Stoichiometry PDF

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STOICHIOMETRY
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Synopsis...
PART - I
(Laws of chemical combination, amu, Atomic and molecular masses, average
atomic mass, gm. atom & gm.molecule)
Laws of Chemical combination :

1. Law of conservation of Mass (Lavoisier, 1744)
Mass can not be created or destroyed. In physical or chemical process, the total mass of the system
remain conserved.
This law can not be applied to the nuclear process where mass and energy are interconversable.
(Einsteins equation : E m. C 2 )
On the basis of this law, we may conclude that for a reaction, if the reaction is 100% completed then, total
mass of reactants before reaction = Total mass of products after reaction.
For incomplete reactions :
Total mass of reactants before reation = Total mass of products formed + mass of unreacted reactants left.
CAPS - 1 : .3.4g of AgNO3 in 100g water, when mixed with 1.17g of NaCl in 100g water, 2.87g AgCl
and 1.70g NaNO3 were obtained. Verify law of conservation of mass.
Sol : Total mass of substance before reaction
= 3.4g AgNO3 + 100g H2O + 1.17g NaCl + 100g H2O
= 204.57g of reactant
Total mass of substance after reaction
2.87g AgCl + 1.70g NaNO3 + 200g H2O
= 204.57g of Products
The result proves law of conservation of mass.
Law of constant (or definite) proportions (Proust, 1799)
A chemical compound always contains the same element combined together in the same proportions by
mass.
i.e, the composition of a compound always remain fixed and it is independent to the source from which the
compound is obtained.
Eg : Compound CO2 can be formed by either of these process.
i) by heating CaCO3

CaCO3 CaO CO2
ii) by heating NaHCO3

2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 H 2O CO2
iii) by burning in O2

C O2 CO2
iv) by reaction of CaCO3 with HCl.
CaCO3 2 HCl
CaCl2 H 2O CO2
CO2 obtained by all these methods contains C:O ratio 12 : 32 by mass.
This law can not be applied to the compound, obtained by using different isotopes of the elements as the
isotopes have different atomic masses.
Eg : CO2 using C12 isotope has C : O :: 12 : 32
CO2 using C14 isotope has C : O :: 14 : 32
The elements combining in the same ratio of their masses may give different compounds under different
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experimental conditions.
Eg : Combination of C, H and O in the ratio 12 : 3 : 8 may give C2H5OH or CH3OCH3 under different
experimental conditions.
CAPS - 2 : .A sample of 1.375g cupric oxide when reduced in a steam of hydrogen gave 1.098g CU.
On the other hand, a sample of 1.179g pure CU gave 1.476g cupric oxide when CU was in HNO3
and nitrate formed was heated strongly to get cupric oxide. Show that these data prove law of
definite proportions.
Sol : According to Ist experiment, the composition of cupric oxide is
1.375g cupric oxide = 1.098g CU + Oxygen (0.277g)
1.098
% of CU in the sample = 100 79.85%
1.375
In 2nd experiment, the composition of cupric oxide is :
1.476g cupric oxide = 1.179g CU + oxygen (0.297g)
1.179
% of CU in the sample = 100 79.87%
1.476
Since, in both the experiments % CU and % O are constant which validate law of constant proportions
Law of Multiple proportions (Dalton)
If two elements combine to form more than one compound, then for the fixed mass of one element, the
mass of other element combined will be in simple ratio
Examples of law of multiple proportions :
i) Combination of C and O may form CO and CO2
In CO ratio of C : O is 12 : 16
In CO2 ratio of C : O is 12 : 32
Thus ratio O in CO and CO2 is 16 : 32 or 1 : 2 i.e, a whole number ratio.
ii) N and O form five stable oxides, N2O, NO, N2O3, N2O4 and N2O5. In these oxides, amount of oxygen,
which react with 28g N2 are in the ratio
16 : 32 : 48 : 64 : 80. i.e, 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5.
iii) In H2O and H2O2, 2g H combines with 16g and 32 g oxygen respectively and the ratio is 16 : 32 or 1 : 2.
However, the discovery of isotopes led to some disperencies in this law also.
CAPS-3 : Two compounds each containing only tin and oxygen had the following composition.
Mass Mass
% of tin % of oxygen
Compound A 78.77 21.23
Compound B 88.12 11.88
Verify law of multiple proportions for this data.
Sol : In compound A
21.23 parts of oxygen combine with 78.77 parts of tin
1 part of oxygen combines with 78.77 / 21.23 = 3.7 parts of tin
In compound B
11.88 parts of oxygen combine with 88.12 parts of tin
1 part of oxygen combines with 88.13 / 11.88 = 7.4 parts of tin
Thus, the mass of tin in compound A and B which combine with a fixed mass of oxygen are in the ratio of
3.7 : 7.4 or 1 : 2
The data illustrates the law of multiple proportions
Law of Reciprocal proportions (or) law of equivalent proportions (Richter 1792 - 94)
If two elements combine separately with a third element, the mass ratio of the first two elements com-
bined with a fixed mass of the third element will be equal to or in simple ratio to the mass ratio of first two
elements in a compound formed by their direct combiantion. For example :
i) Hydrogen combines with Sodium and chlorine to form two compounds. NaH and HCl respectively.

In NaH : Sodium 23 parts ; Hydrogen one part
In HCl : Chlorine 35.5 parts ; Hydrogen one part
In NaCl : 23 parts of sodium ; 35.5 parts of chlorine. These are the same parts which combine with one part
of hydrogen in NaH and HCl respectively.
ii) Hydrogen combines with sulphur and oxygen to form compounds H2S and H2O respectively.
In H2S : Hydrogen 2 parts + Sulphur 32 parts
In H2O : Hydrogen 2 parts + Oxygen 16 parts
In SO2 : Sulphur 32 parts + oxygen 32 parts
In SO2 the ratio of S and O by mass is 32 : 32. Which is double of the ratio of masses of these elements
which combine with 2g of hydrogen.
2g
H
H2S H2O
S O
32g 16g
CAPS-4 : The % composition of NH3 , H2O and N2O3 is given below :

NH3 82.35% N and 17.65% H
H2O
88.90% O and 11.10% H
N2O3 63.15% O and 36.85% N
On the basis of above data prove law of
reciprocal proportions.
Sol : for NH3 :
82.35
1 part of H reacts with = 4.67 part N.
17.62
for H2O :
88.90
1 part H reacts with = 8.01 part O.
11.10
Thus, the ratio N : O :: 4.67 : 8.01 0.58.
As the two ratio are same, thus law of reciprocal proportions are correct.
Law of Gaseous volumes (Gay Lussac, 1808)
This law is applied to the reactions containing at least two gaseous components.
This law states that :
At the same temperature and pressure, the volumes of gaseous reactants reacted and the volume of
gaseous products formed bear a simple ratio
Examples :
i) N 2 g 3H 2 g
2 NH 3 g
1vol 3vol 2vol
i.e, One volume of N2 reacts with three volumes of H2 to give two volumes of NH3.

ii) CO g 1 O2 g
CO2 g
2
1vol 1 vol 1vol
2
iii) H 2 g Cl2 g
2 HCl g
1vol 1vol 2vol
CAPS-5 : How much volume of oxygen will be required for complete combustion of 40ml of acetylene
(C2H2) and how much volume of CO2 will be formed ? All volumes are measured at NTP ?
Sol : 2C2 H 2 5O2
4CO2 2 H 2O
2vol 5vol 4vol
40mL 5 x40mL 4 x40mL

2 2
40mL 100mL 80mL
So, for complete combustion of 40mL of acetylene, 100mL of oxygen is required and 80mL of CO2 is
formed.
Daltons Atomic Theory :
On the basis of the laws of chemical combiantion and the work of Greek Philosophers, John Dalton in 1803
- 1807 proposed his atomic theory.
The basic postulates of Daltons atomic theory are as follows :
i) Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
ii) All atoms of a given element are identical i.e, atoms of a particular element are all alike but, differ from
atoms of different other elements.
iii) Atoms of different elements posses different properties including different masses.
iv) Atoms are indestructible i.e, atoms are netiehr created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
v) Atoms of elements take part to form molecules i.e, compounds are formed when atoms of more than
one element combine.
vi) In a given compound, the relative number and kind of atoms are constant.
Advantages :
Daltons theory supports laws of chemical combination and provides us a conceptual picture of matter.
Limitations :
It could not explain why do atoms combine to form a molecule.
It could not explain the nature of forces which hold the atoms and molecules in solids, liquids and gaseous
state.
It could not explain the GayLussacs law of combining volume.
It could not explain, that why should atoms of an element differ in their masses.
If one examines the Daltons atomic theory in the light of recent developments in science, then
The atom is no longer supposed to be indivisible the atom is not a simple particle but a complex one.
Atoms of the element may not necessarily posses the same mass but, possess the same atomic number and
show similar chemical properties (Discovery of isotopes)
Atoms of the different elements may posses the same mass but, they always have different atomic num-
bers and differ in chemical properties (Discovery of isobars)
Atoms of one element can be transformed into atoms of other element (Discovery of artificial transmuta-
tion)
There are number of compounds which do not follow the law of constant proportions. Such, compounds
are called non - stoichiometric compounds.
Atoms and Molecules :
Atom may be defined as the smallest particle of an element which does not exist free in nature but takes

part directly in chemical combinations.
Atoms of any element can be represented by the symbol of that element.
Molecule may be defined as the smallest particle of an element or compound, which exist free in nature but,
does not participate directly in chemical combinations.
Molecules are represented by the molecular formula, which tells the exact number of atoms or same or
different elements present in each molecule. For example, Water molecules are represented as H2O. It
tells that each water molecule contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
Atoms of inert gases exist free in nature.
The term molecule should not be used for ionic compounds. The perfect term for them is formula unit.
The smallest particles of metals are always atoms not molecules.
ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASS
As atoms are very tiny particles, their absolute masses are difficult to measure.
However, it is possible to determine the relative masses of different atoms, if small unit of mass is
taken as a standard.
For this purpose, in 1961, the international union of chemists selected a new unit for expressing the
atomic masses.
They accepted the stable isotope of carbon C
12

with mass number of 12 as the standard.
ATOMIC MASS UNIT (amu)
1
mass of an atom of carbon -12 C is known as the atomic mass unit and is
12
The quantity,
12
abbreviated as amu.
The actual mass of one atom of carbon - 12 is 1.9924 10 23 g (or) 1.9924 1026 kg
1
1 amu = 1.9924 1023 1.66 1024 g 1.66 1027 kg
12
ATOMIC MASS
Atomic mass of an element can be defined as The number, which indicates how many times, the
1
mass of one atom of the element is heavier in comparision to th part of the mass of one atom of
12
C-12.
Mass of one atom of the element

Atomic mass of an element 1
Mass of one atom of C 12
12
Mass of one atom of the element
Atomic mass of an element
1amu
The atomic masses of some elements on the basis of C-12 are given below:
Hydrogen : 1.008 amu 2. Oxygen : 16 amu
Chlorine : 35.5 amu 4. Magnesium : 24 amu
Copper : 63.5 amu 6. Iron : 55.847 amu
Sodium : 22.989 amu 8. Silver : 107.868 amu
Nitrogen : 14 amu 10. Sulphur : 32 amu
ACTUAL MASS OF AN ATOM
The actual mass of an atom (absolute mass) of an element =
The atomic mass of an element in amu 1.66 1024 g

24 24
eg:- 1) The actual mass of H-atom = 1.008 1.66 10 1.6736 10 g
2) The actual mass of O-atom = 16 1.66 1024 2.656 1023 g
AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS
Most of the elements occur in nature as a mixture of isotopes. [isotopes-the atoms of the same
element having different atomic masses]
For example : chlorine is found in nature as a mixture containing two isopopoes Cl-35 and Cl-37
These are found in the ratio of 75% (Cl-35) and 25% (Cl-37)
75 25
The average relative mass of chlorine is calculated as 35 37 35.5amu
100 100
So, based on the average mass, atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 amu
x y
Average isotopic mass a b
100 100
Here, x,y are percentage aboundance of the two isotopes with atomic masses a and b. [y=100-x]
The average atomic masses of various elements are determined by multiplying the atomic mass of
each isotope by its fractional abundance and adding the values thus obtained.
m a nb
Average atomic mass
mn
here, a, b are atomic masses of isotopes in the ratio m:n.
CAP-6 Carbon occurs in nature as a mixture of Carbon - 12 and Carbon - 13. If the percentage abundance
of C-12 is 98.9 then find the average atomic mass of carbon ?
Solution : % abundance of C 12 98.9
% abundance of C 13 1.1
98.9 1.1
Average atomic mass = 12 13
100 100
12.011amu
CAP-7 Boron has two isotopes Boron - 10 and Boron - 11 whose average atomic mass is 10.8 amu. Then,
what are percentage abundance of B-10 and B-11.
Solution : Let x be the % abundance of B-10
(100-x) will be the % abundance of B 11
x 100 x
10.8 10 11
100 100
x 20%; y 80%
MOLECULAR MASS
Similar to atomic mass, molecular mass is also expressed as a relative mass with respect to the mass
of the standard substance an atom of carbon - 12.
The molecular mass of a substance, may be defined as A number which indicates how many times
1
one molecule of a substance is heavier in comparision to th of the mass of one atom of carbon 12.
12
Mass of one molecule of the substance
Molecular mass = 1 th mass of one atom of carbon 12
12

the mass of a molecule is equal to sum of the mass of the atoms present in a molecule.
Example : 1) One molecule of water consists of 2 atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
Molecular mass of water 2 1.088 16 18.016amu
One molecule of H 2 SO4 consists of 2 atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of
oxygen.
Molecular mass of H 2 SO4 2 1.008 32 4 16
98.016 98amu
Similarly molecular masses of some more molecules can be calculated as follows.
ACTUAL MASS (OR) ABSOLUTE MASS OF A MOLECULE
The mass of one molecule of substance is known as its actual mass.
For examples: The actual mass of one molecule of oxygen is 32 1.66 1024 g 5.32 1023 g
GRAM-ATOMIC MASS (OR) GRAM ATOM
When numerical value of atomic mass of an element is expressed in grams, the value becomes gram-
atomic mass or gram atom.
For example : The atomic mass of oxygen is 16, while gram atomic mass (or) gram atom of oxygen is
16g.
Similary the gram atomic masses of Hydrogen, Chlorine and Nitrogen are 1.008 g, 35.5g and 14.0g
respectively.
One gram atom of every element consists of same number of atoms. This number is called Avogadro
number.
AVAGADRO NUMBER
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon - 12 has been found experimentally to be 6.023 1023 . This
number is known as Avogadros number N A , named in the honour of Amedeo Avogadro (1776-
1856)
Note : Mass of one atom of C-12 isotope 1.9924 1023 g
12
Number of atoms present in 12g of C-12
1.9924 1023 6.023 10
23
So, one gram atom of every element consists of Avogadro number of atoms.
GRAM - MOLECULAR MASS (OR) GRAM MOLECULE
A quantity of substance whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular mass is called
gram molecular mass.
In other words, molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is called gram molecular mass or
gram molecule.
For Example :
i) The molecular mass of chlorine is 71 amu and therefore, its gram - molecular mass (or) gram
molecule is 71g.
ii) Molecular mass of O2 is 32 amu gram molecular mass of O2 = 32g.
iii) Molecular mass of nitric acid ( HNO3 ) = 1 14 (3 16) 63 amu
Gram - molecular mass of nitric acid = 63g
Note : Gram - molecular mass should not be confused with the mass of one molecule of substance in gms.
For example: Gram - molecular mass of oxygen is 32 gms where as mass of one molecule of oxygen
is 32 1.66 1029 g

Gram molecular mass (or) one gram molecule of any substance contains 6.023 1023 molecules.
Calculating
Given weight of the element
a. Number of gram atoms: Number of gram atoms
gram atomic mass
b. Number of atoms present in the given amount of the element
Given weight of the element
N A = no.of gm atoms N
gram atomic mass A
Given weight of the substance

c. Mass of an element
gram atomic mass
Given weight of the substance
e. Number of gm. molecules NA
gram atomic mass
f. Mass of a substance = No.of gm. molecules gm. molecular mass.
CAPS-8
1. Calculate number of gram atoms in:
a. 48 gm of O2 b. 8 gm of H2
Solution:
a. one gm. atom of oxygen - 16 gms
? - 48 gms
48
No.of gm atoms = =3 gm. atoms
16
b. 1gm of H2 - 1 gm. atom.
8 gm of H2 - ?
8 gm atoms.
2. Calculate the number of atoms present in
a. 6g of Mg b. 8 gm of O2
Solution:
a. 24gm of Mg contains - NA of atoms (1 gm atom)
6 gm of Mg contains - ? atoms
6 1
N A 6 1023 1.5 1023
24 4
b. 16gm of oxygen contains - NA of atoms (1 gm atom)
4 gm of oxygen contains - ?
4 1
N A 6 1023 3 1023 atoms
8 2
3. Calculate the mass of
a. 1.5 gm of atom of Cl2 b. 2 gm atoms of sodium
Solution:
a. 1 gm atom of Cl2 - 35.5 g
1.5 gm atom of Cl2 = 1.5 35.5 50.45gm
b. 1 gm atom of Sodium - 23g
2 gm atoms of sodium = 23 2 46gm

4. Calculate number of gm molecule in
a. 90 gm of C6 H12O6 180 gm
? - 90 gm
90
0.5 gm molecule.
180
b. 71gm of Cl2 - 1 gm. molecule.
142 gm of Cl2 - 2 gm. molecules
5. Calculate number of molecules in:
a. 8 gm of O2 b. 88 gm of CO2
Solution:
a. 32 gm of O2 contains - NA of molecules
8
8 gm of O2 contains - NA of molecules
32
1
6 1023 1.5 1023 molecules
4
b. 44 gm of CO2 contains - NA of molecules (1 gm molecule)
88
88 gm of CO2 contains - N A of molecules
44
1
6 10 23 3 1023 molecules
2
6. Calculate the mass of
a. 2.5 gm molecules of CH4 b. 1.2 gm molecules of C12H22O11
Solution:
a. 1 gm molecule of CH4 - 16 gm
2.5 gm molecules of CH4 - 2.5 16
b. 1 gm molecule of C12H22O11 - 342 gm
1.2 gm molecule - 12 342 = 410.4 gm.
PART - 2
(Mole concept)
Mole:
Just like for the counting of articles, the unit dozen is commonly used irrespective of their nature, similarly
chemists use the unit mole for counting of atoms, molecules, ions etc.
The mole was introduced by ostwald in 1896.
This is the Latin word moles meaning heap or pile.
A mole is defined as the number of atoms in 12.00g of carbon - 12.
The number of atoms in 12g of C - 12 has been found experimentally to be 6.023 1023 .
12
Number of atoms in 12g of C - 12
Mass of an atom of C 12
12
23
1.9924 10 23 6.023 10

