Thermal Engineering Lab Manual

Thermal Engineering Laboratory Manual 1
LOAD TEST ON COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
Aim
To conduct a load test on Anil/Kirloskar engine and to draw the following curves:
i. SFC Vs Pb
ii. TFC Vs Pb
iii. Mechanical Vs Pb
iv. Brake Thermal Vs Pb
v. Indicated Thermal Vs Pb
Specification
Procedure
Calculate the maximum load on the engine with critical precautions taken, start the
engine at no load. Note the time taken for x cc fuel consumption. Experiment is repeated
with load increased uniformly up to maximum. The engine stopped by disengaging fuel cut
off lever. To a certain extent it may be over loaded also. Speed is kept constant throughout
at rated rpm.
Observations and Calculations

1. Maximum load, W = N
= kg
Where, Pb = Brake Power in kW
= 5 HP = 3.675 kW
N = speed of engine, in rpm
= 1500 rpm
R = Net Radius of Brake Drum, in meter
g = Acceleration due to gravity, in m/s2
= 9.81 m/s2
2. Torque T = W*R Nm
Where, R = Effective Radius of the Brake Drum, in meter
= m
W = Net Load on Brake Drum, in Newton
= (w s) kg
= (w - s) * g N
w = Applied load, including hanger weight, in kg
Hanger weight = 1 kg
s = spring balance reading, in kg
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

3. Total Fuel Consumption, T F C = m3/hr
= * s kg/hr
Where, s = Specific gravity of Fuel oil in kg/m3
= 821 kg/m3
t = Time for x cc fuel consumption in seconds
x = Volume of fuel consumed, in cm3 (cc)
4. Brake Horse Power, Pb = kW

Where, T = Torque developed, in Nm
= R*W Nm
W = Net Load on Brake drum in N
R = Effective radius of brake drum in meter
5. Specific Fuel Consumption, S F C = kg/KW-hr
Where, TFC = Total Fuel Consumption in kg/hr
Pb = Brake power in kW
6. Indicated Power, Pi = Pb + Pf kW
Where, Pb = Brake Power, in kW
Pf = Frictional Power, in kW
(Found by Willains Line Method)
7. Brake thermal efficiency, bth = * 100 %

TFC = Total Fuel Consumption in kg/hr
CV = Calorific Value of Fuel Oil in kJ/kg
= 42000 kJ/kg (High Speed Diesel Oil)
8. Indicated thermal efficiency, ith = * 100 %

Where, Pi = Indicated Power in kW
= 42000 kJ/kg (High Speed Diesel Oil)
9. Mechanical efficiency, mech = * 100 %

Pi = Indicated Power in kW

10. Brake mean effective pressure,

Pm =
= kN/m2
L = Stroke length, in meter
A = Cross-sectional area of cylinder, in m2
= D2/4 m2
D = Bore Diameter of Cylinder, in meter
N = Speed of engine, in rpm
k = Constant
= 1, for two-stroke cycle engines
= , for four-stroke cycle engines
Determination of Frictional Power (Pf)
The Willains Line method can be applied to the unthrottled compression ignition
engines, both, single and multi-cylinder. It is based on the principle that at light loads a
relatively small amount of fuel is pumped into the air. Hence, there is plenty of air available
for combustion resulting in a very hear constant combustion efficiency. This means that at a
given speed a straight relation exists between the rate at which fuel is consumed and the
engine load on torque. This line is called Willains Line.

By extrapolation of the line the fuel flow rate at zero torque can be determined. This
is the fuel flow rate necessary to overcome friction. From this frictional power (Pf) can be
determined.
The rapid increase in the slope of the line at high load end denotes a progressive
reduction in combustion efficiency as more and more fuel is pumped into the given volume
of air.
Since a petrol engine is throttled to maintain a high Fuel/Air ratio with load, the
combustion efficiency is relatively low and is not constant (due to incomplete combustion).
Consequently a plot of fuel flow rate against load does not yield a straight line and
extrapolation is virtually impossible.
Tabulation
Brake thermal Efficiency

Total Fuel Consumption
Spring Balance reading
Mechanical Efficiency
Brake Mean Effective

Time for 20 cc Fuel
Indicated thermal
Indicated Power
Load on Hanger
Consumption
Specific Fuel
Brake Power
consumption
Efficiency
Net Load
Pressure
Torque
Sl. No
w s W T t TFC Pb Pi SFC bth ith mech Bmep
kg kg kg N Nm s kg/hr kW kW kg/hr % % % N/m2
1
2
...
7
8
Result
The Load test is conducted on the 5 HP Kirloskar diesel engine and inferred the
relevant plots.

Inference
C. I. Engine usually indicates a constant amount of air and injects various amounts of
fuel in proportion to the load. Density of the mixture is relatively constant and so heat loss
relatively constant. On the other hand, the change in Air/Fuel ratio with load is accompanied
by corresponding changes in average combustion and expansion temperatures. At light loads,
the average temperatures are low, and heat loss is less than when the engine is heavily loaded.
This is because of the higher temperatures, heat loss increases with load increase. Since the
quantity of fuel is proportional to load, the percentage heat loss tends towards constancy of
slight decrease. Therefore Brake Thermal Efficiency increases and Specific Fuel
Consumption decreases.
The SFC curve rises sharply with a decrease in load, since the percentage decrease in
fuel required to operate the engine is less than the percentage decrease in Brake Power (Pi).
At high loads, SFC curve rises again. This is due to friction (piston ring and bearing) brought
about by increased cylinder pressure in the cylinder. Another reason for the rise of the SFC
curve at high loads is the incomplete combustion that accompanies the low Air/Fuel ratio
used to obtain the heavy load.
In low load range, small amount of fuel is used and there is plenty of air available for
combustion resulting in very high and almost constant combustion efficiency. In other
words, at a given speed, a straight line relation exists between fuel flow rate and engine load.
Hence TFC line is straight in the low load range. At high load range, there is a rapid increase
in the slope of the line and denotes a progressive reduction in combustion efficiency as more
and more fuel is pumped into the given volume of air.
SFC is minimum when thermal efficiency is maximum and it occurs normally at
about 75% to 85% of the full rated output. This is the economical load of the engine.
Maximum value of mechanical efficiency is corresponding to 100 % full load.
Mechanical efficiency depends on the design of the engine speed, cooling conditions, quality
of lubrication, etc. As a first approximation, the losses i.e. Frictional Power may be taken as
independent of load where speed is constant. All variables affecting frictional power are
constants. But these variables get adversely affected beyond full load conditions. Hence
mechanical efficiency decreases beyond the full load conditions.

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY TEST ON COMPRESSION

IGNITION ENGINE
Aim
To determine the volumetric efficiency of the Anil/Kirloskar engine at various loads
and to plot the following curves:
1. Volumetric Vs Brake Power (Pb)
2. Air-Fuel ratio Vs Brake Power (Pb)
Specification
Procedure
Start the engine at no load conditions, taking all initial precautions. Note the time
taken for x cc fuel consumption. Reading is taken on the manometer which is connected to
the stabilizing tank. Repeat the experiment at different loads upto the maximum load. The
diameter of the inlet orifice is also noted. Tabulate the values and calculate values of the
volumetric efficiency and air fuel ratio.
1. Area of orifice, a = d2 m2
Where, d = Diameter of the Orifice, in meter
2. Air equivalent of intake air pressure, hair = (hW * W)/Air mm

Where, hw = Manometer reading in mm of water
Water = Density of water in kg/m3
= 1000 kg/m3
Air = Density of air
= Pair/(RTair) kg/m3
Pair = Atmospheric pressure in N/m2
Tair = Atmospheric temperature in Kelvin
R = Gas constant in kJ/kg-K
2
3. Swept Volume, Vf = * m3/s
Where, D = Diameter of the cylinder in m
N = Speed of engine in rpm
L = Stroke length in m

4. Volume of air at room temperature, Vr= Cd * a (2gha) m3/s

Where, a = Area of orifice in meter square
Cd = Coefficient of Discharge of orifice
= 0.6
ha = Manometer reading in meters of air
5. Volumetric efficiency at NTP condition, VO = (PrVrTO)/(TrPO) m3/s

Where, Pr = Atmospheric Pressure present at room
Tr = Room Temperature in Kelvin
TO = 0O C = 273 K
2
PO = 1.033 kgf/cm (760 mm of Hg)
Vr = Volume of air at room temperature in m3/s
6. Volumetric efficiency, Volumetric = (VO / Vf ) * 100 %

Where, VO = Volumetric efficiency at NTP condition
Vf = Swept Volume
= * s kg/hr
Where, s = Specific gravity of Fuel oil
= 0.82 (for HSD)
8. Air-Fuel Ratio = Mass of air / Mass of fuel

= (Vr * air * 3600) / TFC kg of air / kg of fuel
Where, Air = Density of air at room temperature
Vr = Volume of air at room temperature in m3/s
Graph

