Non-Destructive Testing Techniques

&
Its application

L&T Hydrocarbon Engineering

Viswanathan V
Manager R&D Centre
Materials Science & Corrosion Engg Group
L&T Hydrocarbon Engineering Limited
Powai, Mumbai 400 072
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 Why NDT?

Various NDT Techniques

Applications in various fields

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Making diagnostic measurements to obtain relevant information on the
state of a material, a structure, or a process, without in any way
decreasing its performance capabilities

Defect affects Equipment /

Machinery 3
 Safety

Residual
Aesthetics
Life
Defects

Decide to
Condition
repair or
Monitoring
replace
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 Sometimes the event, interaction or
affect is knowingly created.
For example, we send (transmit) a messenger (probing medium)
through the test object such as mechanical wave, electromagnetic
wave and we monitor the effect on the probing medium.

Sometimes, the event, interaction or

affect, present within the test object is
sensed to understand the condition of
test object.
For example, a vibrating body, a hot body generates its own
signal which is monitored and studied.
So, the Non-destructive Tests are always indirect 5
 The response or evidence from a Non Destructive
Examination is called Indication.

Interpretation of NDT indication, to know the cause of

indication, requires knowledge of NDT principle,
method, equipment, test object material, shape, size,
manufacturing/operating details etc.

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 NDT Procedure

Equipments,
NDT Accessories,
Personnel Reference
Blocks
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 Online
Offline
(Intrusive / Non intrusive)
Surface / Sub surface Volumetric defects
defects
Qualitative results Quantitative results
Based on Physico - Based on Mechanical /
chemical properties Metallurgical properties
Static application Dynamic application
Stand alone technique Combination of techniques
Non automated Automated
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 During Manufacture
Raw material inspection
Intermediary Component Inspection
Final Product Inspection

During Assembly
Clearance and Lubrication measurement

During Service
Condition Monitoring
Lube Cleanliness Monitoring
Damage evaluation and RLA
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Visual

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 Visual inspection precedes any NDT for localization
of problems
In visual testing main instrument is
Human Eye
The eye is an optical instrument with
many automatic adjustment that
allows it to adapt and provide sharp
vision at varying distance throughout
a range of varying intensities of light.

Based on prior Knowledge of manufacture or

operation
Besides unaided inspection, optical devices are
generally used
Boroscope, Videoscope etc.,
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 Excessive
Abrasion type
wear

Fatigue Failure

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 Fiberscopes & Videoscopes provide very high
resolution 3D imaging of remote inaccessible
locations

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History :
The oil and whiting method - railroad industry
in the early 1900's.

By the 1940's, fluorescent or visible dye was

added to the oil used to penetrate test objects.

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 Applicable for surface open defects

Not suitable for porous material

Surface cleaning is very critical for effective

testing

Cannot find depth of flaw

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 Basic Principle is Capillary action
LPT method mainly depends on the wetting characteristics of
the Liquid (Penetrates) which is either colored or having a
fluorescent compound.

Penetrant wetting characteristics/ Quality:

Completely wet the test surface
Form a thin coat on the surface
Seeps in to the small discontinuity

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Capillary action or capillarity (also known as capillary motion) is the ability
of a narrow tube to draw a liquid upwards against the force of gravity. It
occurs when the adhesive intermolecular forces between the liquid and a
solid are stronger than the cohesive intermolecular forces within the
liquid. The effect causes a concave meniscus to form where the liquid is in
contact with a vertical surface.

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 Pre cleaning

Penetrant
Application
Penetrant
Dwell time
Excess Penetrant
removal

Drying

Developer
Application
Developer
Dwell time
Examine 22
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Surface Preparation Application of Penetrant

Application of Developer 24
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 Magnetic lines of force get distorted at
orthogonal cracks or discontinuities
Magnetic leakage flux depends on orientation
and size of defects
Contact or Non-contact magnetization
Direct current magnetization Subsurface
defects
Delineation of defects through dry powder or
florescent particles dispersed in water
Demagnetization post inspection

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 Effects of changing magnetic field manifests as eddy
current
Cracks / section changes modify eddy currents
Surface / sub surface inspection possible depending on
frequency of alternating current used for excitation
Depends on shape, dimension, composition, heat
treatment, hardness, grain size, Electrical conductivity
and magnetic permeability of material
Impedance and phase lag are measured
Used for detecting surface cracks, coating thickness
measurement, assessment of heat damage, corrosion
loss.
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Radiography is one of the branches of Radiology, which deals
with utilization of penetrating radiations for Engineering, Scientific and
Medical applications.

Radiographic Testing is based on principle of Differential Absorption

of Penetration Radiation
Penetration Radiation:
Particulate Radiation Neutrons, Protons
Electromagnetic Radiation X-Rays, Gamma Rays

Generally 2% difference in transmitted radiation can be easily

monitored.

When transmitted radiation is monitored by photography film, it is

calledFilm Radiography or simply Radiography.
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 The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.

X-ray film The film darkness (density) will vary

with the amount of radiation reaching
the film through the test object.