This number is also known as Avagadros number named in honour of Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856).
Thus, a mole contains 6.023 1023 units. These units can be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons or anything
else.
Examples:
i) 1 mole of H-atoms means 6.023 1023 H-atoms.
ii) 1 mole of CO2 molecules means 6.023 1023 CO2 molecules.
iii) 1 mole of electrons means, 6.023 1023 electrons.
iv) 1 mole of ions means, 6.023 1023 ions.
Definition of mole in terms of mass is:
One mole is the amount of substance that contains as many particles or entities as there are atoms
in exactly 12.00g of the C - 12 isotope.
Gram molar volume (GMV) : Volume occupied by 1 mole of any gas at STP is 22.4 Lt and this volume
is called Gram Molar Volume. [STP conditions: T = 273 k, P = 1 atm]
The mass of one mole atoms of any element is exactly equal to the atomic mass in grams (gram
atomic mass or gram atom) of that element.
For Example : atomic mass of Aluminium is 27 amu. But, 1 amu = 1.66 1024 g .
Mass of one mole Aluminium = 27 1.66 1024 6.023 1023 27g

27g is the atomic mass of Al in gms or it is one gram atomic mass or one gram atom of
Aluminium.
Similarly, the mass of 6.023 1023 molecules of a substance is equal to its molecular mass in
grams or gram - molecular mass or gram molecule.
For Example : Molecular mass of CO2 is 44 amu
24 23
Mass of one mole of CO2 44 1.66 10 6.023 10 g 44 g
44 g is the molecular mass of CO2 in grams or one gram molecular mass or one gram
molecule.
Calculation of number of moles (n):
a) When mass is given :
Mass of substance W in g
Number of moles (n) =
M g-atomic or g-molecular mass
M = atomic mass of element or formula mass of ionic solids or molar mass of compound.
W W W
Eg: nNaCl ; nH 2O ; nCH 4
58.5 18 16
b) When number of entities are given:
number of entities present
Number of moles (n) = 6.0231023 i.e Avagadro constant, N .
A
number of CO 2 molecules number of Na atoms

Eg: n CO2 = ; n Na =
NA NA
c) For gaseous substances:
Volume of gas at S.T.P in Lt
Number of moles (n) =
22.4
Volume of O 2 at S.T.P in Lt Volume of CH 4 at S.T.P in Lt
Eg: nO2 ; nCH 4
22.4 22.4
d) Calculation of number of entities:
Number of entities present = n N A .
Eg: Number of Na - atoms in 0.5 mole Na 0.5 N A
Usually mass of one mole of a substance is equal to its gm. molecular mass
Eg: 1 mole of H 2 2g 1 mole of O2 32 g
1 mole of SO2 64 g 1 mole of CO2 44 g
1 mole of Cl2 71g 1 mole of CH 4 16 g
1 mole of H 2O 18 g 1 mole of CaCO3 100 g
1 mole of C6 H12O6 180 g 1 mole of C12 H 22O11 342 g
1 mole of NaOH 40 g
2g of H 2 , 32 g of O2 , 64 g of SO2 , 44 g of CO2 , 71 g of Cl2 , 28 g of N 2 , 18 g water vapour at
S.T.P occupies a volume of 22.4 Lt.
CAPS-9
1. Calculate number of atoms of each kind present in 90 gms of Glucose?
90
Sol. Number of moles of Glucose =
180 0.5mol.
1mol of C6 H12O6 contains 6 N A of C - atoms 12 N A of H - atoms 6 N A of O -
atoms.
Number of C - atoms 6 6.023 10 23 3.6 1024
Number of H - atoms 12 6.023 10 23 7.2 1024
Number of O - atoms 6 6.023 10 23 3.6 10 24
2. Calculate number of electrons present in 4.5 g of H 2O ?
4.5
Sol. Number of moles 0.25mol.
18
18g of H 2O contains ______10 N A of electrons
4.5g of H 2O contains ______ ?
4.5
10 N A of electrons
18
=2.5 6 1023
1.5 10 24 electrons.
3. Calculate the charge present on 1 mole of electrons.
Sol. Charge on one electron = 1.609 10 19 coloumbs.

Charge on one mole of electrons 1.609 10 19 6.023 10 23
96,500 coloumbs
=1 Faraday.
4. Calculate the number of ions present in 1.11 g of CaCl2
Sol : CaCl2 Ca 2 2Cl

1mol 1mol 1mol
111g NA 2 NA
111 g of CaCl2 contains - 3 NA of ions

1.11 g of CaCl2 contains - 0.03 N A of ions
3 10 2 6 1023 1.8 1022 ions.
5. Calculate number of molecules present in a drop of water of volume 0.01mL? (density of H 2O is 1g/
mL)
sol : Mass of 1 drop of H 2O 0.001 1
0.01g
18 g of H 2O contains - N A of molecules.
102
2
10 g of H 2O contains - ? 6 1023 3.3 1020 molecules.
18
6. Suppose, chlorophyll contains 2% of Mg by weight. Then, what should be the minimum molecular weight
chlorophyll?
Sol : 100 g of Mg contains - 2g of Mg
So, chlorophyll should contain minimum 1g atom of Mg i.e 24 g of Mg
24
24 g of Mg is present in - 100 1200g of chlorophyll
2
Minimum Mol. Wt = 1200 g
PART-3
(Percentage composition of elements in a compound - Emperical formula and Molecu-
lar Formula)
Percentage composition of compounds :
The composition of any compound represents the relative amount of all the constituent elements by weight.
ZA
Percentage of an element = 100
M
where,
Z = No. of atoms of that element in each molecule
A = atomic weight of the element
M = molecular weight of the compound
The percent analysis of a substance is useful to determine the formula of unknown compound.
Eg. i) In H2O : M H 2O = 18

2
% H 100 11.12% ;
18
16
% O 100 88.89%
18
ii) In CaCO3 : M CaCO3 100
Ca % = 40% ; C % = 12% ; O% = 48%
CAPS - 10 :
If insulin contains 3.4% sulphur, what will be the minimum molecular mass of insulin ?
Sol : For minimum mol mass, insulin must contain at least one s atom in its one molecule.
100g of insulin contains ........ 3.4g of sulphur
........ 32g of sulphur
100 32
941.176 g
3.4
CAPS - 11 :
Chlorophyll contains 2.68% of Mg by mass. Calculate the number of Mg atoms in 2g of chloro-
phyll ?
Sol : 100g of chlorophyll contains .......... 2.68g of Mg
2.68
mol of Mg
24
2.682
2g of chlorophyll contains . mol of Mg
24100
= 2.23 103 Mole of Mg
No. of Mg atoms =
2.23 103 6.023 1023
= 1.345 1021 atoms of Mg
CAPS - 12 :
Calculate the percentage composition of :
MgSO4 . 7H2O
Sol : MgSO4 . 7H2O = 24 96 7 18 = 246.
24
i) % of Mg = 100 9.75%
246
32
ii) % of S = 100 13.00%
246
176
iii) % of O = 100 71.54%
246
14
iv) % of H = 100 5.69%
246
126
v) % of H2O = 100 51.21%
246

Determination of chemical formula from percentage compsotion :
Emperical formula (E.F)
Types of chemical formulae Molecular formula (M.F)
Structural formula (S.F)
Molecular formula of any compound represents the exact number of atoms of different elements present in
each molecule of the compound.
Emperical formula of any compound represents the simplest atomic ratio of the different elemetns present
in the compound.
Compound Molecular Formula Empirical formula
Ethane C2H6 CH3

Ethanol C2H6O C2H6O
Acetic acid C2H4O 2 CH2O
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Benzene C6H6 CH
Two different compounds can have the same emperical formula.

Two different compounds can have the same molecular formula (isomers).
For most of the ionic compounds, the formula represented are their emperical or simplest formula.
Determination of E. F from % composition :
Conversion
Mole ratio = % Simple mole
Element % composition into whole E. F
atomic mass ratio
number
Write % If simple mole
composition ratio are
Write the Write the whole
here. If sum% Divide all the fractional, thus
symbols of Divide % of no.s obtained as
given is not 100, mole ratio by multiply all with
elements element by subscript with
then subtract smallest mole same number to
present in the atomic weight the symbols of
this sum from ratio convert into
molecule elements
100 and use it as whole no. or
oxygen % nearly whole no
Example : An oxide of iron contains 69.94% Fe and 30.06% O. Determine its E.F (Fe : 55.85 ; O = 16.0)
Solution :
% Simplemole Whole
Element Moleratio E. F
composition ratio no. ratio
69.94 1.25
Fe 69.94 1.25 12 2
55.85 1.25
Fe2O3
30.06 1.88
O 30.06 1.88 1.52 3
16 1.25
CAPS - 13 :
1. Calculate the M.F of a hydrocarbon which contains 85.7% carbon and has molecular mass 84
Sol :% C = 85.7 and % H = 14.3
This data gives E. F compound to be CH2

M.F = E .F x n n = 6 M. F = C6H12
2. Hydrated Barium iodide molecule contains x molecules of water (BaI2 . xH2O). A sample of it,
weighing 10.407g when heated strongly gives off water completely and anhydrous residue left
weighs 9.520g. Find the value of x.
Sol :Mass of water escaped = 10.407 - 9.520
= 0.887 g
BaI 2 .xH 2O
(10.407 g )
BaI 2 (9.520 g ) xH 2O(0.887 g )
Moleof H 2O
x (or) 0.887/18 x x 2
Moleof BaI 2 9.520/ 391
Quantitative estimations :
Determination of % analysis of elements in organic compounds or quantitative estimation of elements in
organic compounds.
I. Estimation of C and H :
A known weight of organic compound is burnt in oxygen and the products H2O and CO2 formed are
absorbed in conc. H2SO4 and KOH(aq) respectively. The % of C and H are obtained using the formulae.
2 weight of H 2O
% H 100
18 weight of organic compound
12 w eight of C O 2
% C 14 w eight of organic com pound 100
II. Estimation of Nitrogen :

i) Dumas method :
28 volume of N 2 at STP
% N 22, 400 weight of organic compound 100
ii) Kjeldhals method :

1 .4 N V
% N
w e ig h t o f o rg a n ic c o m p o u n d
where, (N x V), is Meq. of NH3 given out during Kjeldahls method measured in terms of Meq. of acid
used for NH3 neutralisation.
iii) Estimation of Sulphur :
32 weight of BaSO 4
% S 233 weight of organic compound 100
iv) Estimation of halogens (Carius method)

35.5 weight of AgC l
% Cl = 100
143.5 weight of organic compound
80 w eight of AgBr
% Br 100

127 weight of AgI

% I 100
v) Estimation of Phosphorus :
62 weight of Mg 2 P2 O7
% P 100
vi)Estimation of oxygen :
There is no direct method for estimation of oxygen in organic compounds. It is usually calculated by the
difference.
% O = 100 [% of all other elements in
organic compounds]
CAP-14
0.236g of an organic compound yielded 0.528g CO2 and 0.324g H2O on combustion. 0.295g of the com-
pound gave 56mL N2 at STP. If the molecular weight of the compound is 59, then find the molecular
formula of the compound.
12 weight of CO
2
Sol : % of C 44 weight of organic compound 100
12 0.528
= 100 61.07%
44 0.236
2 weight of H 2O
% of H 100
2 0.324
= 100 15.25%
18 0.236
28 Volume of N 2 at STP
% of N 100
22, 400 weight of organic compound
28 56
100 23.73%
22, 400 0.295
Element Percentage Relative Simplest

no. of ratio
atoms
C 61.07 5.09 3
H 15.25 15.25 9
N 23.73 1.695 1
Empirical formula is C3H9N and E. F weight = 59

M. F = E. F = C3H9N
CAPS-15
1. An organic compound contains 49.3% carbon, 6.84% hydrogen and its V. D is 73. Then find the
M. F of the compound.

% Mol .Mass 49.3 146

Sol : C 6
100 At .mass 100 12
% Mol .Mass 6.84 146
H 10
100 At .mass 100 1
% Mol.Mass 43.86 146
O 4
100 At.mass 100 16
Molecular formula = C6H10O4
Molecular mass = 12 6 10 1 16 4 146
2. An organic compound containing C and H has 92.3% carbon and V. D 39. Then find the M. F of
the compound.
Sol :
Element % At Relative Simplest

Mass no of ratio
atoms
Carbon 92.30 12 7.69 1
Hydrogen 7.70 1 7.70 1
E.F CH
PART - 4
(Chemical Stoichiometry : Calculations based on chemical equations)
Introduction:
Chemical stoichiometry describes the quantitative realtionships that exist between substances undergoing
chemical changes.
A chemical equation represents an actual chemical change in terms of symbols / formula of reactants and
products.
If the number of atoms in reactant side and product side are not same then reaction is said to be unbal-
anced.
Eg : H 2 O2 H 2O
If the number of atoms in both sides are equal then reaction is said to be balanced.
The numbers written before atoms / molecules in a balanced chemical equation are known as Stoichio-
metric coefficients.
All the chemical equations can be treated as algebraic equations and coefficient 1 is not written.
Eg : 1 2 H 2 1 2 Cl2
HCl
(or) H 2 Cl2
2 HCl
(or) 2 H 2 2Cl2 4 HCl
Thus, a balanced chemical equation shows conservation of mass and atoms only.
Significance of chemical equations :
A chemical equation provides qualitative and quantitative details of a chemical reaction. A balanced chemi-
cal equation gives following informations about ratio of the reactants and products.
i) Mole ratio ii) Molecules ratio iii) Mass ratio iv) Volume ratio
Eg : Consider a balanced chemical equation as
aA bB cC dD
This equation gives information about
i) Mole ratio :
a mole A b mole B c mole C d mole D
Here symbol signifies
Stoichiometryically equivalent to.
ii) Molecules ratio :
a x NA molecules of A b x NA molecules of B
c x NA molecules of C
d xNA molecules of D
iii) Mass Ratio :
a M A g of A b M B g of B c M C g of C
d M D g of D
MA , MB , MC , MD are molar masses of A, B, C and D respectively.
iv) Volume ratio :
When all reactants and products are gases.
a vol A b vol B c vol C d vol D
Consider for example, the reaction represented by a balanced chemical equation
N2 g 3H2 g
2NH3 g
Mole 1mol 3mol 2mol

ratio
Molecule 1xNA 2xNA 2xNA
ratio 1 molecule 3 molecules 2
Mass 28g 6g molecules
ratio 34g
Volume 1vol 3vol 2vol
ratio
It is thus evident that the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation can be interpreted as the relative no.
of moles, molecules or volume involved in the reaction.
The stoichiometric relation can be used to given conversion factors for relating quantities of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.
The chemical stoichiometric problems may be classified on the following relationship.
a) Weight - Weight relationship - Gravimetric Analysis
b) Weight - volume relationship
c) Volume - volume relationship
i) For gases - gas analysis (or) Eudiometry
ii) For solutions - Volumetric analysis (or) titration
NOTE : Eudiometry and volumetric analysis will be discussed separately.
Methods of solving stoichiometric problems :
1. Mole Method (Based on mole concept)
Step - I : Write the complete and balanced reaction concerned.
Step - II : The stoichiometric coefficients in the balance reaction represents the relative number of moles of the
different reaction components concerned, with the help of mole.
Step - III : Use unitary method to get required amount.

CAP-16. Calculate the weight of CO2 formed by complete combustion of 1.5 gm ethane.
Sol : C2 H 6 7 2 O2
2CO2 3H 2O
1 mol 2 mol
= 30 gm 2x44 gm
30gm C H
2 6
produces 2x44gm CO2 on complete combustion.
2 44
1.5gm C2H6 will produce 1.5 4.4 gm CO2
30
2. Principle of atomic conservation (POAC) method :
As the reactions are balanced by conserving the atoms of each element, the mole method may be applied
to such calculations, without balancing the reaction.
The solution of above problem may be done by POAC method as :
Moles of C - atoms in C2H6 = moles of C-atoms in (or) 2 x mole of C2H6 = 1 x mole of CO2
1.5 w
2 1 w 4.4 gm
30 44
3.Based on Equivalent concept (Equivalent method)
The number of gm equivalents of each reactants reacted will remain the same and the same number of gm
equivalents of each product will form.
The solution of above problem may be done by equivalent concept as :
No.of gm equivalents of C2H6 = No. of gm equivalents of CO2
1.5 w
w 4.4 gm
30
14
44
7
[Note : Equivalent method based problems are done thoroughly further in equivalent weights concept].
Problem solving based on mole concept :
I. Calculations based on mass - mass relationship :
In such calculations, masses of reactants are given and mass of the product is required and vice - versa.
CAP-17. Calculate the number of grams of MgCl2 that could be obtained from 17.0g of HCl, when HCl is
reacted with an excess of magnesium oxide.
Sol : Balanced equation,
M gO 2 H C l
M gC l 2 H 2 O
1m ol 2 m ol 1m ol 1m ol
(2 36.5) g (24 71) g
73 g 95 g
73g HCl produce

95g MgCl2
17g HCl produce
?
95
17 22.12 g
73
CAP-18. How many grams of oxygen are required to burn completely 570g of octane ?
Sol : Balanced equation
2C8 H18 25O2
16CO2 18 H 2O
2mol 25mol
2x114g 25x32g
570g ?
570
25 32 2000 g
2 114
Calculations involving mass - volume relationship :
In such calculations, masses of reactants are given and volume of the products is required and vice - versa.
1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 lit volume at STP mass of a gas can be related to volume according to the
following gas equation.
PV = nRT ; PV = w/m RT
CAP-19. What volume of NH 3 g at 27C and 1atm pressure will be obtained by thermal decomposition of
26.25g NH4Cl ?
Sol : NH 4Cl S
NH 3 g HCl g
1mol 1mol
53.5 g 1mol
53.5g NH4Cl will give
1
26.25 mole NH 3 = 0.5 mole
53.5
From, PV = nRT
1 V 0.5 0.0821 300
V = 12.315lit
CAP-20. Calculate the volume of H2 liberated at 27C and 760mm pressure by treating 1.2g of Mg with excess
of HCl.
Sol : Mg 2 HCl
MgCl2 H 2
1mol 1mol
24 g 22.4 L at STP
24g Mg liberates
22.4 L of H2
22.4
1.2g Mg will liberate 24 1.2 1.12L
Volume of H2 under given conditions can be calculated by applying :
PV
1 1 PV
2 2
T1 T2
P1 = 760mm P2 = 760mm
T1 = 273K T2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
V1 = 1.12 L V2 = ?
760 1.12 300
V2 = =1.2308 L
273 760
III. Calculations based on volume - volume relationship
These calculations are based on two laws :
i) Avagadros law ii) Gay - Lussacs law
For example :

