Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
language
sounds
from
those
found
in
their
native
language.
Flege,
Schirru,
and
MacKay
(2002)
produced
a
speech
learning
model
(SLM)
that
explains
how
sound
equivalencies
may
cause
the
learner
to
classify
a
target
language
sound
with
a
preexisting
native
language
sound
(p.
469).
For
example,
a
native
speaker
of
Spanish
who
is
trying
to
learn
Portuguese
may
perceive
the
two
languages
phonetic
systems
to
be
nearly
identical,
when
in
reality
there
are
many
differences
that
need
to
be
understood
in
order
to
produce
each
languages
specific
sound
forms.
Perceived
closeness
may
make
establishing
second
language
phonetic
categories
more
difficult
than
creating
ones
for
a
native
language
(Baker,
Trofimovich,
Mack,
&
Flege,
2002,
p.
1).
To
demonstrate
this,
many
vowels
can
be
described
in
similar
ways
(e.g.
back/front,
round/unround,
tense/lax)
and
still
show
variance
when
used
across
languages,
such
as
stress,
length,
or
intonation
(Yavas,
2011,
p.
19).
The
learner
may
assume
these
sounds
to
be
the
same
when
heard,
but
using
them
interchangeably
will
make
distinguishing
and
categorizing
them
into
separate
systems
with
their
own
unique
rules
for
distribution
and
positioning
a
challenge.
Perceived
Distance
Perceived
distance
between
the
sounds
from
the
native
language
and
the
target
language
can
increase
the
chances
of
those
sounds
creating
separate
categories
in
the
target
languages
phonetic
system.
This
disconnect
can
be
experienced
by
language
learners
who
encounter
an
unfamiliar
sound
to
their
established
phonetic
system,
such
as
the
dental/alveolar
trill
[r]
found
in
Spanish
heard
by
a
native
English
speaker.
Establishing
new
sound
categories
speeds
up
the
learning
process
by
cultivating
phonetic
distinction
through
the
separation
of
target
sounds
from
the
native
language
phonetic
system.
Baker
et
al.
(2002)
designed
a
study
testing
the
ability
of
children
and
adults
to
distinguish
between
similar
vowel
sounds,
eight
Korean
vowels
contrasted
against
eight
vowels
in
English.
The
test
used
a
wide
range
of
sounds
varying
from
easy
to
tell
apart
to
hardly
differentiable.
The
results
of
the
experiment
showed
that
children
were
less
likely
to
group
the
similar
Korean
sounds
into
their
native
language
(English)
sound
categories,
whereas
adults
showed
more
instances
of
doing
so
(p.
6).
Studies
such
as
this
aim
to
prove
that
our
native
language
phonetic
categories
mature
and
become
major
attractors
for
similarly
perceived
sounds
as
we
age.
Learning
a
second
language
is
far
more
challenging
than
a
first
because
the
native
languages
parameters
have
been
set
up
and
followed
consistently.
These
defined
categories
contribute
to
the
adult
learners
struggle
with
acquiring
a
second
language
because
they
have
had
no
need
to
discriminate
between
these
sounds
since
childhood.
Werker
and
Tees
(1984)
tested
the
ability
of
language
learners
with
an
established
phonetic
system
to
discriminate
non-English
speech
sounds.
The
experiment
tested
eighty
adult
English
speakers
on
their
ability
to
distinguish
Hindis
contrast
of
voiceless,
unaspirated
retroflex
versus
dental
place
of
articulation,
/a/
-
/ta/
(p.
1868).
The
results
indicated
that
the
English
native
speakers
still
had
the
capacity
required
to
recognize
the
acoustic
distinctions,
but
their
categorical
processing
strategies
were
restricted
to
their
Grattan
4
native
phonemic
boundaries
and
thus
they
were
unable
to
dependably
distinguish
between
the
two
sounds.
What
this
means
for
adult
language
learners
is
that
their
discriminatory
competencies
have
not
been
required
for
a
period
of
time
so
their
ability
to
respond
to
these
distinctions
has
diminished.
Increased
exposure
to
these
new
phonetic
forms
will
trigger
learners
inactive
language
processing
skills
so
target
language
acquisition
can
occur.
Positive
Transfer
An
advantage
for
adult
language
learners
is
their
knowledge
and
ability
to
transfer
language-neutral
items.
These
are
components
of
one
language
that
are
commonly
found
in
several
other
languages
linguistic
structures.
For
example,
some
of
the
most
common
sounds
in
any
world
language
are
the
nasals
[n],
[m],
and
[]
(Yavas,
2011,
p.
14).
This
would
imply
that
a
native
speaker
of
French
learning
English
would
not
have
to
learn
a
new
sound
but
transfer
that
category
from
their
native
language.