Tabular Column
Sl. No.
5
kg
W
Load
kW
Pb
mm of Brake Power
water
hw
Manometer reading
mm of
air
ha
Air Equivalent of hw
m3/min
Vr
Volume of air at room temperature
Time for x cc fuel consumption

s
t
kg/hr
TFC

Vol
%
Volumetric Efficiency
kg of fuel
kg of air/
Air Fuel ratio

Result
Found the volumetric efficiency of the given compression ignition engine and the
relevant performance plots are prepared.
Inference
CI engine is often referred to as a constant air supply engine, because the air supply is
not throttled; and power output is varied by regulating the fuel supply alone. While this is
true for an engine speed, the air supply does vary with changing engine speeds. When speed
is kept constant and load increases, fuel flow rate also increases to meet the same speed. But
air flow reduces gradually die to residual effect. Hence A/F ratio reduces when load
increases. Although various rates of air and fuel can be burnt with CI engine, it is found that
a definite ratio is required to obtain maximum torque (max Bmep) at a given speed and a
different although definite ratio is required for maximum economy (minimum SFC).
The residual gas left on the cylinder at the end of the cycle can be a damaging effect
on volumetric efficiency. Not only does that residual gas occupy volume which could be
occupied by fresh charge, but heat is transferred from residual gas to the new charge during
suction process. It will lower the amount of fresh charge both by lowering the volumetric
efficiency of the suction stroke and by raising the temperature of the charge and thereby
reducing its density. As the load is increased the temperature and pressure of the gas also
increases, resulting in more heat transfer to the new charge and a decrease in volumetric
efficiency. Moreover the fresh charge is admitted only when the clearance gas is expanded to
a pressure below atmospheric. So, when the pressure of the clearance gas is more, the
volume occupied by this gas is more during completion of expansion. Hence, volume of
fresh charge is reduced and the volumetric efficiency reduces. The power output of the
engine is directly related to the atmospheric pressure, there will be a corresponding reduction
in the power output. Similarly, if the temperature of the air entering the engine is high, the
output will be considerably reduced. Since atmospheric cannot be readily influenced by man,
means is desirable to correct the engine performance to some standard environment. So,
volumetric efficiency is often calculated by reducing the volume of air sucked at inlet
condition to some standard conditions as NTP condition.

HEAT BALANCE TEST ON COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
Aim
To conduct a heat balance test on the Anil/Kirloskar CI engine at th, 1/2, th and
full loads and prepare the heat balance sheet and to draw the heat balance chart.
Specification
Brief Theory of the experiment

From the law of conservation of energy, the total energy entering the engine in
various ways in a given time must be equal to the energy leaving the engine during the same
time, neglecting other form energy such as the enthalpy of air. The energy input to the engine
is essentially the heat released in the engine cylinder by the combustion of the fuel. The heat
input is partly converted into useful work output, partly carried away by exhaust gases, partly
carried away by cooling water circulated and the direct radiation to the surroundings. In a
heat balance test all these values are calculated and converted to percentage with respect to
the input and are presented in a chart at various loads.
Precautions
1. The engine should be checked for no load condition.
2. The cooling water inlet for engine should be opened.
3. The level of fuel in the fuel tank should be checked.
4. The lubrication oil level is to be checked before starting the engine.
Starting the engine
1. Engage the decompression lever in the vertical position
2. Insert the starting handle in the shaft and rotate it
3. When the flywheel picks up speed disengage the decompression lever and remove the
handle.
4. Now the engine will get started.
Stopping the engine
Cut of the fuel supply by keeping the fuel governor lever in the other extreme
position.
Procedure
Calculate the maximum load of the engine under the rated conditions. Start the
engine at no load condition and then bring the engine to the rated speed and allow it to
stabilize. Note the time taken for the consumption of 10 cc of fuel. Cooling water inlet and
outlet temperatures and the exhaust gas temperatures are noted. Mass of cooling water
collected for a particular time is found. From these data, the heat distribution at no load
condition is calculated. Repeat the experiment at th, , th and full load at rated speed.
Care should be taken to maintain the speed of the engine at the rated value.


= kg
= 10 HP
= 1500 rpm
= 9.81 m/s2
= *s kg/hr
= 0.82 (for HSD)

= R*W Nm
W = Net load on the flywheel
R = Mean radius of Brake Drum.
4. Mass of fuel, fuel = (TFC / 60) kg/min
5. Heat input = Mass of the fuel * Calorific value of fuel

= kJ/min

C.V. = Calorific Value of fuel oil in kJ/min
= 44000 kJ/min
6. Heat energy equivalent of Brake Power = Pb x 60 kJ/min

Where, Pb = Brake power in kW

7. Mass flow rate of cooling water, mw = w.Vw kg/min
Where, w = Mass density of water = 1 kg/litter

Vw = Volume flow rate, in litter/minute
8. Heat carried away by cooling water = mw * Cpw(Tw2 Tw1) kJ/min
Where, Tw1 = Cooling water inlet temperature, in Kelvin.

Tw2 = Cooling water outlet temperature, in Kelvin.
Cpw = Specific Heat Capacity of cooling water in kJ/kg-K
= 4.2 kJ/kg-K
9. Density of air air = kg/m3
Where, P = Atmospheric Pressure in kg/m2

= 1.0332 * 104 kg/m2
R = Gas constant for air
= 0.287 kJ/kg-K
T = Atmospheric Temperature in Kelvin
10. Mass of air air = d2 * * Vol * air kg/min
Where, d = Bore diameter of cylinder in meter

L = Stroke length in meter
N = Speed of engine in rpm
Vol = Volumetric efficiency in Percentage
= 80% (Assumed)
11. Mass of exhaust gas, e = (air + fuel) kg/min
Where, air = Mass of air in kg/min

fuel = Mass of fuel in kg/min
12. Heat carried away by exhaust gas = me * Cpg(Tg Tamp) kJ/min

Where, e = Mass of exhaust gas, in kg/min
Tg = Exhaust Gas Temperature, in Kelvin
Tamp = Atmospheric Temperature, in Kelvin
Cpg = Specific Heat capacity of exhaust gas, in kJ/kg-k
= 1.005 kJ/kg-K

Note: To find the term me * Cpg exhaust gas calorimeter can also be used. We know that,
Heat carried away by calorimeter coolant = Heat lost by exhaust gas in calorimeter
i.e. me * Cpg (tg2 tg1) = mw * Cpw (tw4 tw3)
Therefore, me * Cpg =
Hence,
Heat carried away by exhaust gas = (Tg Tamp) kJ/min

Where, w = Mass of water, in kg/min
Tw3 = Cooling water calorimeter inlet temperature, in Kelvin.
Tw4 = Cooling water calorimeter outlet temperature, in Kelvin.
Cpw = Specific Heat Capacity of cooling water in kJ/kg-K
= 4.2 kJ/kg-K
Tg = Exhaust Gas Temperature, in Kelvin
Tamp = Atmospheric Temperature, in Kelvin
tg1 = Exhaust gas temperature at calorimeter inlet, in Kelvin
tg2 = Exhaust gas temperature at calorimeter outlet, in Kelvin
13. According to heat balance equilibrium,

Heat input = Heat energy equivalent to Brake Power +
Heat energy carried away by cooling water +
Heat energy carried away by exhaust gas +
Unaccounted loss
Therefore,
Percent heat energy equivalent to brake power

= * 100 %
Percent Heat carried away by cooling water
= * 100 %
Percent Heat carried away by exhaust gas
= * 100 %
Percent Unaccounted loss = * 100 %

Tabular Column
Sl. No
5
kW
Brake Power
Pb
Load
W
N
Engine coolant
Tw1
K
Inlet temperature
Engine coolant
Tw2
K Outlet temperature
Calorimeter coolant
Tw3
K
inlet temperature
Calorimeter coolant
Tw4
K
outlet temperature
Exhaust gas temperature
Tg1
K
at calorimeter inlet
Tg2
K
at calorimeter outlet
Tg

K
Time for x cc fuel consumption

s
Time for flowing 3 litter of water

tw
s
kg/min kg/hr
mw
Mass flow rate of cooling water

TFC

air
Mass of air
kg/min
fuel
Mass of Fuel
e
Mass of exhaust gas
Heat input
Heat energy equivalent of Pb

kJ/min
Heat carried away by cooling water
Heat carried away by exhaust gas

Heat Balance Sheet

Heat Energy Consumed
Heat Energy Supplied kJ/hr Percentage kJ/hr Percentage
(Distribution)
Heat energy equivalent to
Brake Power
Heat energy carried away
Heat Energy available
by cooling water
from the fuel burnt
Heat energy carried away
by exhaust gas
Unaccounted loss
Total 100 % Total 100 %
Graph
Result
Heat Balance Sheet is prepared for the given CI engine.