N 2 g 3H 2 g
2 NH 3 g Avagadro ' s law
1mol 3mol 2mol
1 22.4 L 3 22.4 L 2 22.4 L
Under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, equal moles of gases occupy equal volumes.
N 2 g 3H 2 g
2 NH 3 g
1vol 3vol 2vol
Under similar conditions ratio of coefficients by mole is equal to ratio of coefficient by volume.
CAP-21.What volume of air containing 21% oxygen by volume is required to completely burn 1kg of carbon
containing 100% combustible substances ?
Sol : C s O2 g
CO2 g
1mol 1mol
12 g 22.4 L
1000g ?
1000
22.4lit
12
100L of air contains
21L of O2
1000
?
22.4 L of O2
12
1000 22.4
100 8888.5 L of air
12 21
CAP-22. What volume of O2 gas at NTP is necessary for complete combustion of 20lit of propane measured at
27C and 760mm pressure ?
Sol : C 3 H 8 +SO 2
3CO 2 +4H 2 O
1vol 5 vol
1L 5L
1L of propane requires
5L of O2
20L of propane will require

5 20 100 L of O2 at 760mm and 27C.
This volume will be converted to STP conditions.
Given conditions STP conditions
P1 =760mm P2=760mm
V1=100lit V2 = ?
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300K T2 = 273
PV
1 1 PV 760 100 273
2 2 V2 91L
T1 T2 300 760

Different kind of problem profile on chemical stoichiometry :
I. Simple problems :
In such problems, the amount of any one of the reaction component will be required against the given
amount of some other reaction component.
CAP-23. Calculate the amount of NaOH needed for complete neutralisation of 2.45gm H2SO4.
Sol : 2 NaOH H 2 SO4

Na 2 SO4 2 H 2 O
2 mol 1mol
2 40 gm 98 gm
98gm of H2SO4 requires
2x40gm NaOH for complete neutralisation
2.45 gm H2SO4 requires
2.0gm
CAP-24. Calculate the volume of O2 gas liberated at STP by complete decomposition of 4.9 gm of KClO3.
Sol : 2 KClO3 2 KCl 3O2
2mol 3mol
2x122.5gm 3x22.4L at STP
4.9 gm ?
4.9
3 22.4 1.344 L
2 122.3
II. Limiting Reagent based problems :
In such problems, the amount of any one of the product will be required against the given amount of more
than one reactants.
In solving such problems, first we have to determine the reactant which will react completely, i.e, limiting
reagent.
Limiting reagent, limits the amount of product to be formed. So, the amount of product formed will be
according to the limiting reagent.
Limiting reactant or reagent is the reactant i.e. entirely consumed, when a reaction goes to completion.
(or)
The reactant which gives least amount of product on being completely consumed is called limiting reac-
tant.
CAP-25. How many grams of NH3 will form by combination of 3gm H2 and 7gm N2 ?
Sol : N 2 3H 2 2 NH 3
1mol 3mol 2mol
28gm 3x2=6gm 2x17=34gm
28gm N2 requires 6gm H2 for complete r x n
7 gm N 2
requires < 3.0gm
Hence, N2 is the limiting reagent.
Now, 28gm N2 will produce 2x17gm NH3
7 gm N2 will produce 8.5gm NH3
CAP-26. What volume of Cl2 gas will liberate at STP, when 2.61gm MnO2 is reacted with 2.92gm HCl ?
Sol : MnO2 4 HCl
MnCl2 Cl2 2 H 2O
1mol 4mol 1mol
879gm 4x36.5g 22.4L
4 36.5g HCl for complete reaction.
87gm MnO2 requires
HCl is the L. R
Now, 4 36.5g HCl will produce
22.4 L Cl
C 2 at STP

2.92 gm HCl will produce 0.448L Cl2 at STP
III. Reactions in succession based problems :
In such problems, the amount of any one of the reaction component belonging from a reaction is to be
related with the amount of some other reaction component belonging from other reaction with the help of
some common components.
CAP-27. How many grams of ethylene may be burnt completely by the oxygen gas produced by complete
decomposition of 49gm KClO3 ?
Method - 1 : Solve each concerned reaction separately.
i) 2 KClO3
2 KCl 3O2
2mol 3mol
2x122.5g 3x32gm
3 32
49g 49 19.2 gm
2 122.5
ii) C2 H 4 3O2 2CO2 2 H 2O
1mol 3mol
28g 3x32g
? 1.92g
19.2
28 5.6 gm C2H4
3 32
Method - 2 : Add or subtract the concerned reactions properly such that the common compound, by which the
reactions are related, cancels out. The reaction, thus obtained, may be a hypothetical reaction but it will
give the true molar relation.
Method - 3 : Relate the moles of component of given amount with the component of required amount with the
help of common compound.
2mol KClO3 3mol O2 1mol C2 H 4
2 x 122.5g 28gm
28
49g 49 5.6 g
2 122.5
Method - 4 : Equivalent method (Discussed in volumetric analysis)
CAP-28. One Lt of an aqueous solution contains 31.6gm KMnO4. The solution is to be decolourised by passing
SO2 gas through it. Calculate the amount of iron pyrite, FeS2, which should be roasted to provide the
necessary amount of SO2 (K = 39 , Mn = 55 , Fe = 56). The concerned reactions are :
2KMnO4 5SO2 2H2O
K2SO4 2MnSO4 2H2 SO4
4 FeS 2 11O2
2 Fe2O3 8SO2
Sol: 2 mole . KMnO4 5 mol SO2 5 mol FeS 2

2
5
2x158g KMnO4 = 120 gm =300gm
2
5 60
31.6g KMnO4
2 158
31.6 30gmFeS2

IV. Percentage based problems :
A) Percentage purity calculations :
Depending upon the mass of the product, the equivalent amount of the reactant present can be determined
with the help of a chemcial equation.
Knowing the actual amount of the reactant taken and the amount calculated with the help of a chemical
equation, the percentage purity can be determined.
CAP-29. When 1.25gm of a sample of chalk is strongly heated, 0.44gm CO2 gas is produce. Determine the %
of pure CaCO3 in the chalk sample.
Sol : CaCO3
CaO CO2
1mol 1mol
100g 44g
? 0.44g
100
0.44 1 gm
44
1.0
Hence, % of pure CaCO3 in the sample 100 80%
1.25
CAP-30. Calculate the amount of 80% pure NaOH sample required to react completely with 21.3gm Cl2 in hot
condition.
Sol : 6 NaOH 3Cl2 5NaCl NaClO3 3H 2O
6 mol 3mol
6 x 40 g 3 x 71 g
6 40
21.3 21.3g
3 71
24g
100
The weight of NaOH sample required = 24 80 30 g
B.Percentage yield determination :
In general, when a reaction is carried out in laboratory, we do not obtain actually the theoretical amount of
the product.
The amount of the product that is actually obtained is called the actual yield.
Knowing the actual yield and theoretical yield, the percent yield can be calculated by the given formula :
Actual yield
Percent yield 100
theoretical yield
CAP-31. When 3.9g Al(OH)3 is reacted with excess of HCl, 6.50gm AlCl3 is formed. Determine the percent-
age yield of product ?
Sol : Al(OH)3 + 3HCl AlCl3 + 3H2O
1mol 1mol
78gm 133.5g
133.5
3.9gm 3.9 6.675 gm AlCl3
78
But, the amount formed is only 6.5 gm
6.5
Percentage yield = 100 97.38%
6.675

CAP-32. When methyl chloride is treated with sodium in ether, ethane is produced along with some otehr
products. If the percentage yield of ethane is 80%, calculate the weight of ethane formed by 2.02 kg methyl
chloride.
Sol : 2CH3Cl + 2Na H3C - CH3 + 2NaCl
2mol 1mol
2x50.5g 30g
30
2.02 kg 2.02 0.6kg C2 H 6
2 50.5
But, the yield of ethane is only 80% and hence, the amount of ethane produced is
80
0.6 0.48 kg
100
C) Percentage composition of mixture calcualtion
Analysis of mixtures :
In such problems, one of the components is supposed to be x g and the other will be the difference from the
total.
Balanced chemical equations for the reactions of both the components are now written and the total
amount of the common product produced by the components of the mixture is calculated.
It is equated with the data given and the unknown factors are, thus, worked out.
CAP-33. When 4gm of a mixture of NaHCO3 and NaCl is heated strongly, 0.66gm CO2 gas is evolved.
Determine the percentage composition of the original mixture.
Sol : 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
2mol 1mol
2x84g 44g
44gm CO2 is evolved from 2x84g NaHCO3
0.66gm CO2 will evolve from
2 84
0.66 2.52 g NaHCO
44 3
Hence, % composition of the mixture is :

2.52
N aH C O 3 100 63%
4
NaCl 100 63 37%
CAP-34.
2g of a mixture of CaCO3 and MgCO3 requires 2g of H2SO4 for complete reaction. Determine the per-
centage composition of the original mixture.
Sol : xg (2 x) g
CaCO3 MgCO3
}
2g
CaCO3 H 2 SO4
CaSO4 CO2 H 2 O
1mol 1mol
100g 98g
xg 98
x
100

MgCO3 H 2 SO4
MgSO4 CO2 H 2O
1mol 1mol
84g 98g
98
2 x g 2 x g
84
98 98
hence, the total weight of H2SO4 required = x (2 x ) 2 g
100 84
x = 1.78
% CaCO3 = x/2 100 = 89% MgCO3 = 11%
1%
PART - 5
(EUDIOMETRY)
Eudiometry or gas analysis involves the calculations based on gaseous reactions in which the amounts
of gases are represented in volumes, measured at the same pressure and temeprature. Some basic
assumptions related with calculations are :
1. Gay - Lussacs law of volume combination holds good. According to this law, the volumes of gaseous
reactants reacted and the volumes of gaseous products formed, all measured at the same temperature and
presume, bears a simple ratio.
N 2g 3 H 2g
2 N H 3 g
1vol 3vol 2vol
Problem may be solved directly in terms of volume, in place of mole.
2. For non-reacting gaseous mixture, Amagats law holds good. According to this law, the total volume of a
non-reacting gaseous mixture will be equal to sum of partial volumes of all the component gases.
V = V1 + V2 + ..............
3. The volume of solids or liquids is considered to be negligible in comparison to the volume of gas.
2 H 2g O 2g
2 H 2 O l
2mole 1mole 2mole
2vol 1vol 0vol
4. Air is considered as a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases only.
5. Nitrogen gas is considered as an unreative gas.
The problems will be of two profiles
1) Amount determination
2) Molecular formula determination
AMOUNT DETERMINATION
This type of problems will be as similar as Stoichiometry.

CAP-35. What volume of oxygen is required for complete combustion of 40ml acetylene?
5
Sol : C2 H 2 O2 2CO2 H 2O
2
5
1vol. vol.
2
5
1vol C2H2 requires vol. of O2 for complete combustion.
2

5
40 ml C2H2 will require x40 = 100ml O2
2
CAP-36. 20ml of C2H4 and 80ml of O2 gases are mixed in an eudiometer tube and fired. Determine
the final composition of gases.
Sol : C2 H 4 3O2
2CO2 2 H 2O
1vol 3vol 2vol 0vol
20 ml 60ml 40ml 0
Final composition : O2 remained = 80 - 60 = 20ml
CO2 formed = 40ml
CAP-37. When 600ml of CO2 gas is passes through red hot charcoal, the volume become 800ml. If
all the volumes are at the same temperature and pressure, determine the composition of final
volume.
Sol : CO 2(g) C(s) 2CO (g )
1vol 2vol
600 ml 1200 ml
but the final volume is not 1200 ml. It means that all CO2 is not reacted with carbon.
Let only x ml CO2 has reacted with carbon.
C O 2g C s 2C O g
1vol 2vol
x ml 2x ml
Now, the final volume = vol.of CO2 remained + vol. of CO formed
Or, 800 = (600 - x) + 2x
x = 200
Hence, the final composition :
CO2 remained = 600 - x = 400 ml
And CO formed = 2x = 400 ml
CAP-38. When 40ml of pure ozone is heated, the volume increases by 10ml. Determine the percent-
age, by volume, of ozone, decomposed into oxygen.
Sol : Let only x ml of ozone decomposed
2O3
3O2
2vol 3vol
x ml 3/2x ml
Increase in volume = vol. of product vol. of reactant
3
Or, 10 xx
2
x = 20
Hence, percentage decomposition of
20
O3 = 100=50%
40
CAP-39. 30ml of CH4 gas and 90ml of O2 gas are mixed and fired. The resulting gases are passed
through excess of caustic soda solution. Determine the composition of gases before and after
passing through caustic soda solution.
Sol : CH 4 +2O 2
CO 2 +2H 2 O
1vol 2vol 1vol 0vol
30ml 60ml 30ml 0
Composition of gases before passing through solution :
O2 unreacted = 90 - 60 = 30ml
CO2 formed = 30ml
When these gases passed through NaOH solution, CO2 gas will be absorbed in the soluton. Hence, after
passing through solution, the composition will be O2 gas, 30ml
Note:
Ab sorb en t Gases
absor bed
1 NaOH sol, KO H so l, et c H aloge ns, CO 2,
SO 2, SO 3, etc
2 Alkalin e pyro gallo l so l. O2
3 Tur pe ntin e oil O3
4 Co n c. H 2 SO 4, P 2O 5 etc M o istu re
5 H eated m e tal like Pd , Pt, etc H 2
CAP-40. 40ml of a mixture of C2H2 and CO is mixed with 100 ml of O2 gas and the mixture is
exploded. The residual gases occupied 104 ml and when these are passed through KOH solu-
tion, the volume become 48 ml. All the volume are at same the temperature and pressure.
Determine the composition of original mixture.
Sol : Let the mixture contains x ml C2H2 . The volume of CO becomes (40 - x) ml.
5
C2 H 2 + O 2
2CO 2 +H 2 O
2
5
1vol. vol 2vol 0vol
2
5
x ml x ml 2x ml 0
2
2 C O + O2
2CO 2
2vol 1vol 2vol
1
(40 - x)ml (40 - x) (40 - x)ml
2
In this problem, unknown is only one but number of informations are more. Hence, the problem may be
solved by different methods. Some of them are :
Method - I : Residual volume = vol. of O2 unreacted + vol. of CO2 formed
5 1
10.4 100 2 x 2 40 x 2 x 40 x

5 1
10.4 100 x
2 2
x = 16
Method - II : When the residual gases are passed through KOH solution, the volume contracted from 104 ml
to 48 ml. It is due to absorption CO2 gas formed. Hence,
Volume of CO2 formed = (104 - 48) ml
2x + (40 - x) = 56
x = 16

Method - III : After passing through KOH solution, the volume of gas remained is 48 ml and definitely it is
unreacted O2 gas. Hence,
the vol. of O2 gas reacted = (100 - 48) ml
5 1
or, x 40 x 52
2 2
x = 16
Composition of original mixture :
C2H2 = x ml = 16 ml
CO = (40 - x) = 24ml
CAP-41. A 20 cm mxiture of CO, CH4 and He gases is mixed with excess of O2 and fired. A contrac-
tion of 13 cm observed. A further contraction of 14 cm is noticed when the residual gases are
passed through aqueous KOH solution. What was the composition of original mixture?
All the volume are at the same temeprature and pressure.
Sol : Let the original mxiture contains x cm CO and y cm CH4.
1
CO O2
CO 2
2
1vol 1/2vol 1 vol
x cm x/2 cm x cm
Contraction in volume = vol. of reactants vol of products
x x 3
= x x cm
2 2
CH 4 +2O 2
CO 2 +2H 2 O
1vol 2vol 1vol 0 vol
y cm 2y cm ycm 0
3
Contraction in volume = y 2 y y 2 y cm
From question, total contraction in volume = 13 cm
x
2 y 13 ........... 1
2
When the residual gases are passed through KOH solution, a contraction of 14 cm takes place. It is due to
the absorption of CO2 gas formed. Hence,
x y 14 ........... 2
From (1) and (2) ; x = 10, y = 4
Hence, composition of original mixture is
CO = x cm =10 cm
CH4 = y cm = 4 cm
He = 20 (x + y) = 6 cm3
MOLECULAR FORMULA DETERMINATION
In such problems, first assume the formula of the substance in terms of unknowns as ammonia, NxHy ;
hydrocarbon CxHy etc. Then determine the values of unknowns with the help of given reactions and amounts.
CAP-42. 20ml of a gaseous hydrocarbon requires 100ml of O2 for complete combustion and pro-
duces 60ml of CO2 gas. Determine the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.
Sol : Let the molecualr formula of the hydrocarbon is CxHy.

y y
Cx H y x O2
x CO2 H 2O
4 2
y
1 vol x vol x vol 0 vol
4
From equation,
vol. of CO2 formed = 60 ml
or. 20x = 60
x=3
and. vol. of O2 used = 100 ml
y
20 x 100
4
y=8
Hence, the hydrocarbon is C3H8
CAP-43. When a gaseous, olefinic hydrocarbon is burnt completely in excess of oxygen, a contrac-
tion in volume equal to double the volume of hydrocarbon is noticed. Identify the hydrocarbon.
Sol : Let the molecular formula of olefinic hydrocarbon is CxH2y and its V ml is burnt completely.
3x
Cx H 2 y O2
xCO2 xH 2O
2
3x
1vol vol x vol 0 vol
2
3x
V ml .Vml x. Vml 0
2
The contraction in volume is
3x x
V .V x.V V 1 ml
2 2
x
From question, V 1 2V
2
x=2
Hence, the hydrocarbon is C2H4 (Ethene)
CAP-44. At high temperature, gaseous S4N4 decomposes into nitrogen gas and sulphur vapours. It
is found that for each volume of S4N4 decomposed, 2.5 volume of total gaseous products are
formed. Determine the molecular formula of sulphur vapour.
Sol : Let the molecular formula of sulphur vapour is Sx
xS 4 N 4
4S x 2 x N 2
x vol. 4 vol. 2x vol
1vol. 4/x vol. 2 vol.
4
Total Vol of products = 2 vol.
x
But, from question, it should be 2.5 vol.

