condition with the
same injection pressure, the maximum pressure rise rate increases in
the combustion of P0, P20 and P40, while the maximum pressure rise
rate of P50 ranges between the values of P0 and P20. The reason is the
same as discussed in the previous paragraph to account for the trends
in Fig. 9.
Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 present the variations of BSFC (Brake Specic
Fuel Consumption) and BTE (Brake Thermal Efciency) of the four
tested fuels as a function of the injection pressure. On the one hand,
increasing the injection pressure can improve the mixing quality
between fuel and air, advance the combustion phase (see Fig. 8), and
draw CA 50 (crank angle for 50% of fuel burnt) closer to the top dead
center (TDC), resulting in the enhancement of thermal efciency (see
Fig. 12), on the other hand, the energy consumed by the high-
pressure oil pump increases with the increase of injection pressure,
leading to a decline in thermal efciency. As a consequence of these
two effects, the BSFC of the blend- ed fuels slightly increases with the
injection pressure. It is also possible to observe that, at the same
injection pressure, the BSFC increases with
Spray penetration/mm

the
mixing ratio of pine oil increases, the starting point of combustion is 50 Injection pressure
P50
100 MPa
de- layed, and the peak values of in-cylinder pressure rst increase
40 120 MPa
and then decrease. This is due to the large latent heat of vaporization 140 MPa
and low ce- tane number of pine oil. As the mixing ratio of pine oil 30 160 MPa
increases (P0, P20 and P40), the ignition delay period of the blended
20
fuel is prolonged (see Fig. 14), the premixed ratio increases and thus
the peak values of heat release rate and in-cylinder pressure increase 10
during the combustion 35
Spray cone angle/

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time/us

Fig. 5. Spray morphology of P50 (time in s) under 120 MPa injection pressure. Fig. 7. The spray characteristics of P50 under different injection pressure.
 350

Heat release rate/(KJ/m2/deg)

Heat release rate/(KJ/m2/deg)

P0 350
Injection pressure(MPa)
10 Injection pressure(MPa)
P20

In-cylinder pressure/MPa

In-cylinder pressure/MPa
10 EGR ratio: 24.6%
100 300 100 EGR ratio: 24.6% 300
120 120
8 140 250 8 140 250
160 160
6 200 6 200
150 150
4 4
100 100
2 2
50 50
0 0 0 0
-10 0 10 20 30 -10 0 10 20 30
Crank angle/CA Crank angle/CA
(a) P0 (b) P20
350

Heat release rate/(KJ/m2/deg)

Injection pressure(MPa) P40 350

Heat release rate/(KJ/m2/deg)

10 Injection pressure(MPa)
10 P50
EGR ratio: 24.6%
In-cylinder pressure/MPa

In-cylinder pressure/MPa
100 100 EGR ratio: 24.6% 300
120 300
120
8 140 8 140 250
250
160 160
6 200 6 200

150 150
4 4
100 100
2
2 50 50

0 0 0
0
-10 0 10 20 30
-10 0 10 20 30
Crank angle/CA
Crank angle/CA
(c) P40 (d) P50

Fig. 8. In-cylinder pressures and heat release rates during the combustion of the four tested fuels at different injection pressures (at the EGR ratio of 24.6%).

the increasing of pine oil in the blend. Since pine oil has a lower low 3.3. Effects of injection pressure on the emission characteristics of pine oil/
heating value than diesel, the increase of pine oil in the blend can diesel blended fuels
make the total heat release decrease under the same fuel-injection
quantity per cycle. Accordingly, the working capability decreases due Fig. 15(a) represents the NOx emissions from the combustion of
to the increase of CA50 values (see Fig. 13) resulted from the lower the four blended fuels at different injection pressures. The graphs
ce- tane number of pine oil. Thus, the BTE decreases and BSFC show that NOx emissions increase with the injection pressure. This is
increases. due to the fact that the increase of injection pressure can improve the
Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 show the variations of CA50 and ignition delay atomization of fuels [29], promoting the air/fuel mixing and increase
pe- riod of the four blended fuels with the injection pressure. As the the mixing air amount, leading to a higher combustion temperature
injec- tion pressure increases, the CA50 values of all the tested fuels and an according increase in NOx emissions. Moreover, NOx
decrease and the ignition delay periods are shortened. As the emissions increase as the mixing ratio of pine oil increases. Since pine
mixing ratio of pine oil increases, the CA50 values increase and the oil has a lower cetane num- ber and a lower viscosity than diesel, the
ignition delay pe- riods are prolonged, especially for the blends ignition delay period of the blended fuel is prolonged if a larger
containing a larger amount of pine oil. This behavior is readily amount of pine oil is added. Thus,
explained by considering the lower cetane number and greater
latent heat of vaporization of pine oil.
1.3
P0 EGR ratio:24.6%
P20
350
Injection pressure: 120MPa P0 1.2 P40
10
P20
EGR ratio: 24.6% 300 P50
Heat release rate/(KJ/m /deg)