Inference
The indicator diagram of a CI engine shows that pressure and temperature at the end
of compression is more than one third of the maximum full load value. Hence the cycle
temperature does not drop in proportion to the fuel flow rate. The result is a higher
percentage coolant energy loss at low load. When the load increases the average temperature
increases and so the heat loss, to the cooling water and to exhaust, increases with the load.
However, the cycle temperature does not increase in proportion to the fuel flow rate, whereas
the fuel flow is proportional to the load. Hence, on percentage wise, the coolant energy loss
tends to constancy or lessens slightly with increase in load.
Altering the load on engine has significant effect of the casing and sump temperature.
This, coupled with the fact that energy radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of the radiating surface, results i an increase in the proportion of energy
loss by radiation as the load is increased.
Ratio of low load temperature to full load temperature (absolute) remains at 0.7
approximately throughout the expansion stroke. However, the ratio of low load to full load
temperature differences between exhaust and inlet is 0.5 approximately. Thus the percentage
exhaust energy loss lessens slightly with increase in load. Hence we can conclude that the
figure shows the areas which must be reduced and that which must be increased to obtain
better engine performance.
In energy balance Vs speed graph, percentage energy loss to exhaust rises with engine
speed while percentage coolant and percentage radiation energy losses decreases as Q Vpa,
where a< 1.0. In petrol engine also essentially the curves are of similar shape.
In petrol engine, if the throttle is closed, the temperature is affected very little because
Air-Fuel ratio is substantially constant. If the mass flow rate of air into the engine is reduced
as the fuel flow rate is reduced, the gas temperature throughout the cycle remains high. This
results in high energy loss to coolant at low engine load and relatively poor part load thermal
efficiency of petrol engine. Since exhaust temperature vary very little with load, percentage
loss of heat to exhaust is nearly constant.
Viva Questions
1. Explain the air fuel ratio?
2. What is Injection Timing?
3. What are the methods of available for improving the performance of an engine?
4. Distinguish between power and specific output?
5. What is the importance of specific fuel consumption?
6. What is the torque of an engine?

COOLING CURVE ON COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
Aim
To conduct a suitable test on a Anil/Kirloskar CI engine at half full load and find the
optimum cooling water temperature.
Specification
Procedure
Start the engine at no-load. The engine is loaded corresponding to half full load (i.e. 5
HP for a 10 HP engine). Engine is allowed to stabilize. Keeping the load constant, vary the
amount of cooling water circulated. In each case, note the weight of the water collected for a
specific period (say 30 s). Cooling water outlet and inlet temperatures are noted. Note the
time taken for 10 cc fuel consumption. Heat carried away by cooling water and specific fuel
consumption are evaluated and the curves are plotted.
Graphs
1. SFC Vs Cooling water outlet temperature
2. Heat carried away by cooling water Vs cooling water outlet temperature
Specific Fuel Consumption (kg/kW-hr)
Heat Carried by cooling water (kJ/hr)

= kg

= 9.81 m/s2
= * s kg/hr

= 0.82 (for HSD oil)

= R*W Nm
W = Load in N
4. Specific Fuel Consumption, S F C = kg/kW-hr

5. Heat Carried away by cooling water , Q = m C T kJ/hr
Where, m = Mass flow rate of cooling water in kg/s

C = Specific heat of water
= 4.2 kJ/kg-K

Tabular column
Weight of Water
away by cooling
collecting water
Time for 10 cc
Cooling water
Consumption
Consumption
Specific Fuel
consumption
Heat carried
temperature
Total Fuel
Time for
Sl. No
outlet
water
fuel
t TFC SFC Q
O
C kg s s kg/hr kg/kW-hr kJ/hr
1
2
3
4
5
6
Inference
When the cooling water is decreased in amount, its temperature rises; but the amount
of heat it receives will be less, as the exhaust gas temperature rises and more heat is carried
away by the exhaust gases.
A high value of cooling water has got the following advantages. It eliminates the
condensation of water vapour contained in the products of combustion which in turn reduces
materially the washing of the lubricating oil film from the cylinder and piston ring surfaces
and prevents the formation of sulphuric acid from SO2 often contained in the products of
combustion. These two factors reduce the wear of the cylinder, piston rings, etc. A high
value of cooling water temperature lowers the viscosity of the cylinder lubricating oil and
thus increases the mechanical efficiency of engine, lowering the specific fuel consumption up
to 10% at full load. When the temperature difference between the cooling water and the air
to which heat is rejected is small, the radiator, if used, requires considerably small radiator
surface and a smaller fan, which again saves fuel.
But, raising the coolant temperature.................. will increase the end gas temperature
and reduce the delay period and thereby will promote detonation in SI engines.
In order to avoid excessive heat stresses, the temperature difference between the
incoming and outgoing water must not exceed 20OF is small and medium size engines (and
10OF in large engines).
At higher coolant temperature, the exhaust gas temperature is higher and it will cause
an increase in the temperature of the fresh charge which, thereby, will decrease its density
and consequently reduce the volumetric efficiency. Moreover, pumping losses increases with

water temperature as the volume of both exhaust and intake gases increases. These effects
will tend to reduce power output and t increase specific fuel consumption.
Excessive water circulation in low final water temperature is not desirable,
particularly in SI engines, as it will cause precipitation of considerable portion of the fuel;
disturb the charge distribution, increase the fuel consumption and decrease the useful power.
A low cooling water temperature increases the viscosity of the lubricating oil and
consequently the piston friction. The difference between friction losses at high and low
jacket temperature may amount to as 8% of the indicated power if the piston is large and
heavy and drops to about 4% if the piston has small bearing area and weight. Until the
engine is heated to a certain minimum temperature the fuel is not vaporised sufficiently to
give a homogeneous mixture with air. This results in poor combustion and fuel economy.
Also the cool engine with poor vaporisation of the fuel has a tendency to cut out and run
erratically. As the engine temperature decreased below the set minimum, there will be
increase in the frictional power due to high viscosity of lubricating oil.
Hence a well designed cooling system should provide optimum cooling. Both
extremes (low jacket and high jacket temperatures) will result in poor fuel economy. Thus an
optimum cooling water temperature exists for which specific fuel consumption is minimum.

RETARDATION TEST
Aim
To conduct a retardation test on given Kirloskar/Anil CI Engine and to find out the
Frictional Power (Pf) at a given speed.
Apparatus
1. Kirlosker / Anil Diesel Engine
2. Tachometer
3. Stopwatch
Specifications
Procedure
Engine is started and run at any particular speed under no load condition. Regulating
the fuel flow, the speed is brought to 1500 / 650 rpm. Allow it to be stabilized. Then, the
fuel supply is cut off and the flywheel gets retarded. The time is noted for the change in
speed from 1500 rpm to 1450 rpm (650 rpm to 600 rpm). The procedure is repeated to obtain
the time for the change in speed from 1500 rpm to 1400 rpm (650 rpm to 550 rpm). The
speed is successively brought down as low as ........ rpm and corresponding times are noted.
Repeat the experiment at half full load and similar readings are obtained. Speed versus time
graph is drawn and subsequently the torque due to friction is calculated from the graph.
Tabular Column
Anil Engine
No Load Half Full Load
Time in Second Time in Second
RPM RPM
t1 t2 tm t1 t2 tm
650 600 650 600
650 550 650 550
650 500 650 500
650 450 650 450
650 400 650 400
650 350 650 350

Kirloskar Engine
No Load Half Full Load
Time in Second Time in Second
RPM RPM
t1 t2 tm t1 t2 tm
1500 1450 1500 1450
1500 1400 1500 1400
1500 1350 1500 1350
1500 1300 1500 1300
1500 1250 1500 1250
1500 1200 1500 1200
Graph
Speed in rpm

Theory and Calculation
The time for retardation of the flywheel under no load condition is more than under
loaded condition. Brake Power (Pb) is directly proportional to torque.
But T = I.,
Where I = mass moment of inertia
Or T R
Where R = the angular retardation of the flywheel. Hence, as torque increases,
retardation increases, as the time for retardation decreases as
R N/t
Thus, at higher load conditions the speed versus time curve will be steeper than that of
the no load condition.
At no load, Tf R
Where, R = Angular retardation.
On load Condition (Tf + Tb) R1
Where, Tf = Frictional Torque
Tb = Torque due to load
Therefore, (Tf + Tb)/Tf = (R1 / R);
1 + (Tb / Tf) = (R1 / R)
=
Therefore, 1 + (Tb / Tf) = t/t1
Tf = Tb * (t1 / (t t1)) Nm
And Frictional Power, Pf = kW
Where, Tb = load x mean radius of brake drum in meter
Errors Involved
Though this experiment can be easily conducted on large flywheel engines it is liable
to incur some errors. The retarding forces after the fuel cut off are different from those
existing during the normal running conditions. This is because, during the retardation, the
temperature inside the cylinder will decrease effecting an increase in viscous drag on the
piston. However the decrease in temperature inside the cylinder will reduce the frictional
force on bearings and piston rings. These two effects tend to cancel each other, but not
exactly. Hence, it will affect Frictional Power (Pf) in spite of the small changes in the coolant
temperature during retardation.
This experiment can be conducted on high speed engines with smaller flywheels, if
sophisticated electronic timing devices are existent.
Question

Calculate a) Frictional mean effective pressure (fmep) at 600 rpm

b) Torque due to FMEP
SPEED VARIATION TEST ON COMPRESSION IGNITION
ENGINE
Aim
To conduct a speed variation test on Anil/Kirloskar engine at half full load and obtain
the economic speed.
Specification
Procedure
Start the engine at no load conditions and bring the speed to 1500 rpm, rated speed.
The engine is loaded corresponding to full load at 1500 rpm. Note the effective load by
deducting the spring balance reading. This speed is calculated at the new weight for full
load condition and the speed is adjusted to the required value. The time for consumption of
10 cc of fuel at the speed is noted. Repeat the experiment for different speeds with
corresponding different weights to bring the engine to full load condition. A graph is
plotted with speed on X-axis and SFC on Y-axis.
= kg
= 10 HP
= 9.81 m/s2
2. Torque T = W*R Nm
Where, R = Effective Radius of the Brake Drum, in meter
= m
= (w s) kg
= (w - s) * g N
w = Applied load, including hanger weight, in kg
Hanger weight = 1 kg

s = spring balance reading, in kg

= 9.81 m/s2

= R*W Nm
R = Effective Radius of the Drum, in meter
= * s kg/hr
= 0.82
5. Specific Fuel Consumption, S F C = kg/kW-hr