4
+ 2 = 2.5
x
x=8
Hence, the molecular formula of sulphur vapour is S8.
CAP-45. When a certain volume of pure oxygen gas is passed through silent electric discharge, a
contraction of 5 ml in volume is observed. A further contraction of 10 ml takes place when the
resulting gases are passed through turpentine oil. Determine the volume of ozone formed, us-
ing these date.
Sol : Let the volume of oxygen gas converted into ozone is V ml.
xO2
2O3
x vol 2vol
2
V ml V ml
3
Now, contraction in volume,
2V
V 5........ 1
3
The further contraction in volume is due to absorption of ozone in turpentine oil. Hence, volume of ozone
formed.
2V
10........ 2
3
From (1) and (2) ; V = 15
PART-6
(Oxidation states and Redox Reactions)
OXIDATION - REDUCTION:
OLD CONCEPT
Oxidation is the process involving addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen or both. Emamples:
Fe FeO (Addition of oxygen)
CH 3CH 2OH CH 3CHO (removal of hydrogen)
CH 3CH 2OH CH 3COOH (both)
Reduction is just reverse process. It involves addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen or both.
ZnO Zn (removal of oxygen)
C2 H 4 C2 H 6 (addition of hydrogen)
CH 3COOH CH 3CH 2OH (both)
This concept have the following drawbacks
a) It includes only the reactions involing oxygen and hydrogen atoms. For example
Fe FeO and Fe FeCI 2
Both the processes are similar because iron is forming a compound in which its valency is two.
The first process is oxidation but second process is not, it does not involve oxygen or hydrogen
atoms.
b) There may be some process involving oxygen and hydrogen atoms but can not be classified as
oxidation or reduction.

CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2
OH OH
The process involves addition of oxygen as well as hydrogen and hence it cannot be classified as oxidation
or reduction by this definition.
The old definition may be modified by replcing oxygen atom with electronegative atom or group and replac-
ing hydrogen atom with electropositive atom or group.
Fe FeCI 2 (Oxidation, addition of Cl atoms)
CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2
(Oxidation, addition of -OH groups)
OH OH
reduction
Fe Cl2 FeCl2
Oxidation and reducation are always simultaneous process.
Oxidation
MODERN CONCEPT
In terms of electrons : Oxidation is the process involving loss of electrons and reduction is the process
involving gain of electrons. Examples
Zn Zn 2 2e (Oxidation)
2Cl- Cl2 2e (Oxidation)
Cu 2 2e Cu (Reduction)
MnO4 8H 5e Mn 2 4 H 2O (Reduction)
Cl2 12OH 2ClO3 6 H 2O 10e (Oxidation)

Interms of oxidation state: Oxidation is the process involving increase in oxidation state of element
while reduction is the process involving decrease in oxidation state of element.
Oxidation state or oxidation number: Oxidation state of any atom in any molecule or ion may be
defined as arbitrary charge assigned to that atom according to some well defined rules.
Rules for determination of oxidation number:
a) If the bonded atoms are identical, distribute the shared electron equally between them and if the
bonded atoms are different, count the shared electron pair for more eletronegative atom.
b) Determine the net charge developed on the atoms after re-distribution of shared electrons. It will
represent the oxidation states of the atoms. Example

(i) HCl molecule
1p 17 p
H Cl
Electrons except shared electrons 0e 16e Hence, O.S. of H = + 1
Shared electrons 2e O.S. of Cl 1
Electorns redistribution 2e
Net charge 1 1
(ii) Cl2 molecule
17 p 17 p
Cl Cl
Electrons except shared electrons 16e 16e Hence, O.S. of Cl= 0
Shared electrons 2e
Electrons redistribution 1e 1e
Net charge 0 0
(iii) H2O2 molecule
1p 8p 8p 1p
H O O H
Electrons except shared electrons 0e 6e 6e 0e Hence, O.S. of H = +1
2e 2e 2e
Shared electrons
Electorns redistribution 2e 2e O.S. of O = 1
1e 1e
Net charge +1 -1 -1 +1
(iv) CO2 molecule
8p 6p 8p
O C O
6e 2e 6e
Shared electron 4e 4e Hence O.S.of C = + 4
Electron redistribution 4e 4e O.S.of O = -2
Net charge -2 +4 -2
The re-distribution of electron may be made simply by assuming the covalent bonds, ionic and assigning the
charge on atoms on the basis of electronegativities and bond order.
(v)H2SO4 molecule
-2
O
+1 +1 O.S.of H = + 1
+2 -1 -1
H -1 -1
O +1 S +1 O H S = +6
+2 O = -2
-2
O

Mathematical method for O.S. determination:
Rule I: The O.S. of any atom in its elemental state is zero.
Rule II: The maximum O.S. of any atom will be equal to (+group number) and minimum O.S. will be equal to
(group number-8), where group numbers are in roman numerals.
Example: S is a member of group VIA and hence its max. O.S is +6 and min, is -2
Exception: Cu(IB) : 1, 2
Au(IB) : 1, 3
Xe(0) : 2, 4, 6, 8, etc
Rule III: The sum of O.S. of all the atoms in a molecule is zero and for ions, it is equal to the ionic charge.
Rule IV: The O.S. of some elements are fixed in all of their compounds.
+1: alkali metals, Ag
+2: alkaline earth metals, Zn
+3: Al
-1: F
Rule V: O.S. of hydrogen is +1 in all of its compounds except in metal hydrides, where it is -1.
Rule VI: O.S. of oxygen is -2 in all of its componds except in
a) Peroxides, where it is -1
b) Superoxides, where it is -1/2
c) Oxide of fluorine, where it is in positive states. (+1, +2)
2 1
O F2 , O 2 F2 etc
Rule VII: The charges on different ions commonly used, should be known.
CO32 Carbonate ion HCO3 Hydrogen carbonate ion or bicarbonate ion
SiO32 Silicate ion PO34 Phosphate ion
HPO 24 Hydrogen phosphate ion H 2 PO 4 Dihydrogen phosphate ion
HPO32 Phosphite ion NO 3 Nitrate ion
NO 2 Nitrite ion SO 24 Sulphate ion
SO32 Sulphite ion S2 Sulphide ion
S22 Pyrite ion S2 O 72 Disulphate ion
S2 O32 Thiosulphate ion S2 O82 Perdisulphate ion
ClO Hypochlorite ion ClO3 Chlorate ion
ClO 2 Chlorite ion ClO 4 Perchlorate ion
Rule VIII: In the complex compounds, the overall charge on ligand should be considered in place of considering
individual atoms.
Neutral ligands: H 2 O, NH 3 , CO, NO, pyridine (Py), ethylenediamine (en), triphenylphosphine ( Ph 3 P )
Negative ligands: X , OH , NH 2 , NO3 , NO2 , C 2O 24 (ox), O 2 , O 22 ,SO 24 ,S2O32 , CNO , etc
Positive ligands: NO , NO 2 , etc .

CAP-46. Determine the oxidation state of the underlined atoms in the following compounds or ions.
(a) NH3 (b) C 2 H 4
x 3( 1) 0 2x 4( 1) 0
x 3 x 2
(c) CH 3 (d) H 2 SO 4
x 3( 1) 1 2(1) x 4(2) 0
x 2 x 6
(e) H 3 PO4 (f) NaH 2 PO 2
3( 1) x 4( 2) 0 (1) 2( 1) x 2( 2) 0
x 5 x 1
(g) K 2 Cr 2 O 7 (h) Mg2 P2O7
2( 1) 2x 7( 2) 0 2(2) 2x 7(2) 0
x 6 x 5
(i) H 2 SO5 (j) H 2 S2 O8
2( 1) x 5( 2) 0 2( 1) 2x 8( 2) 0
x 8 (not possible) x 7 (not possible)
The O.S of S may be upto +6 only. The O.S. of S may be upto +6 only. Let
Let us see the structural formula of us see the structural formula of this
this compound: compound:
O O O
|| || ||
H O S O
OH H O S O
O S O H
|| || ||
Peroxide Peroxide
O linkage O linkage O
The molecule is containing 3 oxygen The molecule is containing 6 oxygen
atoms in -2 state and 2 in -1 state. atom in -2 state and 2 in -1 state.
Hence, 2( 1) x 3( 2) 2( 1) 0 Hence, 2( 1) 2x 6( 2) 2( 1) 0
x 6 x 6
(k) Pb(BrO3 ) 2 (l) As2 S3
Pb and Br, both exhibits variable As and S, both exhibits variable
oxidation states. As the anion is BrO3 oxidation states. As the binary
ion, the O.S of Pb may be determined as compounds of sulphur are called
x 2( 1) 0 x 2 sulphides O.S. of S = -2 now for arsenic
and the O.S. of Br may be determined as 2x 3( 2) 0
y 3( 2) 1 x 3
y 5
(m) K 4 [Fe(CN)6 ] (n) Ni(CO) 4
CN is a negative ligand CO is neutral ligand

4( 1) x 6( 1) 0 x 4 0 0
x 2 x 0
Example 2: Classify the following process as oxidation or reduction.
Process Answer
Zn 2
a) Zn Zn 2
Zn
O.S = 0 O.S. = +2
Increase in O.S., hence Oxidation
0 5
ClO3
b) Cl2 C lO 3
C l 2
Increase in O.S., hence Oxidation
6
c) Cr2 O 72
Cr 3 Cr 2 O 72
Cr 3
Decrease in O.S., hence Reduction
5 3
d) NO3
NH 4 N O3
N H 4
Decrease in O.S, hence Reduction
TYPES OF REACTIONS
Redox reactions: These are the reactions involving oxidation and reduction.
Types: I. Displacement reactions: Eg. Zn 2HCl ZnCl 2 H 2
II. Inter molecular redox reactions: One molecule of reactant is oxidised where as molecule of other
reactant is reduced. Eg. KMnO4 H 2SO 4 H 2S K 2SO 4 MnSO4 S .
( KMnO 4 undergoes reduction and H 2S undergoes oxidation)
III. Disproportionation reaction: The redox reactions in which the atoms of same element belonging from
the same molecule or ion are oxidised as well as reuced are called diporportionation reaction. Such
reactions are also called auto-redox or self-redox reaction. Examples:
0 1 5
(i) 3 C l 2 6NaOH 5Na Cl Na Cl O 3 3H 2 O
Cl-atoms are oxidised and reduced, both
4 7
(ii) 2 M nO 2 Mn O 4 Mn 2
Mn-atoms are oxidised and reduced, both
3 3 0
(iii) N H 4 N O 2 N 2 2H 2 O
N-atoms are oxidised and reduced, both. But it is not disportionation becuase both N-atoms are
belonging from different ions.
IV. Comproportionation reaction: These are reverse of disproportionation reactions. Examples:
4 0
2H 2S2 SO 2 3S 2H 2 O
Intramolecular redox: One atom of a molecule is oxidised and other atom of same molecule is reduced.
Eg: 2Mn 2 O 7 4MnO 2 3O 2
Non Redox reactions: These are the reactions in which neither oxidation nor reduction take place.
i) All neutralization (Acid -Base) reactions are non-redox. Examples
NaOH HCl NaCl H 2 O
2KOH H 2SO 4 K 2SO 4 2H 2 O
ii) Almost all precipitation reactions are non-redox. Examples
AgNO3 NaCl AgCl NaNO3
Na 2SO 4 BaCl 2 BaSO 4 2NaCl
OXIDISING AGENT:
Elements or compounds which oxidises the other compound and themselves undergo reduction in the
reactions are called oxidising agents. Common oxidising agents are KMnO 4 , K 2 Cr2 O 7 , O 3 , F2 , H 2SO 4
etc.
7 1 2 0
Eg: 2K Mn O 4 3H 2SO 4 10H C l K 2SO 4 2 Mn SO 4 8H 2 O 5C l 2
O.A.
0 6 2 4

M g 2H 2 SO 4 Mg SO 4 S O 2 2H 2 O
Common oxidising agents and their reduced forms in the reactions:
MnO 4 Mn 2 (in acid medium) HNO3 NO 2 or NO
MnO 4 MnO 2 (in neutral or weak basic medium) O3 O 2
MnO 4 MnO 42 (in strong basic medium) F2 F
Cr2 O 72 Cr 3 (Acidic medium) H 2SO 4 SO 2
Reducing Agent: Elements or compounds which reduces the other compound and themsevles undergo oxida-
tion in the reactions are called reducing agents. Common reducing agents are metals,
HI, H 2S, LiAIH 4 , Na 2S2 O3 etc.
2 0 2.5 1
1. 2Na 2 S 2 O3 I 2 Na 2 S 4 O 6 2N aI
R.A.
2 4 0
2. 2H 2 S S O 2 2S H 2 O
R.A.
Common reducing agents and their oxidised forms in the reactions:
I2 Cl2 (or )Br2
S2 O32 S4 O 62 S2 O32 SO 42
(with I2) (with Cl2 or Br2)
H 2S S
I I2
Substances in which, the central atom is neither in minimum nor in maximum O.S. can behave like
both O.A. and R.A., both. Some examples are
as O.A 2
C
2
CO
H 2 O 2 acts 4
as R.A.
as O.A. CO 2
H 2O
1
H 2 O2 H 2O2 acts
as R.A. 0 as O.A 2
O2 S
4
SO 2
as R.A. 6 6
SO3,SO24

METHODS OF BALANCING CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

A balanced chemical reaction should follow the conservation of
(i) atoms of each elements (ii) mass (iii) charge
Oxidation Number Method:
This method is based on the fact that the total change in O.S in oxidation and reduction should be equal for
a balanced reaction. A redox reaction may be balanced by this method using the following steps:
Step I: Select the species undergoing oxidation and reduction and write them separately.
Step II: Balance the atoms of responsible elements (elements responsible for change in O.S.) by simple count-
ing.
Step III: Determine the changes in O.S of both the process, due to the total number of atoms of responsible
elements.
Step IV: Make the changes in O.S. of both process, equal by multiplying with suitable numbers. Add both the
processes after multipliation.
Step V: If some reaction components are left, write them in proper side and balance them by simple counting.
Step VI: If the reaction is not balancing at step IV or V, add some molecule or ion in the proper side. The species
added should be according to the reaction and it should not create a new change in O.S.
CAP-47. Balance the following reaction by O.N. method.
a) KMnO 4 H 2SO 4 HCl K 2SO 4 MnSO 4 H 2 O Cl 2
Sol:
1 0
Step I: Oxidation: H Cl Cl2
7 2
Reduction: K Mn O 4 Mn SO 4
Step II: Oxidation: 2HCl Cl 2
Reduction: KMnO 4 MnSO 4
Change in O.S.
1 0
Step III: Oxidation: 2H Cl Cl2 2
7 2
Reduction: K Mn O 4 Mn SO 4 5
Step IV: Oxidation: [2HCl Cl2 ] 5

Reduction: [KMnO 4 MnSO 4 ] 2
______________________________________
2KMnO4 10HCl 2MnSO 4 5Cl 2
Step V: 2KMnO 4 10HCl 3H 2SO4 2MnSO4 5Cl2 K 2SO 4 8H 2 O is the balanced equation
b) Cl2 NaOH NaCl NaClO3 H 2 O
Sol:
0 5
Step I: Oxidation: Cl2 Na Cl O3
0 1
Reduction: Cl 2 Na Cl
StepII: Oxidation: Cl2 2NaClO3
Reduction: Cl2 2NaCl
Change in O.S.
0 5
StepIII: Oxidation: 2 Cl2 2Na Cl O3 10
0 1
Reduction: Cl 2 2Na Cl 2
StepIV: Oxidation: [Cl2 2NaClO3 ] 1

Reduction: [Cl2 2NaCl] 5
________________________________________
6Cl2 2NaClO3 10NaCl
or, 3Cl 2 NaClO3 5NaCl
StepV: 3Cl 2 6NaOH NaClO3 5NaCl 3H 2 O is the balanced reaction
c) Zn HNO3 Zn(NO3 ) 2 NO H 2 O
Sol:
0 2
Step I: Oxidation : Zn Zn(NO3 ) 2
5 2
Reduction: HN O3 N O
0 2
Step II: Oxidation: Zn Zn(NO3 ) 2
5 2
Reduction: HN O3 N O
Change O.S.
0 2
Step III: Oxidation: Zn Zn(NO3 ) 2 2
5 2
Reduction: H N O3 N O 3
Step IV: Oxidation: [Zn Zn(NO3 )2 ] 3

Reduction: [HNO3 NO] 2
________________________________
3Zn 2HNO3 3Zn(NO3 )2 2NO
Step V: 3Zn 2HNO3 3Zn(NO3 ) 2 2NO H 2 O
The reaction cannot be balanced without changing the stoichiometric coefficient of HNO3 .
Step VI: Add six molecules of HNO3 in the left side to balance number of nitrogen atoms.
3Zn 2HNO3 6HNO3 3Zn(NO3 ) 2 2NO H 2 O
or, 3Zn 8HNO3 3Zn(NO3 ) 2 2NO 4H 2 O is the balanced reaction.
Ion Electron Method: This method is based on the fact that the total loss of electrons in oxidation and total
gain of electrons in reduction, should be equal for a balanced reaction. A redox reaction may be balanced
by this method using the following steps:
Step I: If the reaction is given in molecular form, convert it in the ionic form. For it, write acids, strong bases and
salts in ionic form and then cancel out the spectator ions.

Step II: Select the species undergoing oxidation and reduction and write them separately.
Step III: Balance the atoms of responsible element by simple counting.
Step IV: Balance the atoms of other elements by adding some molecule or ion in the proper side. The species
added should be according to the reaction and it should not creat a new change in O.S. In most of the
reactions, the other elements remained will be hydrogen or oxygen. They are balanced according to me-
dium of the reaction.
In acidic medium: Add one water molecule in the opposite side for each excess of oxygen atom. Add one H
ion in the opposite side for each excess of hydrogen atom.
In basic medium:
* Add one water molecule on the same side and two OH ions on opposite side for each excess of oxygen
atom.
* Add one OH ion on the same side and one water molecule on the opposite side for each excess of
hydrogen atom.
* The atoms may also be balanced by balancing them first in acidic medium and then replacing the H ions
suitably by OH ions.
Step V: Balance the charges in both process by adding proper number of electrons on the proper side.
Step VI: Make the total number of electrons lost and gained equal by multiplying with suitable numbers. Add
both the processes. It should be balanced reaction in ionic form.
Step VII: If the original reaction was in molecular form, convert it in molecular form.
CAP-48. Balance of the following reactions by ion electron method.
a) KMnO 4 H 2SO 4 HCl K 2SO 4 MnSO 4 Cl2 H 2 O
Sol:
Step I: Ionic form of the given reaction is
K MnO4 2H SO 24 H Cl 2K SO 24 Mn 2 SO 24 Cl2 H 2 O
0
Step II: Oxidation: Cl C l 2
7
Reduction: Mn O 4 Mn 2
Step III: Oxidation: 2Cl Cl2
Reduction: MnO 4 Mn 2
Step IV: Oxidation: 2Cl Cl2
MnO 4 8H Mn 2 4H 2 O
Step V: Oxidation: 2Cl Cl 2 2e
Reduction: MnO 4 8H 5e Mn 2 4H 2 O
Step VI: Oxidation: [2Cl Cl 2 2e] 5
Reduction: [MnO 4 8H 5e Mn 2 4H 2 O] 2
______________________________________________________
2MnO4 16H 10Cl 2Mn 2 8H 2 O 5Cl2
It is balanced reaction in ionic form.