P40 1.1
MPRR/(MPa/CA)

8
P50
In-cylinder pressure/MPa

250
2

1.0
6 200
0.9
150
4
0.8
100
2 0.7
50

0 0.6
0
-10 0 10 20 30 100 120 140 160
Crank angle/CA
Injection pressure/MPa
Fig. 9. In-cylinder pressures and heat release rates during the combustion of the four Fig. 10. Maximum pressure rise rates during the combustion of the tested fuels as a
tested fuels with an injection pressure of 120 MPa (EGR ratio of 24.6%). function of the injection pressure.
 24
280 P0 P50
P20 EGR ratio:24.6% P40
22
270 P40 P20
P50 P0

CA50/CA ATDC
20
260

18
250
16
240
14

230
12
100 120 140 160
Injection pressure/MPa 100 120 140 160
Injection pressure/MPa
Fig. 11. Equivalent fuel consumption rates during the combustion of the four blended
fuels at different injection pressures.
Fig. 13. CA50 values during the combustion of the four blended fuels at different
injection pressures.

fuel and air have sufcient time for mixing and the premixed
combus- tion ratio increases, leading to an increase in combustion
temperature and NOx emissions. However, when the mixing ratio of
pine oil exceeds
40%, the piston is far away from the TDC since the ignition delay
period
is too long and the starting point of combustion is excessively
delayed, which causes both in-cylinder pressure and combustion
temperature to decrease. Therefore, NOx emissions from the
combustion of P50 are less abundant than in the case of P40.
Fig. 15(b) displays the soot emissions from the combustion of the
four tested fuels at different injection pressures. The emissions
decrease with increasing injection pressure, whose increase from 100
to 160 MPa leads to a 83.21% reduction in soot emissions from the
combustion of P0. This is due to the fact that the increase of injection
pressure can improve the atomization condition of fuel [29], promote
the mixing between fuel and air and reduce the rich-fuel region in
the cylinder, nally causing a decline in soot emissions. Additionally,
as the injection pressure in- creases, the premixed combustion ratio
increases and the combustion temperature increases, which can
promote the oxidation of soot. One can also observe that the soot
emissions decrease sharply as the mixing ratio of pine oil increases.
At an injection pressure of 100 MPa, the soot emissions from the
combustion of P50 are reduced by 96.43% compared with those from
the combustion of P0. This is due to the fact that, as the mixing ratio
of pine oil increases, the ignition delay period is prolonged,
therefore fuel and air can be uniformly mixed and the over-rich
regions decreases, which prevents soot emissions. When the mixing
ratio of pine oil exceeds 40%, the effects of the increase of injection
pressure on soot emissions are weakened.
Fig. 15(c) and (d) display the emissions of CO and THC from the
combustion of the four blended fuels at different injection pressures.
Both CO and THC emissions decrease with the increase of injection
pres- sure. Once again, this is due to the fact that air/fuel mixing is
favored by a higher injection pressure, which improves combustion
conditions, leading to the increase of combustion temperature. As a
consequence, a larger amount of CO and THC can be oxidized.
Moreover, as the mixing ratio of pine oil increases, the emissions of
CO and THC increase. Since pine oil has a lower cetane number and a
lower latent heat of vaporiza- tion, a larger fraction of pine oil in the
blend can increase the ignition delay period, and the local low-
temperature thin-mixing regions in- crease, leading to an increase of
CO emissions. Besides, on account of the long ignition delay period,
more mixed air enters the boundary layers of the cylinder liner and
the crevice. The low temperature in boundary layers and in the
crevice can lead to the re off or to an incom- plete combustion, with
large THC and CO emissions.