= less exposure

Top view of developed film = more exposure

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The amount of transmitted radiation across the test object may
vary as per the internal structure/degree of homogeneousness of
the object material.
Variation in the intensity of transmitted radiation can be:
Monitored by radiation detectors

Recorded on a photographic film

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Radiography Testing is being done by
X- Ray or Gamma Rays
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL: When the ratio of proton and neutron exceeds to 1.5,
the nucleus of atom get unstable. It will start emit alpha, beta particle and
gamma radiation , this emission process is known as disintegration or decay and
the material having unstable nuclei is known as radioactive material.

RADIOACTIVITY: The rate at which a radioactive isotope decays is used as a

measure of radioactivity.

The unit of radioactivity is: Disintegration per second (dps)= Becquerel

1 dps = 1 Bq = .027027x 10-9 Ci

X-Ray: mili amperage (mA) applied to filament

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 Gamma Radiation Optimum
Isotope Half life Energy Output Working Steel
M eV Ci Thickness (mm)

192 Ir 77 74.4 D 0.296 to 0.55 10 60

0.613

60 Co 27 5.27 Y 1.17 & 1.3 40-200

1.33

170Tm69 127 D 0.052 to 0.0025 2 10

0.084

137Cs55 33 Y 0.66 0.34 50 125

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The energy of X-Ray or Gamma Ray is measured in
electron Volts (eV)

An electron volt is an amount of energy equal to the energy

gained by one electron when it is accelerated by one volt

In case of radioisotopes, Gamma Rays having one or more

specific energies are emitted

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The two most important distinguishing features of a beam of
X-rays and - rays are its INTENSITY & QUALITY.

The first refers to the quantity of radiation (INTENSITY).

The second refers to the penetration ability of the radiation

and is often expressed in terms of wavelengths/energy
(QUALITY).

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The orientation of the discontinuity with respect to the
radiation beam also affects its recording. The major dimension
of the discontinuity should be parallel to the radiation beam.

Laminations do not cast an image on the radiograph.

Tight crack and Lack of fusion oriented at an angle to the radiation

beam is often missed.The radiation beam should pass through the
opening of the crack for reliable recording.
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SWSI (Single Wall Single Image)

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Attaching successive radiographic films for panoramic set up.

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Double wall single image recording of cross
country pipeline weld using an X Ray unit.

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 Porosity
Crack

Cluster Porosity

Slag Inclusion

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 Incomplete or Lack of
Penetration

Lack of Fusion

Internal Undercut

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 External Undercut

Offset or Mismatch

Long & Transv Cracks

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 Tungsten Inclusion

Oxide Inclusion

Burn Through

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Digital radiography
Viewing of image directly on reusable plates
Post processing of image for enhancement possible
Computed Tomography
Three dimensional viewing of objects and its cut
sections either by rotation of source - detector
system or object
Neutron Radiography
Neutron absorption depends on atomic number
Provides better contrast for organic materials
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 Piezoelectric crystals produce longitudinal / transverse
mechanical waves (Ultrasonic waves : 0.1-15MHz)
Sound waves travel at different velocities in different
material medium
Reflection, transmission & mode conversion at material
boundaries depend on change in ultrasonic impedance
Wave - material interactions & time of travel are used
characterizing material discontinuities
Ultrasonic waves weaken with scattering & multiple
reflections
Couplants provide sound path between transducer and
the material medium
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 Transducer
Initial
Pulse

Front surface

Interface of Sample
interest

Back surface

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 Sizing done as per pre calibration on standard blocks
Through transmission techniques
Access to both surfaces are available
Pulse Echo technique
Transmitter & receiver on same side
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
Advantages of UT:
Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement
superior to other NDT
Highly accurate in estimating size & shape.
Minimal part preparation is required
Provides instantaneous results with detailed imaging in
automated systems
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 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very
small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect
Cast iron & other coarse grained materials are
difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission
and high signal noise
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam
may go undetected
Reference standards are required for both
equipment calibration and the characterization of
flaws
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 Non-destructive evaluation of microstructure
Involves metallographic preparation followed
by etching
Microstructural examination using Portable
lightweight microscopes at site upto a
magnification of 400X
Microstructure transferred on to cellulose
acetate replica for high magnification studies
under SEM / TEM in laboratory
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 Elements in alloys produces characteristic x-rays
XRF analyzers determine composition by measuring
spectrum of characteristic x-ray emitted by different
elements when illuminated by x-rays.
X-rays are emitted either from a miniaturized x-ray
tube or from a sealed capsule of radioactive material
Simultaneous measurement of fluorescent x-rays of
different elements in the sample their relative
concentrations are reported
Hand held light weight units for quick alloy sorting and
alloy analysis
No vacuum or inert medium required 65
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 Pseudo NDT techniques require sampling or
assessment of components with insignificant damage
Material damage or removal don't affect the
performance of the part
Portable hardness testers are generally used to
measure the metallurgical health
Both Indentation and rebound hardness testers leave
surface indentation of the order of microns
Based on hardness a rough estimation of tensile
properties can be made
Hardness also reflects the metallurgical state of the
component 68
 Portable Automated Ball
Indentation (PABI)
Repeated & load
controlled indentation of
material
Evaluation of strain
hardening behavior
around indentation
Flow curve of material
can be obtained
Assess material
properties of piping and
plates
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 NDT techniques are capable of macro to micro level
investigations

NDT techniques when used in tandem can provide

complete information on the equipments health or
process upsets

Predictive maintenance & Life extension of

components invariably require appropriate NDT
technique to be incorporated as a monitoring tool
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