Tabular column
fuel consumption
Time for x cc of
Consumption
Consumption
Actual Speed
Specific Fuel
Approximate
Approximate
Brake Power
Actual Load
Total Fuel
Torque
Sl. No
Speed
Load
W N T Pb t TFC SFC
rpm kg kg rpm Nm kW s kg/hr kg/kW-hr
1 1350
2 1400
3 1450
4 1500
5 1550
6 1600

Graph
Specific Fuel consumption, kg/kW-hr
Speed, rpm
Inference
The quantity of fuel consumed increased with engine speed for the same engine under
same operating conditions. Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC), on the other hand, drops as
speed increases in the low speed range and increases in the high sped range. At low speeds, a
greater length of time is available for heat transfer to the cylinder walls. So, the heat loss to
the combustion chamber walls is proportionately greater resulting in higher fuel consumption
for the power produced. The upward trend of the SFC curve is affected by the increase in
Frictional Power (Pf) and short duration of time available for combustion. The decrease in
time for combustion results in incomplete combustion of fuel particles resulting in the
wastage of fuel. The curve has a dip indicating the most economic speed of operation.
Since gas velocity is related to piston speed, the heat transfer increases with the
increase in the speed by 0.8th power only. (i.e. A VP0.8 but TFC VP). However, the
quantity of mixture passing through the engine increases directly with the engine speed and
therefore the percentage heat loss decreases with increase of speed. So as speed increases,

the SFC curve falls down. Thus, frictional power (Pf) is the significant factor for increased
fuel consumption at higher speeds, while heat losses are the significant factor at low speeds.
MORSE TEST
Aim
1. To conduct a Morse Test on Izuzu Petrol Engine and to find out the Frictional
Power (Pf) of the engine and hence to plot the following curves at half full load.
2. To draw the following curves:
i. Mechanical Vs Speed
ii. Pf Vs Speed
Apparatus
Isuzu Petrol Engine, Tachometer, and Stopwatch.
Specifications
Make : Isuzu
Rated power : 10 hp (7.35 kW) @ 1500 rpm
Rated speed : 1500 rpm
No. of Strokes : Four
No. of cylinders : Four
Fuel : Petrol
Lubricant : SAE 20 W 40
Type of cooling : Water cooled (Gravity Feed)
Dynamometer equation = kW
Procedure
Morse Test is a method suitable for use on all reciprocating engines other than single
cylinder engines. Start the engine under no load condition and run the engine at rated speed
after ensuring proper fuel level in the fuel tank and cooling water supply. To conduct the
test, run the engine on its test bed against a dynamometer at a specific speed (say 1500 rpm)
with a load corresponding to 5 hp (i.e. full load). Note the time required to consume x cc of
petrol, speed, load etc. One cylinder is short circuited and the load is adjusted to bring the
speed to 1500 rpm. Note the new load on the engine and other readings. This is repeated by
short circuiting with the other cylinders successively. Note the fall in Brake Power (Pb) at
each time while maintaining the same speed. The observed difference in Brake Power (Pb)
between all cylinders firing and with one cylinder cut short is the Indicated Power of the cut
out cylinder. Thus the Indicated Power of each cylinder in turn can be found and the sum of
these values will give the Indicated Power (Pi) of the engine with all cylinders working.
From this, Frictional Power (Pf) can be calculated. (Throttle should be at constant opening). .
Bring the dynamometer load to zero and stop the engine.
Experiment is repeated for various values of speed.

Principle and Calculations

It is the rapid and accurate method to determine the frictional power of a multi
cylinder engine. It is assumed that the frictional power remains constant at constant speed
when all cylinders are working or one cylinder is cut short. This is based on the fact that,
when all cylinders are at work
Pi = Pb + Pf ... (1)
When first cylinder is cut short,
(Pi)1 = (Pb)1 + Pf ... (2)
(1) (2) = Pi (Pi)1 = Pb (Pb)1

I1 = Pb (Pb)1
Where, I1 is the Indicated Power (Pi) of first cylinder.

Similarly,
I1 = Pb (Pb)1
I2 = Pb (Pb)2
I3 = Pb (Pb)3
I4 = Pb (Pb)4
Pi = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
= [Pb (Pb)1] + [Pb (Pb)2] + [Pb (Pb)3] + [Pb (Pb)4]
Now, Brake Power, Pb =

Where,
W = Load in kg corresponding to full load
N = Speed in rpm (Here 1500 rpm)
(Pb)1 =
Where,
W1 = Load when 1st cylinder is cut short.
(Pb)2 =
(Pb)3 =
(Pb)4 =
(Pi)1 = I1 = Pb (Pb)1

Similarly,
I2 =
I3 =
I4 =
1. Maximum load, Wmax = N
= kgf
= 13.3 kgf
= 10 HP
= 1500 rpm
= 9.81 m/s2
= * s kg/hr
Where, s = Specific gravity of Fuel oil in kg/m3
= 729 kg/m3
3. Brake thermal efficiency, bth = * 100 %

= 44000 kJ/kg (Petrol)

4. Indicated thermal efficiency, ith = * 100 %

Where, Pi = Indicated Power in kW
= 44000 kJ/kg (Petrol)
5. Mechanical efficiency, mech = * 100 %

Pi = Indicated Power in kW
Result
Conducted the Morse test and calculated the frictional power of each cylinder.
Comment on the result
It is a rapid and accurate method to determine the Frictional Power (Pf) of a multi-
cylinder engine. It is assumed that Frictional Power (Pf) remains constant and has the same
value, both when all the cylinders are at work as well as when one cylinder is cut short.
Strictly speaking, this is not true. The temperature of the cut out cylinder will be low with a
consequent increase in the viscous drag on the piston. However, the decrease in pressure in
the cut out cylinder will reduce the frictional force on bearings and piston rings. These two
effects tend to cancel each other, though not exactly.
Most multi-cylinder engines have common exhaust manifolds and the cutting out of
any one cylinders may disturb the sequence of the exhaust impulses, consequently affect the
volumetric efficiency of the other cylinders. The readings we take in the Morse Test is the
absolute measurement of a comparatively small differences. Hence, a very slight change in
the volumetric efficiency of the majority of the cylinders will have a large influence on the
differential reading. In other words, Morse Test appears to be fairly reliable so long as the
engine is not too sensitive to exhaust pulsations, that is to say, as long as it has not any
excessive value overlap and exhaust is unrestricted.
With compression ignition engines also Morse test can be conducted as it is possible
to hold the fuel pump plunger off its cam with a suitable tool, thus preventing fuel delivery to
a particular cylinder. Some larger engines have some special device to do this as a built-in-
feature. With small, high speed compression ignition engines, it may be necessary to fit small
needle valves capable of withstanding 60,000 kN/m2 or 10,000 lbf/in2 pressure in the fuel
lines between the pump and each cylinder. Opening a needle valve will bleed the fuel
delivery to a particular cylinder back to the fuel tank so as to prevent the fuel reaching the
cylinder.

4
3
2
1
Sl. No.
rpm N Speed
kg W Load
sec t Time for collecting 10 cc fuel

Tabular Column
kg/hr TFC Total fuel consumption
kW Pb Brake Power
kg W1 Load when 1st cylinder is cut
Dept of Mechanical Engineering

nd
kg W2 Load when 2 cylinder is cut
rd
Thermal Engineering Laboratory Manual
th
st
kW I1 Indicated power of 1 cylinder
kW I2 Indicated power of 2nd cylinder
kW I3 Indicated power of 3rd cylinder
kW I4 Indicated power of 4th cylinder
kW Pi Total indicated power
kW Pf Frictional Power
% bt Brake Thermal Efficiency
% it Indicated Thermal Efficiency

31
% mech Mechanical Efficiency
Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

Graphs
Mechanical Efficiency & Frictional Power
Mechanical Efficiency
Frictional Power
Engine Speed in rpm
Inference
At low engine speeds, the Frictional Power (Pf) is relatively low and Brake Power (Pb)
is nearly as large as Indicated Power (Pi). As we increase the speed, there is increase in
friction resulting from the dynamic forces setup by inertia of the piston and other factors.
Dynamic force increases as the square of the revolution speed. Viscous drag of the lubricant
also increases. So as speed increases, Frictional Power (Pf) increases at a comparatively
greater rate. At engine speeds above usual operating range, Frictional Power (Pf) increases
very rapidly. Mechanical efficiency decreases gradually at low engine speeds, and very
rapidly at speeds above the usual operating range. Frictional Power (Pf) increases at a rapid
rate and Brake Power (Pb) remains the same.
Viva Questions
1. Define the Morse test?

2. What is transmission dynamometer?
3. What is need of measurement of speed of an IC engine?
4. What is a smoke and classify the measurement of a smoke?
5. What is the break power of IC engines?