40

D100 17
EGR ratio:24.6% P0
39
P20
P20 16
P40
Brake Thermal Efficiency/%

38 P40
Ignition delay period/CA

P50 15 P50
37
14
36
13
35
12
34
11
33
10
32
100 120 140 160 100 120 140 160
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa
Fig. 12. Brake thermal efciency during the combustion of the tested fuels at Fig. 14. Ignition delay periods during the combustion of the tested fuels at different
different injection pressures. injection pressures.
 2.0
EGR ratio:24.6% 0.28 EGR ratio:24.6%
1.8
0.24

. 1.6 . 0.20
P0
0.16
1.4 P20
0.12 P40
1.2 P50
P0 0.08
P20
1.0 0.04
P40
P50 0.00
0.8
100 120 140 160 100 120 140 160
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa
(a) NOxemissions (b) Soot emissions

2.6 0.9
EGR ratio:24.6% P0 EGR ratio:24.6% P0
2.4 P20 0.8 P20
2.2 P40 P40
0.7
P50 . P50
. 2.0 0.6
1.8
0.5
1.6
0.4
1.4
1.2 0.3
1.0 0.2
0.8
100 120 140 160 0.1
100 120 140 160
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa
(c) CO emissions (d) THC emissions

Fig. 15. The emissions from the combustion of the four blended fuels as a function of injection pressure.

3.4. Effects of injection pressure on the particulate matter emissions of formed through the nucleation of primary carbon particles, sulfates
pine oil/diesel blended fuels and HC compounds, which are generated during the engine
combustion process [38]. Accumulation mode particles, whose
Particulate matters (PMs) can generally be classied into diameter ranges from 50 to 100 nm, are solid particles formed by the
nucleation mode particles and accumulation mode particles. agglomeration of primary carbon particles, which are generated by
Nucleation mode par- ticles, whose diameter is smaller than 50 nm, the incomplete com- bustion of fuels during the combustion process
are liquid particles and and adsorption of HC

8
Number concentration(dN/dlogDp,1/cc)

3.0x10
Number concentration(dN/dlogDp,1/cc)

EGR ratio: 24.6%

8 Injection pressure 100MPa EGR ratio: 24.6%
5x10 Injection pressure 120MPa
8
2.5x10
8
4x10 8
P0 2.0x10

3x10
8 P20 8
P0
P40 1.5x10 P20
8 P50 P40
2x10 1.0x10
8
P50
8 7
1x10 5.0x10

0 0.0
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Particle size (Dp,nm) Particle size (Dp,nm)

(a) 100MPa (b) 120MPa

Number concentration(dN/dlogDp,1/cc)

Number concentration(dN/dlogDp,1/cc)

8 8
1.5x10 1.2x10
EGR ratio: 24.6%
EGR ratio: 24.6%
Injection pressure 140MPa
8 Injection pressure 160MPa
1.2x10
8 1.0x10

7
8.0x10
9.0x10
7
P0 P0
P20 7 P20
6.0x10
7 P40 P40
6.0x10 P50 P50
7
4.0x10
7
3.0x10 7
2.0x10

0.0 0.0
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Particle size (Dp,nm) Particle size (Dp,nm)

(c) 140MPa (d) 160MPa

Fig. 16. Size distributions of PM number concentration during the combustion of the four blended fuels at different injection pressures.
 85 EGR ratio: 24.6%
28

Nucleation CMD (Dp,nm)

80 P0

Accumulation CMD (Dp,nm)

P20
24 75 P40
70 P50
20
65
16 EGR ratio: 24.6% 60
P0 55
12 P20
P40 50
8 P50 45
100 120 140 160 100 120 140 160
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa
(a) CMDs of nucleation mode particles (b) CMDs of accumulation mode particles

Fig. 17. The CMDs of nucleation/accumulation mode particles during the combustion of the tested fuels at different injection pressures.