Step VII: 2KMnO4 10HCl 3H 2SO 4 2MnSO 4 8H 2 O 5Cl2 K 2SO 4 is the balanced reaction.
b) Cl2 OH Cl ClO3 H 2O
Step I: Oxidation: Cl 2 ClO3
Reduction: Cl 2 Cl
Step II: Oxidation: Cl 2 2ClO3
Reduction: Cl 2 2Cl
Step III: Oxidation: Cl2 12OH 2ClO3 6H 2O
Reduction: Cl 2 2Cl
Step IV: Oxidation: Cl2 12OH 2ClO3 6H 2O 10e
Reduction: Cl2 2e 2Cl
Step V: Oxidation: Cl2 12OH 2ClO3 6H 2O 10e
Reduction: [Cl2 2e 2Cl ] 5
________________________________________________
6Cl2 12OH 2ClO3 6H2O 10Cl
or, 3Cl2 6OH ClO3 5Cl 3H 2 O is the balanced reaction
Step III onwards may be replaced as
Step III: Oxidation: Cl 2 6H 2 O 2ClO3 12H
Reduction: Cl 2 2Cl
Step IV: Oxidation: Cl2 6H 2O 2ClO3 12H 10e
Reduction: Cl2 2e 2Cl
Step V: Oxidation: [Cl2 6H 2 O 2ClO3 12H 10e] 1
Reduction: [Cl 2 2e 2Cl ] 5
______________________________________________
6Cl2 6H 2 O 2ClO3 10Cl 12H
or, 3Cl2 3H 2 O ClO3 5Cl 6H
To remove H ion, add equal number of OH ions on both sides.
3Cl2 3H 2O 6OH ClO3 5Cl 6H 6OH
or, 3Cl2 3H 2O 6OH ClO3 5Cl 6H 2 O
or, 3Cl2 6OH ClO3 5Cl 3H 2 O is the balanced reaction.

PART - 7
(EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS)
Molecular weight or molar mass of a substance is constant in any type of reaction. But, equivalent weight
of a substance depends upon the nature of chemical reaction in which substance is taking part.
i.e Molar mass refers to amount of substance, while equivalent mass refers to mass that reacts with
definite mass of another substance.
Concept of equivalent mass gives the amounts of substances that react with each other giving similar
equivalents of products.
Equivalent mass of a substance is the mass of it which react with 1.008g hydrogen, 8.0g oxygen or 35.5g
chlorine.
Calculation of equivalent masses for different systems:
I. Equivalent mass of an element:
Atomic mass of element
(or) E Element
valence of element
It is the number of gm. of the element which combines with or displaces 1gm hydrogen or 8gm of oxygen
or 35.5 gm of chlorine.
Example:
M Ca 40
E Ca 20 (In bivalent compounds)
2 2
M Na 23
E Na 23
1 1
M Cl 35.5
E Cl 35.5
1 1
M Al 27
E Al 9 (In trivalent compounds).
3 3
CAP-49.
Determin the equivalent weight of underlined elements in the following compounds.
31
a) PH 3 : EP 10.33
3
27
b) AlCl3 : E Al 9
3
56
c) FeO : E Fe 28
2
32
d) n factor 1 : E S 6 5.33
CAP-50.
An oxide of a metal contains 40% oxygen by weight. What is the equivalent weight of the metal?
Sol: Let we have 100g of metal oxide.
It will contain 40g oxygen and 60g metal
40gms oxygen combines with 60g metal.
60
8gms oxygen will combine with 8 12 g of metal
40
Eq.wt of metal = 12
CAP-51.
Calculate E03 in the following reaction: 2O3 3O2
Sol: 96g oxygen is obtained from 96g ozone.
8g oxygen obtained from 8g ozone.
E03 8
i.e the amount which reacts with or releases 8g oxygen
48 M
.M 8
6 6
II Equivalent weight of an ion:
It is the number of gm of the ion which can be discharged by loss or gain of one mole of electron. Hence.
Formula Mass of ion
E ion
Magnitude of charge on ion
M Na 23
Eg: i) E Na 23.
1 1
M Al3 27
ii) E Al3 9
3 3
M Na 2 40
iii) E Ca 2 20
2 2
M Cl 35.5
iv) E Cl 35.5
2 1
M SO 2 96
v) E SO 2 4
48
4
2 2
M PO 3 95
vi) E PO 3 4
31.67
4
3 3
M NO 30
vii) E NO 30
1 1
III Equivalent weight of a salt:
It is the number of gms of the salt formed by transfer of 1 mole electron. Hence.
Molecular weight of the salt
E Salt
no.of e transferred in salt formation
Molecular weight

no.of metal atoms Its valency
Formula mass of salt
Total ve(or) ve chargeon cationic(or)anionic part

Equivalent weight of any salt may also be given as the sum of equivalent weights of cation and anion
present in it.
i.e. Equivalent mass of salt = Equivalent mass of cationic part + Equivalent mass of anionic part.

* This relation should not be used for hydrated salts.
Examples:
58.5
i) E NaCl 58.5 (or) E E Na E Cl 23 35.5 58.5
1 1
95
ii) E MgCl2 47.5 (or) E E Mg2 E Cl 12 35.5 47.5
2 1
174
iii) E K 2SO4 87 (or) E E K ESO2 39 48 87
2 1 4
133.5
iv) E AlCl3 44.5 (or) E E Al3 E Cl 9 35.5 44.5
3 1
106
v) E Na 2CO3 53 (or) E E Na E CO2 23 30 53
2 3
100
vi) E CaCO3 50 (or) E E Ca 2 E CO2 20 30
2 3
310
vii) E Ca 3 ( PO 4 )2 51.67 (or) E E Ca 2 E PO3 20 31.67 51.67
3 2 4
342
viii) E Al2 (SO4 )3 57 (or) E E Al3 ESO2 9 48 57
3 2 4
The second method should not be applied for hydrated salts.

Example:
M Salt 137 71 36
i) E BaCl2 .2H 2 O 122
2 2
M 958
ii) E Alum 119.375
8 8
[eg: K 2SO 4 .Al2 (SO 4 )3 .24H 2 O ]
Some times, when reaction is given, the equivalent mass of a substance is calculated by dividing its formula
mass by number of moles of cationic or anionic charge replaced per mole of salt.
For example: In the reaction,
i) Na 2SO 4 HCl NaHSO4 NaCl
M Na 2SO4
E Na 2SO4
1
ii) In the reaction,
2Na[Ag(CN) 2 ] Zn Na 2 [Zn(CN)4 ] 2Ag
M [ N a Ag ( C N ) 2 ]
E N a [ A g ( C N )2 ]
1
[ 1 mole Ag is replaced per mole of Na[Ag(CN) 2 ] .

IV Equivalent mass of an acid:
It is the number of gms of the acid which will furnish one mole of H ion in water. Hence, equivalent
weight of acid
Molecular weight

basicity
Where basicity = no.of replaceable H ions present per molecule of an acid.(or)
= moles of monovalent base required for complete neutralization of one mole acid. Equivalent weight
of acids may also be given as (1+ equivalent weight of anion).
36.5
i) E HCl 36.5 1 ECl 1 35.5
1
98
ii) E H 2SO4 49 1 E SO2 1 48 (when both the Hs are replaced)
2 4
98
iii) E H2SO4 98 1 E HSO2 1 97 (where one H is replaced)
1 4
60
iv) E CH3COOH 60 1 E CH COO 1 59
1 3
63
v) E HNO3 63 1 E NO 1 62
1 3
Note:
In oxy acids only those hydrogens are acidic which are attached to oxygen directly.
Oxyacids are having at least one = 0 group and one OH group with the central atom Eg: H 3 PO 4 .
If reaction is not given, equivalent mass of an acid is defined for complete neutralization.
M 98 95
vi) E H3PO4 32.66 1 E PO3 1
3 3 4
3
1 31.66
O
||
HO P OH :Maximum 3 replaceable H 's in H PO
|
3 4
OH
M 82
vii) E H3PO3 41 1 E HPO2 1 40
2 2 3
O
||
[ In H 3 PO 3 : HO P| OH : Maximum two replaceable Hs]

s]
H
M
viii) E H3PO2 66 1 E H PO 1 65
1 2 2
O
||
[ In H 3 PO 2 : H P| OH : only one replaceable hydrogen]

H
M H3BO3
ix) E H3BO3 ( in water)
1
[Actually H3 BO3 is monobasic acid and its aqueous solution contains H+ obtained from dissociation of
H 2 O , as given below: B(OH)3 H 2 O B(OH) 4 H ]

V Equivalent mass of a base:
It is the number of gms of base which will furnish one mole of OH ions in water. Hence,
Molecular weight
Equivalent weight of a base = .
acidity
Where acidity = No.of moles of OH ions furnished by one mole of base in water. (or)
= no.of moles of H ions needed for neturalization of one mole of the base.
Equivalent weight of base (metal hydroxides) may also be given as (equivalent weight of cation +17)
Equivalent weight of a base (metal oxides) may also be given as (equivalent weight of cation +8).
Ex: Determine the equivalent weight of following bases:
40
a) E NaOH 40 E Na 17 23 17
1
58
b) E Mg(OH)2 29 E Mg 2 17 12 17
2
78
c) E Al(OH)3 26 E Al3 17 9 17
3
62
d) E Na 2O 31 E Na 8 23 8
2
[ Na 2 O H 2 O 2NaOH 2Na 2OH (or) Na 2 O 2HCl 2NaCl H 2 O . Hence, acidity of
Na 2 O is 2]
102
e) E Al2O3 17 E Al3 8 9 8
6
[ Al 2 O 3 3H 2 O 2Al(OH)3 2Al3 6OH (or) Al 2 O3 6HCl 2AlCl3 3H 2 O
Hence, acidity of Al 2 O3 is 6].
17
f) E NH3 17
1
[acidity of NH3 is 1:
NH 3 H 2 O NH 4 OH NH 4 OH
NH 3 HCl NH 4 Cl ].
VI Equivalent mass of an acidic salt:
An acid salt is that which contains replaceable hydrogen atoms, eg.
NaHSO4 , NaHCO3 , NaH 2 PO4 , Na 2 HPO4 etc.
Molecular weight
E acid salt replaceable ' H 'left in the salt

Examples:
M NaHSO4
i) E NaHSO4
1
M NaHCO3
ii) E NaHCO3
1
M NaH 2PO4
iii) E NaH 2PO4
2
VII Equivalent weight of basic salt:
Molecular weight of basic salt

E
Re placeable OH gp in basic salt
M
Eg: E Al(OH)2 Cl
2
VIII Equivalent weight of an oxidising agent:
[An oxidising agent undegoes reduction, i.e gains electrons (or) decreases its oxidation state]
So, equivalent wt. of an oxidsing agent can be defined as:
It is the number of gms of that substance involved in the gain of one mole of electrons
(or) the amount of substance that gives 8gms of nacesent oxygen
Molecular weight
Equivalent wt. of O.A =
no.of moles of e s gain by1mole of O.A
Molecular weight
(or)
change in O.St per mole of O.A
NOTE: The number of e s lost or gained or change in O.St should be according to the number of atoms of
responsible element present in the respective molecule or ion of the O.A.
CAP-52. Determine the equivalent weight of the following oxidising agents:
I KMnO 4 (reacting in acidic medium)
MnO 4 converts to Mn 2 in acidic medium.
i) O.St Method:
7
Mn O 4
H
Mn 2
Change in O.St 2 7 5
M 158
E MnO4 31.6
5 5
ii) e method:
MnO 4 8H 5e Mn 2 4H 2 O
1 mole of O.A gains 5 moles of e s n.factor 5
M 158
E MnO4 31.6
5 5

iii) Nascent oxygens method:
2KMnO4 3H2SO4 K2SO4 2MnSO4 3H2O 5(O)
2 mol 5x16g
2
mole 8g
10
1 1
i.e. mol 158
5 5
II KMnO 4 (reacting in neutral medium or weak basic medium)
MnO4 converts to MnO2 in neutral medium.
i) O.St Method:
7 4 M 158
Mn O4 Mn O2 E 52.67
3 3
Change in O.St = 4 7 3 .
ii) e mehtod:
MnO4 2 H 2O 3e MnO2 4OH
1 mole of O.A gains 3 moles of e S .
158
EMnO 52.67
4
3
iii) Nascent oxygens method:
4 KMnO4 2 H 2O 4 MnO2 4 KOH 6(O )
4 158g 7 6 16g
? 8g
8
4 158
6 16
158
52.67 g
3
III KMnO4 (in strong alkaline medium)
MnO4 converts into MnO42 in strong alkaline medium.
i) O.St method:
7 6
Mn O4 Mn O42 change in O.St = 6 7 1
M
EMnO4 158 .
1
2
ii) e method: MnO4 e MnO4 1 mole of O.A gains 1mole of e s n factor 1
M
EMnO4 158
1

iii) Nascent oxygen Method:
2 KMnO4 2 KOH 2 K 2 MnO4 H 2O (O)
2 158g 16g
158g 8g
E 158 g
IV K 2Cr2O7 (in acidic medium): changes to Cr 3

6
a) O.St method: C r 2 O 7 2 2 C r 3
Change in O.St = 2(3) - 2(6) = 6.
n-factor = 6 E M / 6
2 3
b) e method: Cr2O7 14H 6e 2Cr 7H2O
no.of moles of e s gained per mole of O.A=6.
294
E M / 6 = 6 49
c) Nascent oxygen method:
K2Cr2O7 4H2 SO4 K2 SO4 Cr2 (SO4 )3 4H2O 3(O)
1 mole 3 16g
M/6 8g
V H 2O2 (as O.A): H 2O2 reduces to H 2O .
1 2
a) H 2 O 2 H 2 O change in O.St
2(2) ( 1)2
n2
34
E 17
2
b) H 2O2 H 2O (O)
34g 16g
17g 8g
EH 2O2 17 g
c) In acidic medium H 2O2 2 H 2e 2 H 2O O2

no.of moles of e s gained = 2.
Equivalent weight of a reductant: Can be defined as
It is the no.of gms of that substance involved in the loss of one mole of electrons.
(or)
The numbe of moles of electrons lost by the one mole of reductant
(or)
The decrease in O.St per molecule of reductant (or)
The amount of the substance that takes 8g of nascent oxygen in the redox reaction.

Molecular weight Molecular weight
Eq uivalent weight of a R.A
No.of moles of e s lost permole of R.A Change in O.St
Examples:
i) Mohrs salt (in acidic medium)
FeSO 4 .(NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 .6H 2 O in acidic medium acts as a strong R.A.
Mohrs salt get oxidises from Fe 2 to Fe 3
a) Fe 2 Fe 3 e : Change in O.St = 1 (or) no.of moles of electrons lost per mole of R.A.=1
E M 392
ii) Oxalic acid (in acidic medium):
H 2 C 2 O 4 .2H 2 O get oxidises to CO 2 in acidic medium.
a) C 2 O 4 2 4H 2e 2CO 2 2H 2 O
no.of moles of e s gained per 1 mole of R.A=1.
M 126
E C2O42 63
2 2
3 4
b) C 2 O 42 2C O 2
M 126
Change in O.St = 2(4)-2(3)=2 E 63
2 2
Equivalent weight of a substance that undegoes disproportion:
Eg (i) Equivalent weight of Cl2 : With cold & dilute alkali Cl2 disproportionates as:
Change in O.St=2
Cl2 Cl ClO
Change in O.St=2
M M
ECl 2 E1 E2 M 71g
2 2
(ii) Equivalent weight of Cl2 with hot & conc.alkali
n2 10
Cl2 Cl ClO3
n1 2
M M M M 3M
ECl2 E1 E2 n n 2 10 5
1 2
3
71 42.6 g
5

II Equivalent weight of a substance that is comproportionated
Eg: Equivalent weight of sulphur in the following rxn.
n2 4
S2 SO 2 S
n1 2
M M 3
E S E1 E 2 32 24g
2 4 4
III Equivalent weight of a substance that is thermally decomposed:
change in O.St 6
oxidation
5 1
2K C lO32 2KC l 3O 2
Eg(i)
change in O.St 6
Re duction
Consider the n-factor, either w.r. to Cl2 or w.r. to oxygen.