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF KIRLOSKAR CUT MODEL
AIM:
To draw the valve timing diagram of a single cylinder, four stroke, vertical, Kirloskar
diesel (compression ignition) engine cut model.
REQUIREMENTS:
Experimental engine, Measuring tape, Chalk
BRIEF THEORY OF THE EXPERIMENT:

The valve timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place
in an engine cycle. The four stroke diesel engines have inlet valve to supply air inside the
cylinder during suction stroke and an exhaust valve to transfer exhaust gas after combustion
to the atmosphere. The fuel is injected directly inside the cylinder with the help of a fuel
injector. The sequence of events such as opening and closing of valves which are performed
by cam cam follower push rod rocker arm mechanism in relation to the movements of
the piston as it moves from TDC to BDC and vice versa. As the cycle of operation is
completed in four strokes, one power stroke is obtained for every two revolution of the
crankshaft. The suction, compression, power and exhaust processes are expected to complete
in the respective individual strokes. Valves do not open or close exactly at the two dead
centers in order to transfer the intake charge and the exhaust gas effectively. The timing is set
in such a way that the inlet valve opens before TDC and closes after BDC and the exhaust
valve opens before BDC and closes after TDC. Since one cycle is completed in two
revolutions i.e. 720 degrees of crank rotations, various events are shown by drawing spirals
of suitable diameters. As the timing plays major role in transfer of the charge, which reflects
on the engine performance, it is important to study these events in detail.
PROCEDURE:
The circumference of the flywheel is measured. Mark the direction of rotation of the
flywheel. Always rotate only in clockwise direction when viewing in front of the flywheel.
Top dead centre and bottom dead centre are marked on the fly wheel. A small piece of paper
is placed between the pushrod and rocker arm of the inlet valve. Using the hand wheel, crank
is rotated slowly. When the inlet valve opens, the paper gets tightened and this position is
marked on the flywheel. The crank is again rotated and the position where the paper loosens
is noted. It loosens where inlet valve closes.
After the closing of the inlet valve fuel injection starts. At the beginning of the
injection, the cam lifts the plunger and this position is marked FIS Fuel Injection Starts -
on the flywheel. The plunger comes down when the pumping ends and this is marked FIC
Fuel Injection Closes on the flywheel. Similarly EVO and EVC are marked.

The distances of the position IVO, IVC, FIS, FIC, EVO and EVC are measured along
the circumference of the flywheel with respect to the nearest dead centre. The distances are
converted into degrees and valve timing diagram is drawn.
FORMULA:
Angle = L (360 / X) Degrees
Where, L Distance from nearest dead center in mm

X Circumference of the Flywheel in mm
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

TABULATION:
Sl. No Description Distance Angles

mm Degrees
1 IVO Before TDC
2 IVC After BDC
3 FIS Before TDC
4 FIC After TDC
5 EVO Before BDC
6 EVC After TDC
RESULT:
The given four stroke compression ignition engine is studied and the valve timing
diagram is drawn for the present set of values.

COMMENT ON THE RESULTS:

Theoretically, for a four stroke engine, the inlet valve opens during the suction starts
and exhaust valve opens during the exhaust stroke. But under actual working condition, it is
slightly different. Inlet valve remains open during the early part of the compression stroke to
give time for charging of the cylinder at high speeds and also to reduce the compression ratio
at low speeds as a means of avoiding knock in the SI engines. Exhaust valve opens before
the power stroke is completed to allow most of the gases to escape in the blow down process
before the exhaust stroke is well under way. Although a part of the available energy is
wasted, the lower pressures encountered on the exhaust stroke yield a net gain at wide-open
throttle and full speed. At low speeds, the early opening is a waste. It follows that raising the
design speed of the engine is best accomplished by earlier opening of exhaust valve and later
closing of inlet valve.
The effects of the residual gas left in the clearance space of the engine may be
considered. Normally, the exhaust gas at the end of exhaust stroke has a higher pressure and
temperature than the fresh charge (air in CI and airfuel mixture in SI engines) in the inlet
manifold. When the inlet valve opens, a portion of the residual gas expands in to the manifold
and then is drawn back into the cylinder as the position descends on the suction stroke. It
follows the high exhaust pressures (or high density of residual) or early opening of inlet
valves reduce the charge inducted because of this residual flow back.
When the residuals flow into the inlet manifold, the inlet valve and port are heated.
The entering fresh charge also is heated, not only by the walls, but also by the hot inlet valve
and port. Thus the volumetric efficiency is low. Since the inlet valve is closed late and
residual is inducted with the fresh charge, the fresh charge is heated. The effect is very
strong when the exhaust blow down process is absent since the exhaust pressure and density
of the residual are high.
During the exhaust stroke, the piston forces the burnt gases through the exhaust valve
at high velocity. If the density of the exhaust valve is delayed beyond TDC, the inertia of the
exhaust gases tends to scavenge the cylinder by carrying out a greater mass of gas left in the
clearance volume and results in increased volumetric efficiency. Consequently the exhaust
valve is often set to close a few degrees ater TDC on the exhaust stroke. While the inlet
valve is open theoretically at TDC, in actual case, the inlet valve opens a few degrees prior to
the arrival of the piston at TDC on the exhaust stroke. This is to ensure that the valve will be
fully open and the fresh charge start to flow into the cylinder as soon as possible after TDC. It
should be noted that it is quite possible for both the inlet and exhaust valves to remain open at
the same time. This is called the valve overlap. This overlap, ofcourse, must not be
excessive to allow burnt gases to be forced into the inlet manifold or fresh charge to escape
through exhaust valve.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. How the valves are different from ports?
2. What are the advantages of four stroke engines over two stroke engines?
3. Why four stroke engines are more fuel efficient than two stroke engines?
4. Explain the lubrication system of four stroke engines.
5. What do you mean by valve overlap? What are their effects in SI engines?
6. How the cylinder numbers assigned in multi-cylinder I.C. engines?
7. Give firing order for a four and six cylinder engines.
8. Explain how the correct direction of rotation is found before starting the valve timing
experiment.
9. How do you identify an engine is working on two stroke or four stroke principle?
10. How do you identify whether it is petrol or diesel engine?

MEASUREMENT OF KINEMATIC VISCOSITY USING

REDWOOD VISCOMETER
Aim
To determine the kinematic viscosity of given oil, at different temperatures, using
Redwood viscometer.
Principle
Viscosity
Viscosity is a masure of the resistance of a fluid to streamline flow. In scientific
measure the unit of viscosity is poise (P), g/cm-s
Dynamic Viscosity ()
The dynamic viscosity of a fluid is the tangential force on unit area of either of two
parallel planes at unit distance apart when the space between the planes is filled with the fluid
and one of the plane moves relatively to the other with unit velocity in its own plane. The
unit of dynamic viscosity is poise (P), g/cm-s.
Kinematic Viscosity ()
The Kinematic Viscosity of a fluid is equal to the quotient of the dynamic viscosity
and density of the fluid at the temperature of the test.
Thus, Kinematic Viscosity, = (/)
Where, is the density of the fluid in g/cm3.
The unit of Kinematic viscosity is Stokes (s), cm2/s. The derived unit, the centistokes
(equal to 0.01 stokes) is more commonly used.
SAE Classification
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has adopted a system using SAE
viscosity number. Each number represents a viscosity range expressed in minimum and
maximum Saybolt seconds at a particular test temperature. e.g.: An oil with SAE no 30 must
have a Saybolt viscosity in the range between 185 and 255 Saybolt Seconds at a test
temperature of 130O F.
Viscosity Index
It is a measure of the change in viscosity of oil with temperature as compared to two
reference oils having the same viscosity at 210OF. It is an empirical system where in a
typical Pennsylvania oil (Paraffinic base) was assigned an index of 100 and Gulf coast oil
(Naphthenic base) was assigned an index of zero. In general, the viscosity index number
indicates the relative resistance of a given oil to change viscosity with a radical change in
temperatures. A loan index number indicates a low resistance for given oil so that it would
have a relatively high viscosity when cold and a relatively low viscosity at elevated
temperatures. High viscosity index oil is preferred for good engine lubrication.
Viscosity Index Improvers

High molecule polymers are added to the lubricating oils to increase their viscosity
index. An increase in the viscosity index increases the resistance of an oil to change viscosity
with a change in temperature. High viscosity index oil will have good starting characteristics
plus satisfactory operation at high speed, heavy load conditions.
Methods of Determination
1. Measuring the time of flow through calibrated orifice
e.g.: Redwood, Eglas Saybolt
2. Capillary viscometer
3. Rotating cylinder, disc, plug etc
4. Falling sphere
5. Rolling Sphere
Laboratory Determination
Using Redwood Viscometer No 1. Redwood viscometer No1 is used to determine the
viscosity of oils up to 200 s.
Equipment and materials required

1. Redwood No:1 Viscometer
2. Ball Valve
3. Thermometer dip
4. Oil Cup Cover
5. Stop watch
6. Thermometer
7. Dim
Description of the Redwood No 1 viscometer

The redwood No 1 viscometer consists of a heavily silver plated oil cup mounted in a
bright chrome plated water bath. The water bath is mounted on a stand, with levelling
screws.
The oil cup has an internal diameter of 82.5 mm. The bottom of the cup is concave
internally, to allow complete drawing of test liquid. The internal junction of the bottom of
the cup with the sides is rounded for ease in cleaning. The flange is provided with a threaded
portion (8 mm) by means of which the oil cup is supported in the water bath in such a
position that the top of the base of the jet is not less than 5 mm above the upper surface of the
bottom of the bath. The base of the cup has a central hole in to which the het is fitted with its
base at the centre of the cup. The level to which the oil is to be filled into the oil cup is given
by an index fixed to the inside wall of the oil cup.
An accurately machined jet (1.4 mm) is fixed at the bottom of the cup. The upper end
of the jet has a concave depression in which rests a ball valve for starting or stopping the flow
of oil. The lower end is convex in order to prevent the out flowing oil from creeping along
the base of the oil cup.