compounds, metal ashes and sulfates [40,41]. Soot particles with
differ- ent diameters can be harmful for people's health to different
degrees, especially in the case of smaller particles which are more
dangerous due to their deeper penetration inside the respiratory
tract. Different amounts of particles are deposited at different
positions in the respira- tory system. Large particles can be deposited
in the nasal cavity while small particles can be deposited in the
weasand and bronchi and in the most severe cases into the alveoli.
Therefore, the VI Emission Law of European Union does not only
contemplate the particle mass, but also their size and number
concentration.
Fig. 16 shows the size distribution of PM number concentrations
from the combustion of the four blended fuels at different fuel pres-
sures. One can observe that, most of PMs from the combustion of the
fuels are accumulation mode particles (Dp N 50 nm), and their
number concentration peak value decreases as the injection pressure
increases. The primary reason is that, with the introduction of 24.6%
EGR ratio, pri- mary carbon particles, sulfates and solid carbon
particles deriving from incomplete combustion increase signicantly,
leading to a dramatic in- crease of the number concentration of
accumulation mode particles [42]. As the injection pressure
increases, the atomization of fuels can be improved, which can
promote the mixing between fuel and air and increase the premixed
combustion ratio. The increase of the combustion temperature leads
to the oxidation of accumulation mode particles with greater sizes,
leading to a decline in the peak value of the number con- centration
of accumulation mode particles. Furthermore, as the mixing ratio of
pine oil increases, the peak value of the number concentration of
accumulation mode particles decreases. This is due to the fact that, on
the one hand, a certain amount of oxygen atoms from pine oil are
provided for the combustion of the gas mixture, promoting the
oxida- tion of large particles and resulting in the decrease of soot
emissions (see Fig. 15(b)); on the other hand, a lower amount of
aromatic hydro- carbons in the fuel leads to a less signicant
formation of intermediates
of basic carbon particles and accumulation mode particles [41], i.e., a
larger amount of pine oil leads to a smaller content of aromatic
hydro- carbons in the blended fuel and to lower soot emissions. As a
conse- quence, the peak value of the number concentration of
accumulation- mode particles decreases as the mixing ratio of pine
oil increases.
Fig. 17 displays the count median diameters (CMDs) of nucleation
model particles and accumulation mode particles during the combus-
tion of the four tested fuels as a function of injection pressure. The
CMD value for each particle indicates the particle size corresponding
to the peak value of PM number concentration. As the injection
pressure and the mixing ratio of pine oil increase, the CMDs of
particles generated during the combustion of the fuels decrease
gradually. This is due to the fact that, as the injection pressure
increases, the diffusion combustion ratio decreases while the
premixed combustion ratio increases; as a re- sult, the in-cylinder
combustion temperature rises and the oxidation of particles can be
promoted. Since pine oil contains oxygen as discussed above, the
introduction of pine oil in the blend can contribute to the ox- idation
of large particles and the formation of particles with small sizes.
Fig. 18 shows the number concentrations of nucleation mode
parti- cles and accumulation mode particles during the combustion of
the ex- amined blended fuels at different injection pressures. As the
injection pressure increases, the number concentrations of nucleation
and accu- mulation mode particles during the combustion of
blended fuels de- crease. The primary reason is that, as the injection
pressure increases, the mixing between fuel and air can be enhanced
and the combustion temperature increases, which can facilitate the
oxidation of fuels. Fig.
18(a) also display that nucleation mode number concentration for
pine oil blends is higher at higher injection pressures. That reasons
were probable that pine oil blends enhanced the atomization process
and fuel evaporation (see Fig. 6 and Fig. 7), which formed more
uniform mixture, the diffusion combustion ratio decreases while the
premixed combustion ratio increases. As a result, the in-cylinder
combustion

7
5x10 8
2.5x10
number concentration(n/cc)

EGR ratio: 24.6% EGR ratio: 24.6%

number concentration(n/cc)

7
4x10
Accumulation mode

8
2.0x10
P0
Nucleation mode

7
P0
3x10 P20 8 P20
1.5x10
P40 P40
7 P50 P50
2x10 1.0x10
8

7
1x10 5.0x10
7

0 0.0
100 120 140 160 100 120 140 160
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa
 (a) Number concentration of nucleation mode (b) Number concentration of accumulation
particles mode particles

Fig. 18. The number concentration of nucleation/concentration mode particles during the combustion of the four blended fuels at different injection pressures.
 8
3.0x10 5

Total number concentration(n/cc)

1.4x10

Total mass concentration(ug/cc)

2.5x10
8 EGR ratio: 24.6% 1.2x10
5
EGR ratio: 24.6%
5
1.0x10
2.0x10
8
P0 P0
P20 8.0x10
4 P20
1.5x10
8 P40 P40
P50 6.0x10
4 P50
8
1.0x10
4
4.0x10
7
5.0x10 2.0x10
4