[which is same in both the cases]
n factor 6
M 122.5
E KClO3 20.4179
6 6
oxidation
Change in O.St 2
5 1 3 0
PCl 5 PC l3 Cl 2
Eg(ii)
Re duction
change in O.St 3
[From PCl5 only two Cl atoms are oxidised to Cl2 ]

Change in O.St w.r to P = change in O.St w.r to Cl=2
n-factor = 2
M 208.5
E PCl5 104.25g
2 2
IV Equivalent weight of a substance in which two different elements either both oxidised (or) both
reduced:
Eg:(i) FeC 2 O 4 in acidic medium; Fe 2 oxidises to Fe 3 and C 2 O 4 2 to CO 2
n2 2
2 3 4
H
FeC 2 O 4 Fe3 CO 2
n1 1

Total n-factor = n1 n 2 1 2 3
M
E FeC2O4 n n
1 2
M 142
47.33
3 3
Eg(ii) Equivalent weight of FeS2 in the half reaction,
Re duction
n 2 10
2 1 3 4
FeS2 Fe2 O3 SO 2
oxidation
n1 1
M M 118
E FeS2 n n 11 11 10.73
1 2
Equivalent volume:
It is volume occupied by the gaseous substance at STP corresponding to its gm equivalent weight.
22.4 L
Equivalent volume = .
n factor
Where n-factor is the factor by which molecular weight of the substance is divided to get its equivalent
weight.
Examples:
Determine the equivalent volume of the following gaseous compounds.
a) H 2 gas b) O2 gas c) Cl 2 gas
2 22.4
a) H 2 gas : E.wt.of H2 1g Eq.vol of H 2 gas = 11.2 lt
2 2
71 22.4
b) Cl 2 gas : E.wt of Cl2 35.5g Eq.vol of Cl 2 gas 11.2 lt
2 2
32 22.4
c) O2 gas : E.wt of O 2 8g Eq.Vol of O 2 gas 5.6 lt
4 4
CAP-53. Find the eq. volume of SO 2 gas in the reaction : SO 2 SO 42
22.4
n-factor = 2. Eq. vol of SO 2 11.2 lt
2
Principle of gm equivalence:
Number of g-equivalents of all reactants reacted will be equal and the same number of g-equivalents of
each product will form.
CAPS-54.
1. A metal oxide contains 47% oxygen by weight. Determine the equivalent weight of the metal.
Sol: If we take 100gm of oxide, it contains 47gm oxygen & hence rest, 53gm metal.
no.of g.equ. of metal = no.of g.eg.of oxygen.
w w 53 47
E E 9.02
Metal E
Oxygen E 8
2. 5.04 gms of metal carbonate produces 2.4gm metal oxide on complete decomposition. What is the equiva-
lent weight of the metal.
Sol: no.of g-eq metal carbonate = no.of g-eq.of metal oxide.
5.04 2.4
E 12
E 30 E 8
3. 5.55 gm of a base neturalises completely 1.68 lt SO 2 gas at STP. Calculate the equivalent weight of a
base.
Sol: no.of g.eq. of base = no.of g.eq. of SO 2
5.55 1.68
E 37
E 11.2
4. How many gms of oxygen is needed for complete combustion of 6gm CH 4 ?
4 0 4 2
Sol: C H 4 O 2 CO 2 H 2 O
16 32
E.wt.of CH 4 2 Eq.wt of O 2 8
8 4
No.of g.eq. of CH 4 = no.of g.eq.of O2
6 w
w 24gms
2 8
Experimental Methods to determine atomic weight of elements:

(at.wt. percent abundance)
a) Isotope Method: Average atomic weight =
100
b) Dulong and Petits Law: The product of atomic weight and specific heat of an element is about 6.4
atomic weight specific heat 6.4
* This law is applicable for solid elements only.
* It gives better result with heavy elements.
The exact atomic weight of elements may be determined by using the following steps:
6.4
(i) atomic weight (approx) =
sp.heat
(ii) Equivalent weight determination from experiment
(iii) Valency = fractional, but close to an integer. Make it integer. It will give the correct v of the element.
(iv) Atomic weight (exact) = Eq. wt valency
CAP-55. The specific heat of a metal is 0.115 cal/oC-gm. The oxide of this metal contains 22.2g oxygen by
weight. Determine the exact atomic weight of the metal.
6.4 6.4
Sol: at.wt(approx) = 55.65
sp.heat 0.115
If we take 100gm of metal oxide, it contains 22.22 gm oxygen and remaining 77.78 gm will be metal.
77.78 22.22
No.of g-eq. of metal = no.of g-eq. of oxygen
E 8
E = 28
at.wt.(approx) 55.65
Now, valency 1.9875 2
eq.wt. 28
Hence, exact at .wt. of metal = eq.wt valency = 28 2=56
c) Vapour density of volatile chloride method:
Let an element, M, of valency v, form a volatile chloride, MClV. Then,
mol.wt. of MClV=1 at.wt.of M+v at.wt.of Cl 2 V.D V E V 35.5 V(E 35.5)
2 V.D
V
E 35.5
Hence, with the known V.D. of volatile chloride and equivalent weight of element, we may determine the
valency of element.
at.wt. of element = eq.wt valency..
CAP-56. The vapour density of a volatile chloride of a metal is 95. The chloride contains 37.368gm chlorine by
weight. Determine the atomic weight of metal.
Sol: Let we take 100gm of metal chloride. It will contain 37.368gm chlorine and remaining 62.632 gm metal.
Now,
62.632 37.368

E 35.5
E = 59.5
2 V.D 2 95
Now, valency of metal, V 2
E 35.5 59.5 35.5
Hence, atomic weight of metal = E V 59.5 2 119
d) Law of Isomorphism: Isomorphous compounds are the compounds having similar molecular formula as
well as crystalline geometry.
Example: Cu 2S and Ag 2S
K 2SO 4 , K 2SeO 4 , K 2 WO 4 , K 2 CrO 4
MgSO4 7H2 O, ZnSO4 7H 2 O and FeSO4 7H 2 O ; etc
Isomorphous compounds differs only in a single element or ion and the elements differing should definitely
have the same valency. According to the law of isomorphism, the ratio of atomic weights of the element
differing in isomorphous compounds will be equal to their mass ratio combined with the same mass of other
elements.
At.wt.of A wt.of A

At.wt of B wt.of B combined with the same weight of other elements.
CAP-57. Cu 2S and Ag 2S are isomorphous compounds. Cu 2S contains 20.14% sulphur and Ag 2S contains
12.90% sulphur, by weight. If the atomic weight of copper is 63.5, determine the atomic weight of silver.
Sol: Cu 2S contains 20.14% sulphur and hence remaining 79.86% is copper. Hence, 1 gm sulphur will combine
79.86
with 3.965gm copper
20.14

Ag 2S contains 12.90% sulphur and hence remaining 87.10% is silver. Hence, 1 gm sulphur will combine
87.10
with 6.752gm silver
12.90
Now, from the law of isomorphism,
At.wt of Ag wt.of Ag

At.wt of Cu wt.of Cu combined with same amount of sulphur
At.wt of Ag 6.752
or,
63.5 3.965
At.wt. of Ag = 108.134
PART - 8
(CONCENTRATION TERMS AND VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS)
Solution :
It may be defined as the homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The substance present in larger
amount is called solvent and the other substances present in smaller amounts are called solutes.
Concentration or strength of solution :
It normally represents the amount of solute present in the given amount of solution. Depending on the unit
of amount, different methods are used to express concentration. Some of them are :
i) Percentage method ii) gm / lt
iii) PPM iv) Molarity (M)
v) Molality (m) vi) Normality (N)
vii) Formality (F) viii) Mole fraction (XA)
ix) Volume strength
I. Percentage method :
It represents the amount of solute present in 100 amount of solution. The amount may be expressed in gm
or ml resulting the following four kind of percentage methods.
i) w/w (weight by weight method) : It represents the amount of solute (in gm) present in 100gm of
solution.
ii) w/v (weight by volume method) : It represents the amount of solute (in gm) present in 100ml of
solution.
iii) v/w (volume by weight) : It represents the amount of solute (in ml) present in 100gm of solution.
iv) v/v (volume by volume) method : It represents the amount of solute (in ml) present in 100ml of
solution.
CAPS-58.
Example - 1 : 250gm of a solution contains 20g solute. Determine the strength of solution in w/w
percent.
Sol : 250g solution contains 20g solute.
100g solution will contain
20
100 8 g solute
250
Hence, strength = 8% (w/w).
Example - 2 : 120 ml of a solution contains 0.02 mole of solute of molar mass, 60gm. Express the
strength of solution (w/v) percent.
Sol : Weight of solute = mole x molecular weight
= 0.02 60 1.2gm
Now, 120ml of solution contains 1.2gm solute
1.2
100ml of solution will contain 120 100 1 gm solute
Hence, strength = 1% (w/v)
Example - 3 : The strength of a solution of density 1.2 gm/ml is 10% (w/w). Express the strength in
(w/v) percent.
100
Sol : Strength of solution is 10% (w/w), means if we take 100 gm ml solution, it will contain 10gm solute,
1.2
100
ml solution contains 10gm solute
1.2
100
100ml solution will contain 100 12 gm solute
100

1.2
Hence, strength = 12% (w/v)
II. Parts per million (PPM)
It represents the amount of solute (in gm) present in 106 gm of solution. It is normally used when strength
of solution is very low.
Mass of solute
PPM 106
Mass of solution
CAPS-59.
Example - 1 : The strength of a solution is 0.002% (w/w). Express it in ppm.
Sol : 0.002% (w/w) means 100gm of solution will contain 0.002gm solute. Hence,
0.002
Strength = 106 20 ppm
100
Example - 2 : The fluoride concentration in a sample of toothpaste is 500ppm. What is the mass of
fluoride present in a tube of toothpaste containing 200gm paste ?
Sol : 500 ppm means 106 gm paste will contain 500g fluoride
500
Mass of fluoride = 200 0.1gm
106
III. Strength (or) concentration (or) gm/lit :
It represents the amount of the solute in gms present in one litre of the solution.
Massof soluteingms
Strength of solution = volumeof solutioninml 1000
CAPS-60
Example - 1 : 10 gm urea is dissolved in 70gm water to get a solution of density 1.25gm/ml. Ex-
press the concentration of solution in gm/lit.
Sol : Weight solution prepared = 10 + 70 = 80 gm
w 80
Volume of solution = 64ml
d 1.25
64ml solution containing 10 gm solute,
1000ml solution will contain
10
1000 156.25 gm solute.
64
Strength = 156.25 gm/lit.
Molarity (M) :
It represents The number of moles of solute present per litre of the solution.
No.of moles of solute
Molarity =
vol.of solution in litres
wA

M A VLt
wA 1000
M
M A Vml
( wA = weight of the solute ;
MA = molecular weight of the solute
Vml = volume of solution in ml.)
CAPS-61
Example - 1 : 4.9 gm H2SO4 is dissolved in water to get 250ml solution. What is the molarity of
solution.
4.9 1000
Sol : M 0.2 M
98 250
Example - 2 : Calculate the molarity of 10% (w/v) NaOH solution.
Sol : 10% (w/v) solution means 100ml of solution contains 10gm solute, NaOH. Hence,
10 1000
M 2.5M
40 100
Example - 3 : Calculate the molarity of 10% (w/v) NaOH solution of density 1.1 gm/ml.
100
Sol : 10% (w/w) solution means ml solution contains 10gm NaOH. Hence,
1.1
10 1000
M 2.75M
100
40
1.1
Example - 4 : How many moles of solute are present in 250ml of 0.8M KMnO4 solution.
Sol : No. of moles = Molarity x vol. of solution in litres.
250
0.8 0.02
1000
Dilution : Addition of excess solvent to the solution, without changing the amount of solute.
Dilution is reciprocal of concentration
1
i.e, Dilution =
concentration
Law of dilution :
The number of moles of solute present before and after dilution is constant.
weight of the solute
No. of moles =
mol.weight of the solute
(or) No. of moles = Molarity x VLt
Suppose M1 , M2 are the molarities and V1 , V2 are volumes of solution in lts before and after dilution
respectively.

Then, according to law of dilution
Before dilution After dilution
M1 x V 1 = M2 x V 2
CAPS-62
Example - 1 : 40ml of 2M-HCl solution is diluted to 100ml. What is the molarity of diluted solution.
Sol : 40 x 2 = 100 x M2 M2 = 0.8 M
NOTE :
As the dilution is reciprocal that of concentration it should be remembered that :
* If dilution increases by 10times molarity (concentration) decreases by 10times.
Eg : 10ml of 0.1M solution is diluted to 100ml
conc by 10 times
final conc. 0.01
* If dilution increases by 5 times, conc by 5 times
Eg : 20ml of 0.2M solution is diluted to 100ml.
dilution is by 5 times
conc. should decrease by 5 times
0.2
find molarity = 0.04
5
Eg : 40 ml of 0.5 M solution is diluted 160ml.
conc. should by 4 times
0.5
= 0.125 is the final molarity
4
Eg : If 50ml of 0.8 M solution is diluted to 400ml.
conc. should by 8 times
0.8
0.1 M is the final conc.
8
Example - 2 : 20ml of 0.5 M solution is diluted to 100ml. 25ml of this solution is taken and further
diluted to 100ml. Then find the final conc. of the solution.
i) 1st dilution : 20ml is diluted to 100ml
5 times dilution conc. by 5 times
0.5
0.1
5
ii) 2nd dilution : This 0.1M solution of 25ml is diluted to 100ml
4 times dilution conc. by 4 times.
0.1
0.025 M is final conc.
4
Example - 4 : 25ml of HCl solution is diluted to 100ml. 50ml of this solution is taken and diluted
further to get 400ml of 0.1M HCl. Then, what is initial conc. of HCl.
Sol : i) 25 M1 100 2

25M1 M1
M2 = =
100 4
M1
ii) 50 400 0.1
4
M1 = 3.2 M
Resultant Molarity of mixture of strong acids (or) strong bases :
If two strong acids (or) strong bases with concentrations M1 and M2 and volumes V1 and V2 are mixed
with each other then the resultant molarity.
M 1V1 M 2V 2
M Mix
V1 V2
If there is a further dilution, the formula becomes
M 1V1 M 2V2
M = final volume
CAP-63. 20ml of 2M-NaOH solution is mixed with 40ml of M-NaOH solution and the mixture is
diluted to 100mL. Determine the molarity of the diluted solution.
Sol : The total no. of moles of solute in final mixture should be the sum of moles of solute in all the solution mixed,
20 2 40 1
if the solutes are non - reacting. Hence, M = 0.8 M
100
Formality (F) :
It represents The number of gram formula units of solute present in one litre of solution.
The term formality should be preferred in expressing the concentration of ionic compound, because their
smallest particles are called formula units in place of molecules.
Example : A 250ml solution contains 3.51 gm NaCl.
Calculate the formality of the solution
3.51 1000
Formality= 0.24F
58.5 250
Normality (N) :
It represents Number of gm equivalents of solute in one litre of solution.
No.of gm equivalents of solute
Normality=
Volume of solution in litres
wA

E A Vlit
A w 1000
N= E A Vml
wA = weight of the solute in gms
Vml = volume of solution in mL.
EA = gm. equivalent weight of the solute
Molecular weight
=
n factor
Example : Calculate the normality of 5.88% (w/v) H2SO4 solution.
Sol : 5.88% (w/v) solution represents that 100ml solution contains 5.88 gm of H2SO4
wA 1000 5.88 1000
N 1.2N
E A Vml 98 100
2
Relation between Moalrity and Normality :
wA 1000 wA 1000
N
E A Vml MA Vml
n factor
wA 1000
n factor
M A Vml
N Molarity n factor
CAPS-64
Find the normalities of
i) 0.1M HCl ii) 0.5M H2SO4
iii) 0.2M H3PO4 iv) 0.8M Ca(OH)2
v) 0.3M AlCl3 vi) 0.4M Al2(SO4)3
vii) 0.1M KMnO4 / H+ viii) 2M CH3COOH
Sol : i) 0.1N HCl ii) 0.5 x 2 = 1N H2SO4
iii) 0.2 x 3 = 0.6N iv) 0.8 x 2 = 1.6N Ca(OH)2
v) 0.3 x 3 = 0.9N AlCl3 vi) 0.4 x 6 = 2.4N Al2(SO4)3
vii) 0.1 x 5 = 0.5N KMnO4 viii) 2x1 = 2N CH3COOH
Law of dilution : is also applicable to normality i.e, before dilution and after dilution, no.of gm equivalents of
solute remains constant.
weight of the solute
No.of gm equivalents =
gm. eq. wt. of solute
(or) No.of gm equivalents = Normality x Vlt.
No.of milli g.equts = Normality x Vml
So, Before dilution After dilution
N1 x V1 = N2 x V2
Example - 1 : Calculate no.of gm equivalents in
a) 9.5g of MgCl2 b) 100ml of 0.1M H2SO4
9.5
neq 0.2 equts
Sol : a) 95
2
100
b) neq N Vli = 0.1 2 = 0.02
1000
CAPS-65.
Calculate no.of gm. equivalents of
i) 100ml of 0.1M KMnO4 / H+
100
Sol : neq 0.1 5 0.05
1000
ii) 200ml of 0.5M K2Cr2O7 / H+
200
Sol : neq 0.5 6 0.6
1000
iii) 500ml of 0.2M H2SO4
500
Sol : neq 0.2 2 0.2
1000

iv) 1L of 0.3M Ca3(PO4)2
Sol : neq 1 0.3 6 1.8
v) 2L of 2M FeC2O4 / H+
Sol : neq 2 2 3 12
vi) 400ml of 0.8M oxalic acid
400
Sol : neq 0.8 2 0.64
1000
Example : 10ml of 0.5M H2SO4 is diluted to 100ml. 25ml of this solution is taken and further diluted
to 100ml. Find the final normality of the solution.
Sol : i) 10 0.5 100 M 1 M 1 0.05
ii) 0.05 25 100 M 2 M 2 0.0125M
Final normality = 0.0125 x 2 = 0.025N
Resultant Normality of mixture of strong acids (or) strong bases :
If two strong acids (or) bases with normalities N1, N2 and volumes V1 , V2 are mixed with each other, then
the total no.of gm equivalents of solute in final mixture should be the sum of gm equivalents of solute in all
the solution mixed, if the solutes are non - reacting.
N1V1 N 2V2
N mix
V1 V2
CAP-66. 100ml of 0.1M H2SO4 is mixed with 200ml of 0.2M HCl and diluted to 1lit. Then, find the
normality of the resultant solution.
100 0.2 2 200 0.2 1 20 40
Sol : Resultant normality = = 0.06 N
1000 1000
Resultant Normality, when a strong acid is mixed with a strong base :
When an acid is added to a base, the resultant solution, may be acidic, basic (or) neutral depending on the
no.of gm equivalents of acid and base added.
Case - 1 : If neq Acid neq Base
Then, resultant solution is neutral, PH = 7
7
i.e, H OH 10 M at 25C.

Then, resultant solution is acidic PH < 7.
The excess gram equivalents of acid left over after neutralisation is given by :
neq Acid neq Base = N A VA N A VB
Normality of the resultant solution =
no.of gm equivalents of acid left over
total vol.of solution in litres
N AVA N BVB
H mix VA VB
Then, resultant solution is basic PH > 7.

The excess gm equivalents of base left over after neutralisation in the solution is given by :
N BVB N AVA
no.of gm equivalents of baseleft over
Normality of the resultant solution = volume of solution in litres
N BVB N AVA
OH mix VA VB
CAPS-67.
Example - 1 : 20ml of 0.1M H2SO4 is added to 40ml of 0.5M NaOH solution. Then find the nature and
concentration of the resultant solution.
Sol : n m.eq H 2SO 4 20 0.1 2 4m.g.equts
n m.eq NaOH 40 0.05 1 2m.g.equts
As, n eq acid n eq base Resultant solution is acidic
42 2
H 0.033N
60 60
Example - 2 : 100ml of 0.2M HCl is added to 200ml of 0.05MCa(OH)2. Then, find the nature of
resultant solution.
Sol : n m.eq HCl 100 0.2 20
n m.eq Ca OH 2 200 0.05 2 20
As n eq Acid = n eq Base Resultant solution is neutral.