The chromium plated cylindrical water bath surrounds the oil cup and is provided
with a tap for emptying and with a side-tube for heating the water or other liquids. The side
tube is brazed into the bath, the junction being carefully rounded and cleared from projecting
metal to allow free circulation of heated liquid.
The bath liquid is stirred constantly by means of a concentric stirrer surrounding the
oud cup provided with vanes, the upper and lower positions of which are tuned in opposite
directions. A curved shield is fixed to the upper edge of this cylinder and extends to within
1.2 cm of the walls of the bath. This provides both a means of attachment for the insulated
handle for rotating the stirrer and a support for the bath thermometer.
The valve for starting and stopping the flow of the liquid from the oil cup consists of a
ball carried on a stiff wire stem. The oil cup thermometer is supported by a spring clip which
is carried on a vertical stand fixed to the upper edge of the oil cup diametrically opposite to
the oil level index.
The oil cup cover is fitted with an insulated handle and has suitable slots for the oil
cup thermometer and valve hook. The apparatus is supported on a tripod and before using
must be levelled by means of screws in the legs and a round bubble type level provided for
this purpose.
Procedure
1. Take the required amount of oil sample.
2. Heat the viscometer bath to a few degrees above the desired test temperature.
3. Rest the ball valve in depression in the jet. Pour the prepared sample into the oil cup
up to the standard level.
4. Adjust the temperature of the bath until the sample in the cup is maintained at the test
temperature, stirring the contents of the bath and the cup during the process.
5. When the temperature of the sample has become quite steady at the desired value
adjust the liquid level by allowing the sample to flow out until the surface of the
sample touches the fitting point.
6. Place the oil cup cover in position on the oil cup and swing the oil cup thermometer
towards the closed end of the curved slot in the cover.
7. Keep the clean dry standard 50 cc receiver flask centrally below the jet with the top of
the neck a few millimetres from the bottom of the jet.
8. Lift the ball valve and simultaneously starts the stop watch suspend the valve from the
clip in the wire stem.
9. Take measurement after attaining equilibrium state.
10. Stop the stopwatch at the instant the sample reaches the graduation mark of the flask
and note the final reading of the oil cup thermometer.
11. Calculate the kinematic viscosity using the formula.

Tabular Column
Time for
Sl. Kinematic Mass Dynamic
Temperature collecting 50 cc Density
No. Viscosity of oil Viscosity
oil
T t m =m/ =
O Redwood
1 C cs G g/cc cP
seconds
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Kinematic Viscosity of a fluid is experimentally determined using the equation
= Ct (B/t)
Where, = Kinematic viscosity in cs of the liquid at the test temperature TOC,
C= Constant of Viscometer in cs/s = 0.26
t= flow time in seconds of the fixed volume of the liquid in the viscometer
at the test temperature.
B= An experimental constant in cs.s determined by the design of the instrument,
Sometimes referred to as the coefficient of Kinetic energy = 172.
= (0.26t 172/t) cs
Graphs

Kinematic Viscosity (cs)
Viscosity (cP)
Temperature

Result
The kinematic viscosity of the given sample oil =
Comment on the Result

The viscosity of a fluid depends on its inter molecular structure and thus the viscosity
of a liquid is different from that of a gas. In gases, the molecules are widely spaced resulting
in neglible inter molecular cohesion, while in liquids molecules being very close to each
other, cohesion is much larger. The viscosity of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesion
and transfer of molecular momentum in a direction normal to the flow. In liquids, the
momentum transfer is small as compared to the force of cohesion among the molecules.
Thus, here, the viscosity is primarily dependent upon the magnitude of intermolecular
cohesive force. With the increase in temperature, the cohesive force decreases rapidly
resulting in a decrease of viscosity. Thus viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in
temperatures.
Inference
Both absolute and kinematic viscosity graphs slopes downward from left to right
indicating that viscosity decreases with temperature. This is due to the fact that liquid
cohesive forces predominates molecular momentum transfer due to closely packed molecule
with increase in temperature cohesive forces decreases with viscosity.

FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST BY CLEAVE LAND OPEN CUP

APPARATUS
AIM
To find the flash and fire point of the given fuel / oil by cleave land open cup
apparatus.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Open cup tester
2. Thermometer (0 300C)
3. Sample of fuel/oil
4. Splinter sticks
DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT

This apparatus consists of a cylindrical cup of standard size. It is held in place in the
metallic holder that is placed on a wire gauge and is heated by means of an electric heater
housed inside the metallic holder. A provision is made on the top edge of the cup to hold the
thermometer in position. A standard filling mark has been scribed on the inner side of the cup
and the sample oil is filled up to this mark. This apparatus is more accurate than Pensky-
Martins closed cup and it gives efficiently proclaimed accurate result for most of the
practical purposes.
FLASH AND FIRE POINT

The Flash point is the lowest temperature of the fluid that allows inflammable vapours
to be formed. It is found by heating the fuel slowly and then sweeping a flame across the
surface of the liquid. A distinct flash is obtained at the flash point.
The fire point is important for safety reasons and it serves as a measure of the fire
hazard. The exact temperature will differ with the apparatus and procedure in making the
test. Hence the test method must be specified.
PROCEDURE
1. Fill the cleaned open cup with the given sample of oil up to the standard filling mark
of the cup.
2. Insert the thermometer in the holder on the top edge of the cup. Make sure that the
bulb of the thermometer is immersed in the oil and should not touch the metallic part.
3. Heat the sample of fuel / oil by means of an electric heater so that the sample of oil
gives out vapour at the rate of 10C per minute.
4. When the oil gives out vapours, start to introducing the glowing splinter (the flame
should not touch the oil) and watch for any flash with flickering sound.
5. Blow out or expel the burnt vapour before introducing the next glowing splinter. This
ensures that always fresh vapour alone is left over the surface of the oil and the test is
carried out accurately.

6. Continue the process of heating and placing the glowing splinter at every ten degree
of rise in temperature from the first flash till you heat the peak flickering sound and
note the corresponding temperature as the flash point.
7. Continue the heating further after retaining the flash point and watch the fire point,
which is noted when the body of the oil vapour ignites and continue to burn at least
for five seconds.
8. Repeat the test twice or thrice with fresh sample of the same oil until the results are
equal.
9. Tabulate the observations.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Decreasing
Sl. No Increasing Temperature Observation Observation
temperature
0 0
C C
No flash No flash
Flash/No flash Flash/No flash
Fire Fire
Flash Point = Average of Flash points

Fire Point = Average of Fire points
RESULT
The flash and fire point test is carried out and the following oil / fuel properties are
found.
The flash point of the given sample fuel / oil is =
The fire point of the given sample fuel / oil is =
INFERENCE
The experiment finds practical uses as it can be used to determine maximum ambient
temperature (Safe storage temperature) at which fuel should be stored to avoid expansion.
The more volatile gasoline may flash at temperature below 0OF while the flash point
of kerosene varies between 100O F and 160O F. Most fuel oils have flash points between
150O F and 300OF. The minimum flash point for internal combustion engine lubricant varies
from 345O F to 500O F.
The flash point in conjunction with the fire point is a rough indication of the volatility
of an oil. The fire point is usually determined at the same time the flash point test is
conducted and is defined as the temperature at which an oil will continue to burn after the
flammable vapour air mixture is ignited.

PERFORMANCE TEST ON RECIPROCATING AIR

COMPRESSOR
Aim
To conduct, a performance test on the two-stage reciprocating air-compressor and to
plot the performance characteristics of the air compressor.
Apparatus Required
1. Reciprocating air compressor test rig.
2. Manometer
3. Tachometer
4. Stopwatch
Specification
Number of stages : Two
Stroke : 85 mm
LP Bore : 90 mm
HP Bore : 63 mm
Clearance : 2 mm
Speed : 700 rpm
Air reservoir capacity : 0.33 m3
Orifice Diameter : 20 mm
Orifice Flow constant : 0.6
Energy meter Constant, K : 200 rev/kWh
Brief Theory of the experiment

The two stage reciprocating compressor consists of a cylinder, piston, inlet and exit
valves which is powered by a motor. Air is sucked from atmosphere and compressed in the
first cylinder Low pressure) and passed to the second cylinder (High pressure) through an
intercooler. In the second cylinder, air is compressed to high pressure and stored in the air
tank. During the downward motion of the piston, the pressure inside the cylinder drops below
the atmospheric pressure and the inlet valve is opened due to the pressure difference. Air
enters into the cylinder till the piston reaches the bottom dead center and as the piston starts
moving upwards, the inlet valve is closed and the pressure starts increasing continuously until
the pressure inside the cylinder above the pressure of the delivery side which is connected to
the receiver tank. Then the delivery valve opens and air is delivered to the air tank till the
TDC is reached. At the end of the delivery stroke a small volume of high pressure air is left
in the clearance volume. Air at high pressure in the clearance volume starts expanding as the
piston starts moving downwards up to the atmospheric pressure and falls below as piston
moves downward. Thus the cycle is repeated. The suction, compression and delivery of air
take place in two strokes / one revolution of the crank.