However,
many
of
these
identical
sounds
have
phonemic
features
that
correspond
with
rules
specific
to
each
language
they
are
found
in
(e.g.
used
as
a
phoneme
versus
an
allophone).
While
there
are
many
language-neutral
items
that
can
be
exploited
during
second
language
acquisition,
a
lot
of
phonetic
systems
are
made
up
of
language-specific
items
that
are
unique
to
the
learners
language
(Gass
et
al.,
2013,
p.
150).
Some
language-neutral
items
could
possibly
be
semantic
and
grammar
related,
such
as
the
use
of
question
marks,
but
these
are
assumptions
brought
from
the
native
language
to
the
learning
situation
by
the
learner.
Language-specific
items
from
a
language
could
include
idioms
and
expressions
exclusive
to
that
language.
These
sounds
may
be
easier
or
more
difficult
to
acquire
for
adult
second
language
learners
depending
on
their
ability
to
develop
new
categories
and
distinguish
their
uses
and
characteristics.
Transfer
is
a
cross-linguistic
influence
of
language
learning
that
may
affect
development
of
phonetic
patterns
for
adult
language
learners.
Positive
transfer
facilitates
phonetic
system
forming
if
the
native
language
has
forms
that
can
be
used
in
the
same
context
in
the
target
language.
This
allows
these
categories
to
be
transferred
from
one
language
to
the
other,
and
may
aid
in
the
learning
process
for
these
language
learners.
For
example,
a
learner
whose
native
language
is
Thai,
a
language
that
has
strongly
aspirated
voiceless
stops,
tries
to
learn
Mandarin
as
a
second
language.
Since
Mandarin
also
strongly
aspirates
voiceless
stops,
the
learner
may
transfer
these
sounds
from
one
language
to
the
next.
Language
items
or
sounds
that
are
common
in
many
languages
are
unmarked,
which
means
that
they
can
be
found
in
languages
around
the
world
(Gass
et
al.,
2013,
p.
148).
These
unmarked
sounds
are
more
likely
to
be
transferred
than
forms
that
are
unusual
or
marked.
Marked
sounds
are
similar
to
language-specific
items
in
the
sense
that
they
do
not
typically
transfer
from
one
language
to
another.
Pronunciation
Difficulties
for
Second
Language
Learners
There
is
one
more
challenge
that
may
impede
an
adult
language
learners
ability
to
acquire
a
second
languages
phonetic
system,
and
that
is
oral
delivery.
Articulation
and
Grattan
5
pronunciation
differences
are
abundant
across
the
worlds
languages,
and
they
influence
how
speakers
produce
sounds.
Some
sound
combinations
are
a
challenge
for
particular
language
learners
because
they
are
not
found
in
their
native
language.
For
example,
Spanish
speakers
learning
English
have
difficulty
with
words
that
begin
with
the
sound
/s/
because
Spanish
words
do
not
use
/s/
as
an
onset
(i.e.
in
syllable-initial
position).
A
Spanish
native
speaker
may
produce
esnack
instead
snack,
which
is
a
simplification
strategy
adding
one
or
more
sounds
to
a
word
in
order
for
it
to
fit
into
a
familiar
native
language
structure.
This
strategy
has
been
found
to
be
used
by
adult
second
language
learners
as
a
way
of
adapting
target
language
utterances
to
their
native
language
norms.
Issues
concerning
sound
production
are
a
huge
consideration
when
learning
a
new
language.
Each
learner
will
encounter
challenges
relative
to
their
experience,
whether
they
are
overcoming
influences
from
their
native
language
or
attempting
to
acquire
new
sounds
for
the
first
time.
Conclusion
Adults
have
to
overcome
many
obstacles
that
children
do
not
when
it
comes
to
acquiring
language.
Some
of
the
challenges
discussed
in
this
paper
derive
from
already
established
phonetic
systems,
which
make
discriminating
new
sounds
a
challenge.
When
a
learner
cannot
distinguish
one
sound
from
another
this
inhibits
new
sounds
systems
from
forming.
Phonetic
systems
are
the
foundation
of
being
able
to
recognize
and
use
second
language
forms,
so
once
these
parameters
are
set
(after
six
months
old)
acquisition
becomes
increasingly
difficult.
The
older
a
learner
is,
the
more
time
has
passed
since
they
have
used
their
discriminatory
competencies,
potentially
making
it
harder
for
them
to
reconstruct
phonetic
parameters
that
have
been
firmly
defined
for
years.
With
all
of
these
obstacles
facing
adult
second
language
learners,
acquiring
a
second
language
can
be
challenging,
but
with
motivation
to
learn
and
continuous
practice
any
learner
can
become
a
polyglot.
Grattan
6
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