Example - 3 : 50ml of 2M H2SO4 is added to 100ml of 2M Ca(OH)2 and furtehr diluted to 1lit. Then,
find the nature and concentration of the resultant solution.
Sol : n m.eq H2SO4 = 50 x 2 x 2 = 200
n m.eq Ca(OH)2 = 100 x 2 x 2 = 400
As n eq Acid < n eq Base

Resultant solution is basic
400 200 200
OH 0.2N
1000 1000
Molality (m) :
It represents The number of moles of solute present per kg of the solvent.
no.of gm.moles of solute
Molality (m) = wt.of the solvent in kg
wA
= M w
A B Kg
w A 1000
m
MA w B
where, wB = weight of the solvent in gms.
CAPS-68.
Example -1 : Calculate the molaltiy of 10%
(w/w) NaOH solution.
Sol : 10% (w/w) NaOH 10gm of NaOH present in 100g of solution.
weight of solvent (wB) = 100 - 10 = 90g
10 1000
m 2.78m
40 90
Example - 2 : Calculate the weight of 6% (w/v) urea solution whose density is 1.2g/ml.
Sol : 6% (w/v) urea solution
6 gm of urea in 100ml of solution
6 gm of urea in (100x1.2) g of solution
wB = 120 - 6 = 114.
6 1000
m 0.8772m
60 114
Relation between Molarity & Molality :
Example : The density of 1.5M urea solution is 1.05gm/ml. Calculate the molality of the solution.
Sol : 1.5 M urea solution 1.5moles of urea in 1L of solution
1.5 moles of urea in (1000x1.05)g of solution
1.5x60g of urea in 1050g of solution
wB = 1050 - 90 = 960g of solvent
90 1000
m 1.56m
60 960
NOTE : From the above conceptual work, the relation between molarity (M) and molality (m) can be put in the
form of formula as :
1000 M
m
1000 d M M A
where M = Molarity of solution
MA = mol.wt of solute in gms.
d = density of the solution in gm/ml
CAPS-69
1. Find the molality of 2% (w/v) Glucose solution whose density is 1.02 gm/ml.
2. Find the molality of 1.2M NaOH solution whose density is 1.5gm/ml.
Molefraction (X) :
Molefraction of any component in a mixture represents its number of moles present in 1mole of the
mixture.
Let a solution be prepared by mixing n1 moles of solute and n2 moles of solvent. Then, the total no.of moles
of solution becomes (n1 + n2).
n1
Hence, Molefraction of solute (X1) = n n
1 2
n2
Molefraction of solvent (X2) = n n
1 2
X1 X 2 1

Sum of all the molefractions of all components present in a solution is unity.
i.e if a solution is made up of n no.of components then X1 X 2 X 3 ........X n 1
n
Xi 1
i 1
NOTE :
1. All the units including volume terms will be temperature dependent, eg : molarity, normality, formality etc
are temperature dependent.
2. Molefraction, % by mass, molality etc., as they does not involve volume terms, they are temperature
independent.
3. Rise in temperature usually results in increase in volume, so molarity, normality etc decrease as tempera-
ture is increased.
Example - 1 : A solution is made by mixing 64gm CH3OH and 46gm C2H5OH. Calculate the mole-
fraction of methanol in the solution.
W 64
Sol : n CH3OH 2
M 32
46
n C2 H5OH 1
46
n1 2
X CH3OH 0.67
n1 n 2 2 1
Relation between molefraction and molality :
Calculate the molefraction of solute in 1m aqueous urea solution.
Sol : 1m solution 1mole urea in 1kg water
n urea 1
X urea 0.01768
n urea n H 2O 1 1000
18
In general, if the solvent is water, then the relation between molality and molefraction is given by
m
XA
m 55.55
If solvent is not water, then :
m
XA
1000
m
MB
MB = Molecular weight of solvent
CAPS-70.
1. If 2gm of NaOH is dissolved in 180gm of water. Find the molefraction of NaOH.
2. Find the molefraction of 0.2m aqueous glucose solution.
Volume strength : This method of expression of strength is used only for H2O2 solution. It represents :
The number of milliliters of oxygen gas liberated at STP by 1ml of H2O2 solution.
For example : i) 10 volume H2O2 means 1 vol of H2O2 solution on decomposition gives 10 volumes of O2
at STP.
ii) 20 vol H2O2 1ml of H2O2 solution gives 20ml of O2 at STP by decomposition.
iii) 20ml of 20 vol H2O2 : It gives 20x20 = 400ml of O2 at STP

Conversion of volume strength into % (w/v) :
Example : Calculate %(w/v) strength of 10vol H2O2.
Sol : 10 vol H2O2 1lit of H2O2 solution on decomposition gives 10lit of O2 at STP
2H 2 O 2
2H 2 O O 2
2x34g 22.4 L at STP
? 10 L
10
2 34 30.36g
22.4
1000ml H2O2 solution contains ------ 30.36g
100ml H2O2 solution contains ------ 3.036g
10 vol H2O2 = 3.036 % (w/v)
20 vol H2O2 = 6.072 % (w/v)
30vol H2O2 = 9.108 % (w/v)
15vol H2O2 = 4.554 % (w/v)
100vol.H2O2 30.36% w / v H2O2 calledasperhydrol
II. Conversion of volume strength into Molarity and Normality :
Eg : Express 10vol. H2O2 as Molarity & Normality.
Sol : 10 vol H2O2 3.036% (w/v)
3.036 gm H2O2 in 100ml of solution
3.036 1000
M 0.893M
34 100
Normality = Molarity x n - factor
= 0.893 x 2
= 1.786 N
In general :
% concentration 17 volume strength

56
Volume strength Molarity 11.2
Volume strength Normality 5.6
10 volume strength = 0.893 M = 1.786 N

CAPS-71.
Example - 1 : What is the volume strength of 1N - H2O2 solution.
Sol : 1N - H2O2 solution 1000ml solution contain 1g.eq H2O2
Produce 1g. eq. of O2
5600 ml of O2 at STP
5600
Volume strength = 5.6vol
1000
It is standard relation : 1N - H2O2 = 5.6 vol

Example - 2 : Calculate the volume strength of 10% (w/v) H2O2 solution.
Sol : 10% (w/v) H2O2 solution
100ml solution contains 10gm H2O2
10
g.equt H 2 O 2
17
10
5600 ml O2 at STP
17
10 5600
Vol. strength = 32.94vol
17 100
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS (OR) TITRATION

It is the method of determination of strength of a solution with the help of an another solution of known
strength.
It may also be defined as experimental method of determination of volume of a solution of known strength
needed for a definite volume of an another solution of unknown strength.
Types Titration :
Acidimetry
i) Acid - Base Titration Alkalimetry
ii) Redox Titration - Permanganometry
- Dichrometry
- Iodometry
- Iodimetry etc.
iii) Precipitate titration
iv) Complexometric titration
v) Radio - titration
vi) Conductometric titration
vii) Potentiometric titration, etc.,
Out of which Acid - Base & Redox titrations are more important and discussed here :
Terms used in volumetric analysis :
Titre (or) Titrate or analyte : The substance, whose concentration is to be determined.
Titrant : The substance dissolved in solution of known concentration.
Standard solution : A solution whose concentration is known is called as standard solution. The titrants dis-
solved in standard solutions may be of two types.
i) Primary standard titrants : Those substances whose solution can be prepared by weighing them directly
Eg : Mohrs salt, Hypo, CuSO4, AgNO3, K2Cr2O7, oxalic acid etc.,
ii) Secondary standard titrants : Those substances whose solution can not be prepared by weighing them
directly as they react with substances surrounding them like atmospheric moisture CO2, O2 etc.,
Eg : KOH, NaOH, HCl, H2SO4, KMnO4 etc.
Their solution is standardised by titrating them with standard solutions.
Preparation of standard solutions :
A standard solution is prepared by dissolving an accurately weighed quantity of a highly pure material
called a primary standard and diluting to an accurately known volume in a volumetric flask.
Unknown solution : Solution of titrate whose concentration is unknown.
End point : When the experiment of titration is stopped, it is called end point of titration. It is normally detected
by sudden change in colour of the solution.
Equivalence point : When complete reaction takes place between the solutions, it is called equivalent point of
titration.

Normally indicators are such selected that end point and equivalent point remain identical.
Indicator : It is the substance used in titration in very small amount, which response the sudden change in colour
of the solution.
In acid - base titration, the indicators used are either weak organic acids or weak organic bases. Some
examples are :
Acidic indicators : Phenolphthalein, litmus paper.
Basic indicators : methyl orange, methyl red.
An indicator, whose PH range lie in the PH range of titration is perfect indicator for that titration.
Selection of indicators :
Acid Base Indicator

Strong Strong Any
Strong Weak Methyl orange, methyl red etc
Weak Strong Phenolphthalein etc
In redox titrations, the sudden changes in colours due to reactants themselves and hence in most of the
cases external indicators are not required.
Principles of titration :
Titration means stoichiometry and hence it runs on moles as well as equivalent concept. But, for simplicity
equivalent concept is preferred.
Principle : Number of g.equivalents of all reactants reacted will be equal and the same number of g.equivalents
of each product will form.
No.of g.equivalents = weight in gm vol.of gas N VL

gm.equt.wt eq.vol
ACID - BASE TITRATIONS:
The determination of bases by titration with a standard acid is called acidimetry and the determination of of
concentration of acids by titration with a standard base is called alkalimetry.
For Acid - Base titrations, at equivalent point :
n eq Acid n eq Base
weight of acid weight of base

Mol.wt.of acid Mol.wt.of base
N VL Acid N VL Base
REDOX TITRATIONS:
For Redox titrations, at equivalent point : n eq oxidant n eq reductant
weight of oxidant weight of reductant

Mol.wt.of oxidant Mol.wt.of reductant
N VL oxidant N VL reductant
Common oxidising agents which are used in redox titrations are :
i) Acidified KMnO4 (Permanganometry)
ii) Acidified K2Cr2O7 (dichrometry)
iii) Iodine / Iodide (Iodimetry & Iodometry) etc.,
I) Titrations using acidified KMnO4 (Permanganometry) :
In strongly acidic medium
MnO4 8H 5e
Mn 2 2H2O ; E0 1.51V

M 158
E 31.6
5 5
In weakly acidic or neutral medium :
MnO4 4H 3e
MnO2 2H2O;E0 1.69V
M 158
E 52.6
3 3
In alkaline medium :
MnO 4 e
MnO 24 ; E 0 0.56V
M
E 158
1
NOTE : Among the common mineral acids H2SO4, HCl and HNO3 only H2SO4 is useful for providing acidic
medium. HCl can not be used, since Cl- is oxidised to Cl2 by KMnO4. On the other hand, HNO3 itself acts
as strong oxidising agent.
Some, important titrations using KMnO4 are :
a) KMnO4 vs oxalic acid :
K 2SO 4 2MnSO 4 10CO 2 8H 2 O
2KMnO 4 5H 2 C 2 O 4 8H 2SO 4
Titrant Titrate
Oxidant Reductant
2Mn 2 10CO2 8H2O

2MnO4 5C2O42 16H
Reaction is slow initially. But, after sometime, Mn2+ (Product), catalyse the reaction (Auto catalysis)
Medium : Acidic (by H2SO4)
End point : Light pink colour of MnO 4 solution, KMnO4 acts as self indicator..
At equivalent point :
i) 2mmole of KMnO4 reacts with 5mmole of oxalic acid
m.eq.KMnO 4 meq of oxalic acid
N KMnO 4 VKMnO4 N oxalic acid Voxalicacid
1 1
M KMnO 4 VKMnO 4 M oxalic acid Voxalic acid
2 5
N M n factor
w w

M/ 5 KMnO4 M/ 2 oxalicacid
M 126
E KMnO4 31.6 ; E oxalic acid 63
5 ( H 2 C 2 O 4 .2 H 2 O ) 2
2+
b) KMnO4 Vs Fe ions :
Fe2+ is readily oxidised by MnO 4 to Fe3+
In the laboratory, for practical purposes ferrous ammonium sulphate (Mohrs salt) is taken as a source of
Fe2+ ions.
5Fe 2 MnO 4 8H
5Fe 3 Mn 2 8H 2 O

End point : MnO acts as self indicator and light pink colour of solution indicates end point.
4
Medium : Acidic (by H2SO4)

At equivalence point :
i) 1 mole MnO 4 reacts with 5 mole Fe2+
ii) N KMnO4 VKMnO4 N FAS VFAS

iii) 5 M KMnO4 VKMnO4 1 M FAS N FAS
w w
iv)
M / 5 KMnO4 M FAS
158 392
v) E MnO M 31.6 ; E FAS
4 5 5 1
NOTE : If titration is being carried out with solution of Ferrous oxalate, then :
Fe 2 C 2 O 24
Fe3 2CO 2 3e
n - factor = 3
E Fe C2 O 4 M 3
Estimation of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in solution :
In this estimation, the solution is titrated twice. First without reduction in which only Fe2+ reacts and Fe3+
remains unreacted.
In second step, same volume of solution is taken. Fe3+ ions are reduced to Fe2+ and then titrated. Here,
i) In step - 1 : meq KMnO4 (let x) = meq of Fe2+
ii) In step - 2 : meq KMnO4 (let y) = meq of Fe2+ + meq of Fe3+
meq Fe3+ = (y - x)
d. Analysis of sample containing oxalic acid and sodium oxalate :
Same volume of solution are titrated separately with NaOH and KMnO4 solution.
meq NaOH = meq oxalic acid
and meq KMnO4 = meq of oxalic acid + meq of sodium oxalate.
Titrations using K2Cr2O7 (dichrometry) :
In volumetric analysis, Cr2 O 72 is also used commonly as oxidant yet weaker than MnO 4 , Ce 4 etc.,
In most of its applications it is reduced to Cr+3.
Cr2O72 14H 6e
2Cr3 7H2O ; E0 1.33V
M Cr O2 294
E Cr O2 2 7
49
2 7
6 6
These titrations are made in acidic solutions, but, not in neutral or alkaline medium. In alkaline medium,
orange Cr2 O 72 changes to yellow CrO 24 .
It can be used as oxidising agent in present of HCl or Cl- also.
If same molarities of KMnO4 & K2Cr2O7 in acidic medium are used to titrate separately Fe2+ (aq), then
vol for MnO 4 6
1.2
vol for Cr2 O72 5
Thus, volume of MnO 4 required will be 1.2 times of volume of Cr2 O 72 .

3.Iodometry & Iodimetry :
In Iodimetry I2 solution is used for titration, while in iodometry liberated I2 is titrated.
I2 acts as mild oxidising agent and is used for titrating several analytes. The titrations are based upon
following half reaction :
3I ; E 0 0.536V
I3 2e
Iodimetry : In these titrations, standard I2 solution is used to titrate easily oxidisable substances
It includes the estimations of thiosulphates, sulphite, arsenite etc,
2S2 O32 I 2
S4 O 62 2I
SO32 I 2 H 2 O
SO 42 2H 2I
AsO 33 I 2 H 2 O
AsO 42 2H 2I
Iodometry : In iodometric titrations an oxidising agent is allowed to react with excess of KI (or I-) solution. The
I2 liberated is titrated with hypo.
MnO4 / H , Cr2O27 / H , H2O2 / H , Cl2 , Br2 , O3 etc., can be used as oxidants to oxidise I .
I2 thus produced is titrated with thiosulphate by using starch as indicator.
I 2 2S2 O32
2I S4 O 62
n - factor for hypo = 1
n - factor for I2 = 2.
NOTE : I2 has low solubility in water, but the complex I3 is highly soluble. So, I2 solution is prepared by
dissolving I2 in concentrated solution of KI.
I 2 I
I3
I3 is therefore the actual species used in the titration.
Different kind of problem profile on acid - base and redox titrations :
Simple Problems
CAPS-72.
Example - 1 : How many ml of 0.2N - H2SO4 solution is needed to react completely with 20ml of
0.02N - NaOH solution ?
Sol : n meq H2SO4 = n meq NaOH
0.2 x V = 20 x 0.02
V = 2 ml
Example - 2 : What volume of 0.1M - KMnO4 solution is needed for complete oxidation of 40ml of
0.2M H2C2O4 in presence of H2SO4.
Sol : n meq KMnO4 = n H2C2O4
meq
5 x 0.1 x V = 40 x 0.2 x 2
V = 32 ml
7
M nO 4
Mn 2 n factor 5
3 4
C2 O42
CO2 n factor 2
Example - 3 : Calculate the weight of Na2CO3. 10H2O needed for complete neutralization of 100ml of
0.1M - H2SO4 solution.
Sol : neq Na2CO3 . 10H2O = neq H2SO4

w 100 0.1 2

286
2 1000
w = 2.86 g
n - factor of Na2CO3 . 10H2O = 2
n - factor of H2SO4 = 2
Example - 4 : What volume of 0.4M - KMnO4 solution is needed for complete oxidation of 9.92gm
hypo, Na2S2O3 . 5H2O in basic solution ? The un balanced reaction is :
MnO 4 S2 O32 H 2 O MnO 2 SO42 OH
Sol : neq KMnO4 = neq Na2S2O3 . 5H2O
V 9.92
3 0.4
1000 248
8
V 266.67ml
7 4
M nO4
M nO 2 n factor 3
2 6
S2 O32
S O24 n factor 8
Example - 5 : How many mg of magnesium should be added in 200ml of 1.02N - HCl solution to
reduce its concentration to 1.0N ? (Assume no change in volume of solution on addition of
magnesium)
Sol : neqHCl taken = neqMg taken + neqHCl remained
200 w 200 1.0
1.02
1000 24
2
1000
w = 0.048gm = 48mg
Example - 6 : A certain amount of a mixture of H2C2O4 and NaHC2O4 requires equal volumes of
0.01M - KMnO4 and 0.2M - Ca(OH)2 solutions, in different experiments. Calculate the mole
ratio of H2C2O4 and NaHC2O4 in the original mixture.
Sol : Let a mole of H2C2O4 and b mole of NaHC2O4 are present in the original mixture with KMnO4.
neqKMnO4 = neqH2C2O4 + neqNaHC2O4
V
0.1 5 a 2 b2
1000
0.5V
2a 2b............. 1
1000
3 4
C 2 O 24
C O2
[x - factor = 2 ]
with Ca(OH)2 :
neqCa(OH)2 = neqH2C2O4 + neqNaHC2O4
(acid - base reactions)
V
0.2 2 a 2 b 1
1000