Precautions
1. The Orifice should never be closed so as to prevent the manometer fluid being sucked
into the tank.
2. At the end of the experiment the outlet valve of the reservoir should be expanded as
the compressor is to be started against at low pressures so as to prevent excel strain on
the piston.
Experimental Setup
The two-stage air-compressor consists of two cylinders of v type. The compressor
is driven by an AC motor. Air is first sucked into the low pressure (LP) cylinder and it is
compressed and delivered at some intermediate pressure. The compressed air is then cooled
in the intercooler and the same is then sucked by the high pressure (HP) cylinder.
Compressed air is the finally discharged to the receiver tank. An orifice plate is mounted on
one side of the air tank and which is connected with a manometer for the measurement of air
flow rate. One side of the air tank is attached with a flexible rubber sheet to prevent damage
due to pulsating air flow. A pressure gauge is mounted on the air tank to measure the air tank
pressure. The tank pressure can be regulated by adjusting the delivery valve. A pressure
switch is mounted on the air tank to switch off the motor power supply automatically when
the pressure inside the tank rises to the higher limit and to avoid explosion.
Parts of compressor
1. Oil and water separator

When air is compressed its pressure and temperature increases. High pressure air can
carry some amount of water vapour with it. To remove this water vapour, oil and water
separator is used.
The motor is cut out automatically by diaphragm pressure switch and the unit is
discharged when high pressure is built up. In the event of some other cases, as break down
on power failure or switching off, the unit must be discharged by opening the draining cock
of oil and water separator before it is put into operation again. After the start, the cock is
closed again.
It is drained automatically once the motor has been cut out by the diaphragm pressure
switch. At the same time the compressor unit is unloaded so that an easy restarting will be
possible.
2. Safety valve
The air receiver is constructed for a maximum working pressure of 16 kgf/cm2. If this
limit is exceeded the safety valve will function.
3. Testing flange
It is subjected to official control and therefore provided with a testing flange. After
screwing off the small hexagonal head screw, the testing flange can be flanged by the official
supervisor.

4. Shutoff valve of air receiver

It is used for regulating the pressure developed with compressor. (The compressor is
working against the air receiver pressure. The pressure inside the compressor should be
above air receiver pressure).
5. Draining cock of the air receiver
It is used to remove the water vapour condensed in the receiver.
6. Automatic draining of oil and water
The automatic drawing valve fitted to the oil and water separator is controlled by the
release valve of the adjustable diaphragm pressure switch. When the pressure in the oil and
water separator decreases to 1 kg/cm2 the automatic draining valve opens and it closes as
pressure increases to 1.5 kgf/cm2.
7. Motor overload proactive switch
It is adjusted to the rated current of the motor before running the outfit. It will prevent
from over current which flows into the motor.

9. Absolute pressure, P1 = [Pa ( * Hw)] N/m2
Where, Pa = Atmospheric Pressure, in N/m2
= Specific weight of water
= 9810 N/m2
Hw = Stabilization tank manometer reading, in m of water
10. Delivery Pressure, P2 = [Pa + (Pg * 104 * 9.81)] N/m2

Where, Pg = Gauge pressure, in kgf/cm2
Pa = Atmospheric pressure, in N/m2
11. Pressure Ratio, Pr = P2/P1

Where, P1 = Absolute pressure, in N/m2
P2 = Delivery Pressure, in N/m2
12. Head of air causing flow, Ha = (hW * Water)/Air m of air

Where, hw = Difference in Manometer levels in mm of water
Water = Density of water at room temperature, in kg/m3
= 1000 kg/m3
Air = Density of air at room temperature, in kg/m3
= Pair/(RTair) kg/m3
Pair = Atmospheric pressure in N/m2
Tair = Atmospheric temperature in Kelvin
R = Gas constant in kJ/kg-K

13. Volume of air actually compressed under room conditions,

Vr = Cd * a (2gHa sin) m3/s
Where, a = Area of orifice in meter2
Cd = Coefficient of Discharge of orifice
= 0.6
Ha = Head causing flow, in meters of air
= Angle of orifice manometer with horizontal, in degrees
= 15O
14. Swept Volume, Vs = (LAN) / 60 m3/s

Where, L = Stroke length in meter
A = Area of LP cylinder in m2
N = Speed in rpm
15. Volume of air reduced to NTP conditions, VO

We know that, =
Therefore, VO = * m3/min
Where, P1 = Atmospheric Pressure at room condition.
Vr = Volume of air actually compressed per second
under room conditions in m3/min
Tr = Room Temperature in Kelvin
PO = Pressure at NTP Condition
= 760 mm of Hg
TO = Temperature at NTP conditions in Kelvin
= 273 K
16. Volumetric efficiency under NTP conditions,

(Vol)NTP =
= * 100 %
Where, VO = Volume of air actually compressed per second
under NTP conditions, in m3/min
Vs = Swept Volume, in m3/min

17. Motor input = 3* * *1000 W

Where, n = Number of revolutions for which the time observed.
t = Time for n revolution in seconds.
K = Energy Meter Constant in rev/kW-hr
= 200 rev/kW-hr.
18. Input to the compressor = Motor Input * motor W
= Shaft Power
Where, motor = Efficiency of motor in percentage
= 80 % (say)
19. Actual Work done on the compressor,

Wa = Shaft Power * trans W
Where, trans = Transmission Efficiency of Compressor, in percentage
= 60 % (say)
20. Isothermal Work, Wiso = P1V1 ln[r] W

2
Where, P1 = Absolute inlet pressure, in N/m
V1 = Vr, Volume of air actually compressed, in m3/s
r = = Pressure ratio
21. Adiabatic Work, Wadia = P1Vr [Pr(-1)/2 1] W

Where, = Adiabatic index
= 1.4, for air
P1 = Absolute inlet pressure, in N/m2
Pr = Pressure ratio
Vr = Volume of air actually compressed, in m3/s
22. Isothermal Efficiency, iso = [Wiso/Wa] * 100 %

Where, Wiso = Isothermal Work, in W
Wa = Actual work done on the compressor, in W
23. Adiabatic Efficiency, adia = [Wadia/Wa] * 100 %

Where, Wadia = Adiabatic Work, in W
Wa = Actual work done on the compressor, in W
Tabular Column
Atmospheric Temperature, To = K
Initial Orifice meter reading, h1 = m of water

Sl. No.
1
2
kg/cm
Pg
Gauge Pressure
N/m2
Tank Orifice
h2
m of H2O
meter reading
m of H2O
Hw = h1-h2
Actual orifice
meter head
m of air
m of H2O Stabilising
tank readings
kg/cm2
Time for n
s t revolutions of
energy meter disc
Temperature
T1
K
at suction
2
P1
N/m Absolute inlet pressure
2
P2
N/m Absolute outlet prssure
Pressure ratio
Pr
Ha
m of air Head causing flow
Volume of air
m3/s
Vr
actually compressed
m3/s
Vs
Swept volume
3
VO
m /s Volume of air at NTP

Vol
% Volumetric efficiency
Wa
W Actual Work done

Wadia
W Adiabatic Work done

Wiso
W Isothermal Work done

adia
% Adiabatic Efficiency
iso
% Isothermal Efficiency

Procedure
Start the compressor on no load condition. For this purpose the indicator cock (valves
at the cylinder heads) should be kept open. When the motor picks up speed, the cock must be
closed. The compressor should be adjusted to deliver the compressed air at the required
delivery pressure by adjusting the shut off valve. Note the suction pressure and delivery
pressure. The manometer reading connected to the orifice meter also is observed. From this
we can calculate the free air delivery per minute. Note the time taken for n (say 5)
revolutions of the energy meter disc. Pressure is adjusted to a higher value by using the short
off valve and the respective readings are observed. Repeat the experiment up to a delivery
pressure around 12 kgf/cm2.
Graph

Inference
The delivery pressure influences the volumetric efficiency as shown, because of its
effect on the specific volume of the discharge or clearance gas. There exists a pressure
difference between the cylinder and suction or discharge lines to open the valves and to keep
them open during suction on discharge process of the cycle. When the delivery pressure
increases, pressure of clearance gas increases and so the piston during re-expansion of the
clearance gas must move slightly further than the point where the cylinder pressure equals the
suction pressure which is atmospheric. Thus a portion of the suction stroke is wasted. The
intake volume and volumetric efficiency are consequently reduced.
Cylinder heating of the suction gas occurs because compression in warmer than the
entering gas. The suction gas, immediately after entering the cylinder, gets heated and
expands. The specific volume of the gas inside the compressor is consequently higher than
that which enters the compressor, on which volumetric efficiency is based. This fact results
in a further reduction in volumetric efficiency. Another factor is that the fluid resistance
through the intake pipe and valve decreases the suction pressure and so the cylinder cannot be
charged with air.
When the delivery pressure increases the mark of compression increases and so input
also increases. Work required to compress the air for a particular pressure ratio would show
that isothermal compression requires least amount of energy. So, isothermal efficiency curve
falls below adiabatic efficiency curve.
Review Questions
1. What is a plenum chamber? Why it is used?
2. What is the purpose of an intercooler in an air compressor?
3. What will happen if the compressor is allowed to run for a very long time by closing
its delivery valve?
4. How do you define volumetric efficiency and isothermal efficiency of a compressor?
Plot it Vs gauge pressure.
5. What is the reason for increase in isothermal efficiency with gauge pressure?
6. What is the reason for decrease in volumetric efficiency with gauge pressure?
7. What is the actual thermodynamic process during compression?
8. Why there is a difference discharge equation for pin fin apparatus and air compressor?
9. Convert 150 mm of Hg in to Pascal.
10. Plot PVn = Constant and PV = Constant process on a PV diagram and show how will
you calculate the isothermal efficiency?
11. Why are fins provided around the LP cylinders and the connecting pipe?
12. What is the type of dynamometer used for measuring the motor output? Explain its
working principle.
13. What is the pressure control device incorporated in the setup and explain its use.

PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL BLOWER
Aim
To conduct a suitable test on the centrifugal blower and to draw the following graphs:
1. Total Head Vs Discharge
2. Efficiency Vs Discharge
3. Input Vs Discharge
Specification
Electric Motor Type : Squirrel Cage induction motor.
Power : 7.5 HP
Speed : 1440 rpm (constant)
Supply : 3-phase, AC, 440 V, 50 Hz
Pipe diameter : 125 mm
Throat Diameter : 75 mm
Impeller diameter : 500 mm
Inlet diameter of blower : 200 mm
Delivery duct size : 125 x 80 mm
Apparatus required
1. Blower Test Rig
2. Stopwatch
Description of Test Rig

The principal components of the test rig are the impeller and the diffuser. Blower
Test Rig consists of a radial flow blower having an impeller diameter of 500 mm, coupled to
a 7.5 HP, AC 3 phase, 440 V, 50 Hz squirrel cage induction motor and mounted on a stand.
The inlet diameter of blower is 200 mm and the delivery duct size is 125 x 80 mm.
Principle
Because of the high rotational speed of impeller the air contained in its rotating
passage is subjected to a centrifugal force which causes air to flow radially outward. The
fresh air enters the inlet, or the eye, of the impeller. All the mechanical energy driving the
compressor is transmitted to the fluid stream in the impeller where it is converted into kinetic
energy and a slight pressure rise.

1. Density of air at the delivery conditions, a = kg/m3

Where, Ta = Atmospheric (room ) temperature in K
Pa = Atmospheric Pressure (Room pressure), in N/m2
= 0.76 m of Hg = 1.0132 * 105 N/m2 (say)
R = Characteristic gas constant in J/kg-K
= 287.14 J/kg-K
2. Head causing flow in cm of air, Ha = m of air

Where, w = Density of water in kg/m3
= 1000 kg/m3

a = Density of air in kg/m3
Hw = Static head manometer reading in m of water.
3. Discharge of Air through the pipe,Q = (Cd. a1.a2 (2gha) / (a12 a22) m3/s
Where, Cd = Coefficient of Discharge of Venturi meter = 0.98 (say)
a1 = Cross-sectional area of Venturi meter inlet, in m2
a2 = Cross-sectional area of Venturi meter throat, in m2
ha = Head on Venturi meter, in meters of air
= m of H2O
hw = Head on Venturi meter, in meters of water
4. Mass flow rate, = Q * a kg/s

Where, Q = Discharge of air through the pipe, in m3/s.

a = Density of atmospheric air, in kg/m3
5. Static Pressure, Ps = Hw * w N/m2

Where, w = Weight density of water, in N/m3
= 104 N/m3
Hw = Reading on the static pressure tapping, in m of water.
6. Static Head, Hs = m of air

Where, = Weight density of air in N/m3
3
= p * g N/m
Ps = Static pressure, in N/m2

7. Velocity of air in the pipe, V = m/s

Where, Qa = Discharge through the pipe, in m3/s
A = Cross-sectional area of pipe, in m2
8. Dynamic Pressure, Pd = V2/ 2g N/m2

Where, V = Velocity of air in the pipe, in m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
9. Dynamic Head, Hd = Pd / m of air

= Pd /( p*g) m of air
Where, Pd = Dynamic Pressure, in meters of air
= Weight density of air, in N/m3

p = Density of air in the pipe, in kg/m3
10. Total head, H = (Hs + Hd) m of air

Where, Hs = Static Head, in meters of air
Hd = Dynamic Head, meters of air
11. Output Power, PO = HQ Watts

= H Q ( a g) W
Where, H = Total head, in meters of air
Q = Discharge, in m3/s
= Weight Density of air, in N/m3

a = Density of atmospheric air in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
12. Input Power, Pi = * * 1000 * m W

Where, n = Number of revolutions of energy meter disc
t = Time for n revolutions of energy meter disc, in s
K = Energy meter constant, in rev/kW-hr
= 100 rev/kW-hr
m = Efficiency of motor, in percentage
= 0.5 (Assuming)
13. Overall efficiency, O = PO / Pi * 100 %

Where, PO = Output power, in Watts
Pi = Input power, in Watts

Tabular Column
5 Sl. No.
4
m of
H2O
Hw
Head causing
flow
m of
air
Ha
m of
H2O
hw
Venturi meter
Reading
m of
air
ha
m3/s
Q
Discharge
kg/s
Mass flow rate

N/m2
Ps
Static Pressure
m of
air
Hs
Static Head
m/s
Velocity of air
V
N/m2
Pd
Dynamic Pressure
m of
air
Hd
Dynamic Head
m of
air
Total head
H
kW
PO
Output Power
kW
Pi
Input Power
O
%
Overall Efficiency

Procedure
1. Start the blower after closing the delivery valve
2. After starting the blower, open the delivery valve fully to get the maximum discharge.
3. Note the time for n revolutions of the energy meter disc.
4. Note the manometer reading attached to the delivery pipe.
5. Note the static pressure on the static pressure tapping provided on the delivery duct.
6. Repeat the experiment by reducing the discharge (by closing the delivery valve) up to
zero value.
7. When the delivery valve is fully closed (discharge is zero) note the shut off head.
Note: Delivery valve should be open fully before the motor is switched off.
Graph
Result
Conducted the performance test on the centrifugal blower and drawn the following
graphs:
1. Total Head Vs Discharge
2. Efficiency Vs Discharge
3. Input Vs Discharge
Inference

Thermal Engineering Lab Manual

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Thermal Engineering Lab Manual

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Thermal Engineering Laboratory Manual 1

LOAD TEST ON COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

Observations and Calculations

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

3. Total Fuel Consumption, T F C = m3/hr

4. Brake Horse Power, Pb = kW

7. Brake thermal efficiency, bth = * 100 %

8. Indicated thermal efficiency, ith = * 100 %

9. Mechanical efficiency, mech = * 100 %

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

10. Brake mean effective pressure,

Determination of Frictional Power (Pf)

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

Brake thermal Efficiency

Brake Mean Effective

w s W T t TFC Pb Pi SFC bth ith mech Bmep

kg kg kg N Nm s kg/hr kW kW kg/hr % % % N/m2

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY TEST ON COMPRESSION

Observations and Calculations

2. Air equivalent of intake air pressure, hair = (hW * W)/Air mm

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

4. Volume of air at room temperature, Vr= Cd * a (2gha) m3/s

5. Volumetric efficiency at NTP condition, VO = (PrVrTO)/(TrPO) m3/s

6. Volumetric efficiency, Volumetric = (VO / Vf ) * 100 %

7. Total Fuel Consumption, T F C = m3/hr

8. Air-Fuel Ratio = Mass of air / Mass of fuel

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

Volume of air at room temperature

Time for x cc fuel consumption

Total Fuel Consumption

Air Fuel ratio

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

HEAT BALANCE TEST ON COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

Brief Theory of the experiment

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

Observations and Calculations

2. Total Fuel Consumption, T F C = m3/hr

3. Brake Horse Power, Pb = kW

Where, T = Torque developed, in Nm

4. Mass of fuel, fuel = (TFC / 60) kg/min

Where, TFC = Total Fuel Consumption in kg/hr

5. Heat input = Mass of the fuel * Calorific value of fuel

Where, TFC = Total Fuel Consumption in kg/hr

6. Heat energy equivalent of Brake Power = Pb x 60 kJ/min

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

7. Mass flow rate of cooling water, mw = w.Vw kg/min

Where, w = Mass density of water = 1 kg/litter

8. Heat carried away by cooling water = mw * Cpw(Tw2 Tw1) kJ/min

Where, Tw1 = Cooling water inlet temperature, in Kelvin.

9. Density of air air = kg/m3

Where, P = Atmospheric Pressure in kg/m2

10. Mass of air air = d2 * * Vol * air kg/min

Where, d = Bore diameter of cylinder in meter

11. Mass of exhaust gas, e = (air + fuel) kg/min

Where, air = Mass of air in kg/min

12. Heat carried away by exhaust gas = me * Cpg(Tg Tamp) kJ/min

Dept of Mechanical Engineering Al-Ameen Engineering College, Kulappully

Heat carried away by exhaust gas = (Tg Tamp) kJ/min

13. According to heat balance equilibrium,

Percent heat energy equivalent to brake power

Percent Unaccounted loss = * 100 %