0.0 0.0
100 120 140 160 100 120 140 160
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa
(a) Number concentration of total PMs (b) Mass concentration of total PMs

Fig. 19. Number/mass concentration of total PMs during the combustion of the four blended fuels at different injection pressures.

temperature rises and the oxidation of particles can be promoted. characteristics. Fig. 20 shows the variations of the emissions of
What's more, the presence of oxygen in pine oil can help improve particles with a diameter smaller than 23 nm from the combustion of
the local oxygen-decit in the combustion process, i.e., it promotes four blend- ed fuels with the injection pressure. It can observe that, as
the ox- idation of large particles, reduces the particle size, large the injection pressure increases, the number concentration of particles
particles con- vert to small particles [43], so the concentration of whose diame- ter is smaller than 23 nm rst decreases and then
nucleation particles is higher compared to diesel fuel. As shown in increases, while the mass concentration decreases monotonously.
Fig. 18(b), as the mixing ratio of pine oil increases, the number Moreover, at high injec- tion pressures (N 140 MPa), the mixing of
concentration of accumulation mode particles decreases. The pine oil in the fuel, although the mass concentration of the particles
presence of oxygen in pine oil, decrease the amount of aromatic with diameter smaller than
hydrocarbons contained in the fuel and the gen- erated soot 23 nm can be reduced, the number concentration increases. Once
emissions, i.e., a greater oxygen content in the blended fuel can again, this is due to the greater air/fuel mixing obtained at high
promote the oxidation of accumulation mode particles. injection pressures, which favors the oxidation combustion of fuel.
Fig. 19 shows the number and mass concentrations of total PMs The mixing of pine oil in diesel can provide a certain amount of
dur- ing the combustion of the four tested fuels as a function of oxygen atoms for the combustion of blended fuels, and larger
injection pressure. Both the number concentration and mass particles can be oxidized into smaller particles. Blending of the pine
concentration of PMs decrease with increasing pressure and pine oil oil shifts the accumulation mode to small size particles, resulting in
amount. On the one hand, as the injection pressure increases, the more small size particles compared to pure diesel [37,43]. The
droplet diameter of fuel decreases, the atomization quality of fuel oxygen contained in the P20 fuel is limited, and there is not enough
can be improved, the mixing between fuel and air becomes more oxygen to be oxidation of the small particles. So the PM (particle size
uniform; this leads to a more advanced degree of combustion and b 23 nm) number and mass concentration for P20 fuel were higher.
an according inhibition in PM generation, which decreases PM mass Fig. 21 displays the ratios of the number concentrations of small
concentration, as shown in Fig. 15(b). On the other hand, the oxygen par- ticles (whose diameter is smaller than 23 nm) to the total PM
content of pine oil is up to number concentrations during the combustion of the four fuels at
22.8%, which can promote the oxidation of particles and precursors; different in- jection pressures. As the injection pressure increases,
therefore, the nucleation of particles is suppressed and the the fraction of small particles increases. Since the increase of
generation of primary dry carbon particles decreases, resulting in a injection pressure can promote the mixing between fuel and air,
decline in the number concentration of total PM. Therefore, the improve combustion and in- crease the combustion temperature,
presence of a larger amount of pine oil and an increase in the large particles can be more easily oxidized to form small particles.
injection pressure can reduce the PM number concentration and One can also observe that, at the same injection pressure, the
mass concentration simultaneously. fraction of small particles increases with the amount of pine oil in
Table 4 and Table 5 list the reduction ratios of PM number the blend. At an injection pressure of
concentra- tions and mass concentrations during the combustion of 160 MPa, the number concentration of small particles constitutes up
P20, P40 and P50 with respect to the values for the combustion of P0 to 54.075% of the total PM number concentration during the combus-
at different in- jection pressures. Under different operating tion of P50. This is due to the fact that pine oil has a lower cetane
conditions at different in- jection pressures, the PM number and mass num- ber, a longer ignition delay period, a higher combustion
concentrations during the combustion of the blended fuels are temperature and it contains oxygen, which promotes the
much lower than those during the combustion of pure diesel. At an transformation of large par- ticles into small particles.
injection pressure of 100 MPa, the PM number concentration and Fig. 22 displays the ratios of the mass concentrations of small
mass concentration of P50 are re- duced by 86.30% and 96.55% parti- cles to the total PM mass concentrations during the
compared with the values of P0, respectively. combustion of the four blended fuels at different injection pressures.
In the European emission legislation, the regulation compliant Although the ratios of the number concentrations fraction of small
parti- cle counters have a 50% cut-off at 23 nm [44], therefore an particles are large, their mass concentration is small due to their
equivalent cut-off was applied when investigating the particle small size and volume. The
emission