0.4 V
2a b........... 2
1000
On solving (1) and (2) ; a : b = 3 : 2
II. One substance reacts with more than one substance, Back titration, etc :
CAPS-73.
Example - 1 : 20ml of 0.2N - NaOH solution is mixed with 40ml of 0.3N - HCl solution. The excess
acid requires 50ml of Na2CO3 solution for complete neutralization. Calculate the strength of
Na2CO3 solution in gm/ lit.
Sol :As HCl is reacting with NaOH as well as Na2CO3 solution.
neq HCl neq NaOH neq Na2CO3
40 0.3 20 0.2 50 N
N = 0.16 N = 0.16 143 22.88 gm / Lt
Example - 2 : 0.03g of a metal is dissolved in 200ml of M/10 - H2SO4 solution. When the metal is
3M
dissolved completely, the excess acid required 50ml of NaOH solution for complete neu-
4
tralization. Determine the equivalent weight of the metal.
Sol : As H2SO4 solution is reacting with metal as well as NaOH solution.
neq H 2 SO4 neq metal neq NaOH
200 0.1 2 0.03 50 0.75 1

1000 E 1000
E 12
Example - 3 : 1.0gm of an equimolar mixture of carbonates of two bivalent metals requires 15ml of
0.5N - HCl solution for complete neutralization. If one metal is calcium, what is the atomic
weight of the other metal.
Sol : Let the weight of CaCO3 present is x gm. Then the weight of other metal carbonate MCO3, is
(1-x)gm. From question, moles of both carbonates are equal. Hence :
x 1 x
........... 1
100 A 60
where A = at weight of metal M
neq CaCO3 neq MCO3 neq HCl

x

1 x
15 0.5

100
2 A 60
2
1000
From (1) and (2) : A = 1067.
III. Dilution Based Problems :

CAPS-74.
Example -1 : 20ml of N - HCl solution is diluted to 100ml. 25ml of this diluted solution requires 40ml
of NaOH solution for complete neutralization. Calculate the normality of NaOH solution ?
Sol : From law of dilution :
20 x 1 = 100 x N2
N2 = 0.2N ; neq HCl neq NaOH
25 x 0.2 = 4 0 x N
N = 0.125N
Example -2 : 20ml of H2O2 solution is diluted to 50ml. 25ml of this diluted solution requires 20ml of
0.1N - KMnO4 solution for complete reaction. Calculate the volume strength of original H2O2
solution.
Sol : nmeq H 2O2 nmeq KMnO4
25 x N = 20 x 0.1
N H 2O2 0.008 N
From law of dilution on H2O2
20 x N1 = 50 x 0.08
N1 = 0.2N = 0.2 x 5.6 = 1.12vol
Example - 3 : 2.61gm sample of pyrolusite was boiled with 65ml of N-oxalic acid in presence of
excess of dil. H2SO4. The liquid was then filtered and residue is washed. The filtrate and the
washings were mixed and made upto 500ml. The solution requires 250ml of N/10 - KMnO4 for
complete oxidation of excess oxalic acid. Calculate the percentage of pure MnO2 in the pyro-
lusite sample (Mn = 55).
Sol : Here, oxalic acid is reacting with pure MnO2 as well as KMnO4. Hence,
neq oxalic acid neq MnO2 neq KMnO4
65 1 w 250 1
10 w 1.74 gm
1000 87 1000
2
1.74
% of MnO2 inthe sample 100 66.67%
2.61
Example - 4 : 200gm of a sample of KI is dissolved in 20ml of 1.2M - KMnO4 solution in acidic
medium. After complete reaction, the solution is diluted to 150ml. 25ml of this diluted solution
requires 40ml of 0.5M - K2Cr2O7 solution for complete reaction with excess KI. Calculate the
% purity of KI sample (K = 39, I = 127).
Sol: Here, KI will react with both KMnO4 & K2Cr2O7. Hence,
neq KI neq KMnO4 neq K 2Cr2O7
40
150 0.5 6
w 20 1.2 5 25

166
1 1000 1000
w 139.44 gm
1
I 20
K I n fa c to r 1
7
M n O 4
M n 2 n fa c to r 5
6
C r 2 O 7 2
C r 3 n fa c to r 6
40
[The factor 150 will represent the total volume of K2Cr2O7 needed to react completely with all KI
25
left in 150ml solution]

139.44
% purity of sample 100 69.72%
200
IV. Reactions in succession :
CAPS-75.
Example - 1 : 50ml of an aqueous solution of H2O2 was treated with an excess of KI solution in dil
H2SO4. The liberated I2 required 20ml of 0.1N - Na2S2O3 solution for complete reaction. Calcu-
late the concentration of H2O2 solution.
Sol : neq H 2O2 neq I 2 neq Na2 S 2O3
50 N 20 0.1
N 0.04 N
Example - 2 :Hydroxylamine reduces iron (III) according to the equation,
4 Fe3 2 NH 2 OH
N 2 O H 2O 4 Fe 2 4 H
Iron (II) thus produced is estimated by titration with standard KMnO4 solution. The reaction, is
M nO 4 5 Fe 2 8 H
M n 2 5 F e 3 4 H 2O

A 10ml of hydroxylamine solution was diluted to one litre. 50ml of this diluted solution was
boiled with an excess of Fe3+ solution. The resulting solution requires 12ml of 0.02M - KMnO4
solution for complete oxidation of Fe2+. Calculate the weight of NH2OH in one litre of original
solution.
Sol : Let the normality of original solution is xN.
From, dilution formula : 10 x x = 1000 x N2
N 2 0.01xN
neq NH 2OH neq Fe2 neq KMnO4
50 0.01x 12 0.02 5
x 2.4
1000 1000
Weight of NH2OH per lt = N x eq.wt
33
= 2.4 39.6 gm
2
V. Double Indicator :
When Na2CO3 is titrated against HCl (strong acid) the reaction takes place in two steps.
Step - I : Na2CO3 HCl
NaHCO3 NaCl
Step - II : NaHCO3 HCl
NaCl CO2 H2O
Since, it is a titration between weak base and strong acid, methyl orange is perfect indicator. It will cause
sudden change in colour at complete neutralization of Na2CO3, i.e, end of step II also. Hence, n-factor for
Na2CO3 with methyl orange indicator will be 2.
But, if the titration is performed in presence of phenolphthalein, it will cause sudden change in colour at the
completion of step 1 only. Hence, n-factor for Na2CO3 will become 1.
From the values of equilibrium constants, it may be clearly explained that step-II start only after completion
of step-I.
CAPS-76.
Example - 1 : When a mixture of NaOH and Na2CO3 is treated with 0.2M - HCl solution, it required
40ml solution using phenolphthalein indicator. When the same amount of original mixture is
titrated against same HCl solution using methyl orange indicator, it required 50ml acid solution.
Calculate the % composition of original mixture by weight.

Sol : Let the original mixture contains a mole NaOH and b mole Na2CO3.
When, mixture is titrated in presence of phenolphthalein,
neq HCl eq NaOH neq Na2CO3
40 0.2 1
a 1 b 1
1000
a + b = 0.008 .............. (1)
when, mixture is titrated in presence of methyl orange :
neq NaOH neq Na2CO3 neq HCl
50 0.2 1
a 1 b 2
1000
a + 2b = 0.01 .............. (2)
From (1) and (2), b = 0.002 ; a = 0.006
Hence, NaCl = 0.006mole = 0.006 x 40 = 0.240gm
Na2CO3 = 0.002 mole = 0.002 x 106 = 0.212gm
0.240
% NaCl = 100 53.1%
0.452
Na2CO3 46.9%
Example - 2 : A certain amount of a mixture of NaOH and Na2CO3 is titrated with 0.5N - H2SO4
solution. When phenolphathalein is used as indicator, the volume of H2SO4 solution used for end
point is 50ml. Then, methyl orange is added and titration is continued for the next end point,
with the same acid solution. If the volume of acid solution used is 20ml, determine the masses of
NaOH and Na2CO3 in the original mixture.
Sol : Let the original mixture contains a mole NaOH and b mole Na2CO3
when, phenolphthalein is used
neq NaOH neq Na2CO3 neq H 2 SO4
50 0.5
a 1 b 1
1000
a b 0.025........... 1
when, methyl orange is added, all NaOH reacted as well as all Na2CO3 is converted into NaHCO3.
H2SO4 will be required only for NaHCO3 formed. Hence,
neq NaHCO3 neq H 2 SO4
20 0.5
b 1 b = 0.010
1000
and from (1) a = 0.015.
Mass of NaOH taken = 0.015 x 40 = 0.60gm
and mass of Na2CO3 taken = 0.010 x 106 = 1.06gm
VI. Hardness of Water :
The property of water to prevent lather formation with soap or detergent is called hardness of water. It
causes due to presence of all metal salts in water, other than alkali metal salts.
Types of hardness :
1. Temporary or Bicarbonate Hardness :
It is the hardness which may be removed by boiling the water sample. It is due to presence of bicarbonates

of hardness creating salts.

Ca HCO3 2 CaCO3 CO2 H 2O
2. Permanent Hardness :
It is the hardness which may be removed only by chemical treatment. It is due to all hardness creating salts
other than bicarbonates.
Different methods to remove hardness are limesoda process, zeolite process, ion - exchange method etc.
Expression of Hardness :
Hardness is expressed in ppm of CaCO3 equivalent to all hardness creating salts.
CAPS-77.
Example - 1 :
100ml of a sample of tap water requires 50ml of N/50 HCl solution for titration. Calculate the
temporary hardness of tap water.
Sol : HCl is required to react with bicarbonates present in water. Hence,
neq HCl neq metal carbonates neq CaCO3
50 1
50 w
1000 50
w 0.05 gm
0.05
Temporary Hardness = 106 500 ppm of CaCO3
100
% of oleum and % of SO3 in oleum :

Oleum is a mixture of H2SO4 and SO3 obtained in contact process for the synthesis of H2SO4.
When oleum is diluted with water, SO3 present in the mixture is converted into H2SO4.
In this way, the amount of H2SO4 obtained from the given amount of oleum is more than the amount of
oleum taken due to addition of water to form H2SO4.
If 100g sample of oleum forms 118g H2SO4, % oleum is said to be 118% and 18g of H2O reacts with SO3
present in oleum.
With the help of above information, we can calculate the amount of SO3 present in 100g sample of given
oleum.
Eg : In 118% oleum 18g water reacts with SO3 according to the given reaction to form H2SO4.
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
1mol 1mol 0
0 0 1mol
18g H2O, reacts with 80g (1 mole) of SO3 thus in the above sample of oleum, 100g oleum contains 80g SO3
or % of SO3 = 80.
NOTE : Theoretically % oleum cant be equal to or more than 122.5% as for this value whole 100g mass should
be of SO3. Which cant be considered as oleum.
CAP-78.
Calculate the % of oleum and % of SO3 in the same oleum whose 40g after dilution requires
1L of 0.977N - NaOH for neutralisation.
Sol : Meq of NaOH required = 1000 x 0.977 = 977
meq. of H2SO4 formed from 40g oleum after dilution = 977 =

Mass of H2SO4 formed after dilution = = 47.878g
40g oleum forms - 47.873g H2SO4
100g oleum forms =
= 119.63 H2SO4
Hence, the % of oleum is labelled as 119.68%
Amount, of water added to 100g oleum = 19.68g
as,. 18g of water reacts with 80g SO3.
Determination of available Cl2 in Bleaching powder :
Available Cl2 :
with excess of acid, bleaching powder liberates Cl2 which is called available chlorine.
Cl2 is liberated with CO2 also
Determination of available Cl2 in bleaching powder can be done by iodometric method.

Iodometric method :
The Cl2 liberated when bleaching powder is allowed to react with dil HCl or dil CH3COOH is known as
available chlorine.
For estimation of available chlorine, a weighed quantity of bleaching powder is treated with acetic acid and
KI and the Cl2 liberated reacts with KI and liberates equal equivalents of I2.
The amount of I2 liberated is estimated by treating with standard solution of sodium thiosulphate.
The reactions are as follows :
i)
ii)
iii)
Let wg bleaching powder is dissolved in Vml water V1 ml of this solution is treated with excess of
CH3COOH / KI and a few drops of KI are added in it.
The I2 liberated is titrated with N-hypo solution. At the end point, blue colour of solution disappears.
Let V2ml of hypo are used, then available Cl2 may be estimated as follows :
Amount of bleaching powder in Vml solution meq of Cl2 in V1 ml solution = meq of I2
= meq of hypo
= N x volume (in mL)
= n x M x V2
In VmL solution, meq of Cl2 =

In Vml, amount of Cl2 =
Cl2 obtained from wg bleaching powder =
Cl2 obtained from 100g bleaching powder =
% available Cl2 =
Commercial samples of bleaching powder have 33 - 38% Cl2.

CAP-79. 3.546g bleaching powder is dissolved in 100ml water. 25ml of this solution were treated with excess of
CH3COOH and KI and then treated with 0.125N hypo solution. In this titration, 25ml hypo were used.
Calculate the % of available Cl2 in this sample of bleaching powder.
Amount of bleaching powder (w) = 3.546g
Volume of solution (V) = 100mL
Volume of solution taken for titration (V1) = 25ml
Volume of hypo used (V2) = 25mL
Normaltiy of hypo solution (N) = 0.125
% of available Cl2 =
= 12.51%
Some important redox titrations in volumetry:

1. Estimation of Eq. mass of
2. Estimation of
Eq.mass of
3. Estimation of present in pyrolusite:
,
(or)
Eq. Mass of .
4. Estimation of available chlorine in bleaching powder: ,

; Eq: mass of
5. Estimation of , Eq.mass of
6. Estimation of ozone: ; Eq.mass of
7. Estimation of Eq. mass of

8. Estimation of Eq.mass of
9. Estimation Eq.mass of .
PART-9
(Significant Figures)
There is always some degree of uncertainty in every scientific measurement except in counting. The
uncertainty in measurement mainly depends upon two factors:
(i) Skill and accuracy of the observer,
(ii) Limitation of the measuring scale.
To indicate the precision of a measurement, scientists use the term significant figures. The significant
figures in a number are all the certain digits plus one doubtful digit. The number of significant figures gives
the information that except the digit at extreme right, all other digits are preciese or reproducible. For
example, mass of an object is 11.24g. This value indicates that actual mass of the object lies between
11.23g and 11.25g. Thus, one is sure of first three figures (1, 1 and 2) but the fourth figure is somewhat
inexact. The total significant figures in this number are four.
The following rules are observed in counting the number of significant figures in a given measured
quantity:
(i) All non-zero digits are significant. For example,
42.3 has three significant figures.
243.4 has four significant figures.
24.123 has five significant figures.
(ii) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between two non-zero digits. For example.
(iii) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are never significant. For example,
0.045 has two significant figures.
0.006 has one significant figures.
(iv) Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are significant. For example,
433.00 has five significant figures.
343.000 has six significant figures.
(v) In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number of significant figures. For example.
has three significant figures.
has three significant figures.
(vi) The non-significant figures in the measurement are rounded off.
(a) If the figure following the last number to be retained is less than 5, all the unwanted figures are
discarded and the last number is left unchanged, e.g.,
5.6724 is 5.67 to three significant figures.
(b) If the figure following the last number to be retained is great than 5, the last figure to be retained is
increased by 1 unit and the unwanted figures are discarded, e.g.,
8.6526 is 8.653 to four significant figures.
(c) If the figure following the last number to be retained is 5, the last figure is increased by 1 only in case it
happens to be odd. In case of even number the last figure remains unchanged.
2.3524 is 2.4 to two significant figures.
7.4511 is 7.4 to two significant figures.

Calculations Involving Significant Figures
In most of the experiments, the observations of various measurements are to be combined mathemati-
cally, i.e., added, subtracted, multiplied or divided as to achieve the final result. Since, all the observations in
measurements do not have the same precision, it is natural that the final result cannot be more precise than
the least precise measurement. The following two rules should be followed to obtain the proper number of
significant figures in any calculation.
Rule 1: The result of an addition or subtraction in the numbers having different precisions should be
reported to the same number of decimal places as are present in the number having the least number of
decimal places. The rule is illustrated by the following examples:
(a) 33.3 (has only one decimal place)
3.11
0.313
Sum 36.723 (answer should be reported to one decimal place)
Corret answer = 36.7
(b)3.1421
0.241
0.09 (has 2 decimal places)
Sum 3.4731 (answer should be reported to 2 decimal places)
Correct answer = 3.47
(c) 62.831 (has 3 decimal places)
-24.5492
Difference 38.2818 (answer should be reported to 3 decimla places after rounding off)
Rule 2: The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of significatnt figures as is
possessed by the least precise term used in the calculation.
Examples are:
(a) 142.06
x0.23 (two significant figures)
32.6738 (answer should have two significant figures)
Correct answer = 33
(b)51.028
x1.31 (three significant figures)
66.84668
(c)
Note: (i) Same procedure is followed if an expression involves multiplication as well as division.
(ii) The presence of exact numbers in an expression does not affect the number of significant figures in the
answer.
Examples are:
(a) (b)
Correct answer = 0.0556 Correct answer = 44.8
_____

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CHEMISTRYv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

Laws of Chemical combination :

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 1 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 2 ::

CAPS-4 : The % composition of NH3 , H2O and N2O3 is given below :

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 3 ::

40mL 5 x40mL 4 x40mL

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 4 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 5 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 6 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 7 ::

Given weight of the substance

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 8 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 9 ::

Mass of one mole Aluminium = 27 1.66 1024 6.023 1023 27g

number of CO 2 molecules number of Na atoms

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 11 ::

Sol : CaCl2 Ca 2 2Cl

111 g of CaCl2 contains - 3 NA of ions

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 12 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 13 ::

Compound Molecular Formula Empirical formula

Ethane C2H6 CH3

Two different compounds can have the same emperical formula.

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 14 ::

II. Estimation of Nitrogen :

ii) Kjeldhals method :

iv) Estimation of halogens (Carius method)

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 15 ::

127 weight of AgI

Element Percentage Relative Simplest

Empirical formula is C3H9N and E. F weight = 59

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 16 ::

% Mol .Mass 49.3 146

Element % At Relative Simplest

Mole 1mol 3mol 2mol

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 18 ::

73g HCl produce

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 20 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 21 ::

Sol : 2 NaOH H 2 SO4

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 22 ::

Sol: 2 mole . KMnO4 5 mol SO2 5 mol FeS 2

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 23 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 24 ::

Hence, % composition of the mixture is :

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 25 ::

This type of problems will be as similar as Stoichiometry.

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 26 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 28 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 29 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 30 ::

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 31 ::

Cl2 12OH 2ClO3 6 H 2O 10e (Oxidation)

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 32 ::

(iv) CO2 molecule

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 33 ::

Negative ligands: X , OH , NH 2 , NO3 , NO2 , C 2O 24 (ox), O 2 , O 22 ,SO 24 ,S2O32 , CNO , etc

Positive ligands: NO , NO 2 , etc .

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 34 ::

CN is a negative ligand CO is neutral ligand

Sr. INTER IIT-JEE MATERIAL :: 37 ::