Table 4 Table 5
Relative total number concentration under different injection pressure and Relative total mass concentration under different injection pressure and fuels.
fuels.
 100 MPa 120 MPa 140 MPa 160 MPa 100 MPa 120 MPa 140 MPa 160 MPa

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 34.7% 27.80% 25.50% 53.90% 20 58.33% 54.65% 57.21% 79.71%
40 71.30% 70.00% 64.40% 52.30% 40 88.81% 87.57% 87.15% 81.55%
50 86.30% 81.70% 75.70% 70.80% 50 96.55% 95.25% 93.77% 90.85%
 7
2.0x10 60

PM number concentration(N/cc)
7 particles of diameter<23nm P0 particles of diameter<23nm P0
1.8x10
P20 P20

PM mass concentration(ug/cc)
1.6x10
7 50 P40
P40
7 P50 P50
1.4x10
40
7
1.2x10
7
1.0x10 30
6
8.0x10
6 20
6.0x10
6
4.0x10
10
6
2.0x10
0.0 0
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa

(a) Particulate number concentration (b) Particulate mass concentration

Fig. 20. Particulate number/mass concentration of different fuels at different injection pressure (particle size b 23 nm).

variations of injection pressure and the mixing ratio of pine oil sort between fuel and air, increase the premixed combustion ratio,
slight effects on the mass fraction of small particles, which remain reduce the ignition delay period and anticipate the starting point of
below 0.7% at different injection pressures. combus- tion, leading to an increase of the peak values of heat
release rate, in- cylinder pressure, pressure rise ratio and BSFC. As
4. Conclusions the injection pressure increases, the emissions of soot, CO and
THC during the combustion of fuels decrease. In particular,
In this study, the spray characteristics of pine oil-diesel blends increasing the injection pressure from 100 to 160 MPa leads to a
were investigated under various injection pressures using a constant reduction in soot emissions from the combustion of P0 by an
volume spray chamber. And the engine performance, combustion and amount of 83.21%. However, the emissions of NOx increase with
exhaust emissions of a turbocharged direct injection diesel engine the injection pressure.
were evaluat- ed using pine oil-diesel blends in low temperature
combustion at a me- dium EGR ratio; the engine speed was 2. At a xed injection pressure, after the mixing of pine oil into
maintained at a constant value of diesel, the cetane number of the blended fuel decreases and the
1800 rpm and the effects of a variation in the injection pressure were ignition delay period is prolonged. As the mixing ratio of pine oil
in- vestigated. The effects of fuel composition and injection pressure increases, the spray penetration and spray cone angle increase,
on en- gine performance and exhaust emissions were discussed in showing com- paratively good atomization, the peak values of in-
detail. The main conclusions can be drawn as follows: cylinder pressure and heat release rate rst increase and then
decrease, leading to the increase of BSFC. A higher content of pine
1. Increasing the injection pressure can increase the spray oil in the blend increases the emissions of NOx, CO and THC while
penetration and spray enhance the atomization process, promote decreasing soot emissions. At an injection pressure of 100 MPa,
the mixing the soot emissions from the

8
5.0x10 18 8
5.0x10 60
PM number concentration(N/cc)

The ratio of Dp<23 nm particles/%

The ratio of Dp<23 nm particles/%

Dp<23nm
PM number concentration(N/cc)

8
4.5x10 ratio P0 16 8
Dp<23nm ratio P20 51.434%
total 14 4.5x10 total 50
8
4.0x10 10.710% 14.748% 8
12 4.0x10
8 8.445% 10 40
3.5x10 8
3.5x10
8 5.539% 8
3.0x10 8 30
6 3.0x10
8 17.363%
2.5x10 4 2.5x10
8
20
8 2 9.960%
2.0x10 2.0x10
8

8
1.5x10 -2 1.5x10
8

8 -4 0
1.0x10 1.0x10
8

7
5.0x10 5.0x10 -10
-8
0.0 -10 0.0
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa

(a) P0 (b) P20

8 8
2.0x10 60 1.0x10 60
The ratio of Dp<23 nm particles/%

The ratio of Dp<23 nm particles/%

PM number concentration(N/cc)
PM number concentration(N/cc)

Dp<23nm ratio P40 Dp<23nm ratio P50 54.076%

total 50 total
54.574% 50
8 7 45.105%
1.5x10 8.0x10 44.064%
40
31.538% 40
27.280% 30 7
6.0x10
1.0x10
8 28.762%
18.357% 30
20
7
4.0x10
10 20
7
5.0x10
0 2.0x10
7
10
-10
0.0 0.0 0
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa
(c) P40 (d) P50
Fig. 21. Comparison of the particulate number concentrations of different fuels at different injection pressure. (The yellow regions denote the number concentrations of the particles
with a diameter below 23 nm.) (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 5
3.0x10 6 1.0x10
5
6
Dp<23nm ratio P0 Dp<23nm ratio P20 5

The ratio of Dp<23 nm particles/%

total 4 total

The ratio of Dp<23 nm particles/%

5
4

PM mass concentration(ug/cc)
2.5x10

PM mass concentration(ug/cc)
4
8.0x10 3
2
5 0.0627% 0.0794% 0.113% 2
2.0x10 0.0397% 0.371%
0 4 0.103% 0.147% 0.185% 1
6.0x10 0
5
1.5x10 -2 -1
4 -2
-4 4.0x10
1.0x10
5
-3
-4
-6
4 2.0x10
4 -5
5.0x10
-8 -6
-7
0.0 -10 0.0 -8
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa

(a) P0 (b) P20

4
3.0x10 6 8x10
3
6
Dp<23nm ratio P40 5 Dp<23nm ratio P50 5
total 7x103 total

The ratio of Dp<23

4 4

The ratio of Dp<23 nm particles/%

2.5x10 4
PM mass concentration(ug/cc)

PM mass concentration(ug/cc)
3
3 6x10
3
2

nm particles/%
4
2.0x10 2 0.597% 0.688% 0.652% 0.583%
5x10
3 1
0.414% 0.419% 1
4
0.270% 0.354% 0
1.5x10 0 4x10
3
-1
-1 -2
3
1.0x10
4 3x10 -3
-2
-4
-3 2x10
3
-5
5.0x103 -4
1x10
3 -6
-5 -7
0.0 -6 0 -8
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Injection pressure/MPa Injection pressure/MPa

(c) P40 (d) P50

Fig. 22. Comparison of the particulate mass concentrations of different fuels at different injection pressure. (The yellow regions denote the number concentrations of the particles
with a diameter below 23 nm). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

combustion of P50 are reduced by 96.43% with respect to pure Award, Grant No.
diesel. When the mixing ratio of pine oil exceeds 40%, the effects 2014GXNSFGA118005), Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
of the in- jection pressure on soot emissions are weakened. No. 51076033), and Guangxi Science and Technology Development
3. As the injection pressure increases, the peak values of number
con- centrations of accumulation mode particles during the
combustion of the tested fuels decrease, the CMDs of nucleation
accumulation mode particles gradually decrease, the number
concentration of nu- cleation and accumulation mode particles
decrease, the number and mass concentrations of total PMs
decrease, the number concentra- tion of small particles (with the
diameter smaller than 23 nm) rst decreases and then increases,
the mass concentrations decrease mo- notonously, and the ratios
of the number concentrations of small particles to total PM
number concentrations increase.
4. The mixing of pine oil into diesel can reduce the number
concentra- tion of accumulation-mode particles as well as the
CMDs of nucle- ation and accumulation-mode particles. As the
mixing ratio of pine oil increases, the number and mass
concentration of total PMs de- crease. At an injection pressure of
100 MPa, the number and mass concentration of the total PMs
during the combustion of P50 are re- duced by 86.30% and 96.55%
with respect to pure diesel. At high in- jection pressures (N 140
MPa), the increase of the mixing ratio of pine oil can reduce the
mass concentration of small particles (with the diameter smaller
than 23 nm), while increasing their number concentration and
their relative amount.

Acknowledgement

The research is sponsored by projects of Natural Science

Foundation of Guangxi (project Outstanding Young Scholarship
Plan (1598007-44, 1598007-45). This research is nancially
supported by the project of outstanding young teachers' training in
higher educa- tion institutions of Guangxi.

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