CHE 2161

Fluid Mechanics

Lab Report Flow Measurements

1.0 Abstract

In the given experiment, the Bernoulli equation was tested along with the mass continuity principle. In
order to successfully show how well the two principles hold within the limits of this experiment, the
volumetric flow rate had to be calculated; and the ratio of actual flow rate to ideal flow rate, otherwise
known as the discharge coefficient, had to be verified. Upon comparison however, it was observed that
Bernoullis equation cannot be used to determine the flow rate accurately, as the processed data for the
Reynolds number and discharge coefficient did not fall within the specified literature value data range.
This deviation could be due to errors that accumulated during the experiment. Some of the common
errors may have included human error when timing and parallax error when taking readings, causing
the fluctuations in the results; also energy losses and frictional losses within the system, and changes
in fluid properties.

2.0 Introduction

There are various methods of measuring volumetric the flow rate flow rate. In this experiment, four
instrumental methods are carried out Didacta Italia Rig. The four methods are orifice plate, turbine flow
meter, venture tube and rotameter.

The theories behind the flow meters are conservation of mass and the Bernoulli equation. From
conservation of mass, we understand that the reduction of cross sectional area will cause an increase
of velocity. From the Bernoulli equation, we know this will lead to an increase in pressure. The Bernoulli
1
equation is V 2 P gz constant .
2

2.1 Description of flow measurement techniques:

1. Orifice plate
In this method, there is a sudden decrease in the cross sectional area of the pipe. This causes
increase in the velocity of the fluid, thereafter causing decrease in pressure, as described in the
theories above. The orifice plate is accurate and the cost of the instrument is low when compared
to other instruments. However, this method can only work with homogenous liquids and under
axial velocity vector flow.

2. Turbine Flow Meter

The turbine flow meter uses a bladed rotor suspended in the pipe. As the fluid flows through the
pipe, the rotor spins at a rate proportional to the fluids velocity. One limitation of turbine flow
meters is the fact that can only operate with clean, low-viscosity, non- corrosive fluids. The
upside is that turbine meters can operate in a wide range of temperatures and pressures.

3. Venturi Tube
The venture tube has a gradual contraction, followed by a gradual expansion. The principle used
is the same as an orifice plate. One drawback of using a venture meter to measure flow rate is
that they are heavy and maintenance is not easy. However, they do allow larger pressure drops.
 4. Rotameter
The rotameter consists of a tube and a float. The float response to flow rate is linear. An
advantage of the rotameter is it does not require any external power or fuel. This is because it
uses the properties of fluid along with gravity to measure flow rate. A disadvantage of using a
rotameter is that since it uses gravity, it must always be vertical and the right way up.

2.2 Practical applications

1. Airplanes have a pitot tube attached to them to measure the speed of the aircraft
2. Race cars such as Formula 1 cars use the theory of Bernoullis equation to allow the car to be on
the ground at very high speeds.
3. Carburetors found in cars and other motorized machines have a venturi meter to maintain low
pressure so as to let fuel in.
4. Venturi meters are used in plumbing as well. They are used in wastewater collection systems
and treatment plants because their design allow solids to pass through.

3.0 Experimental Procedure

Mercury manometer Water manometer

Water collection tank

Orifice plate
Rotary vane meter

Venturi tube

Figure 3.1 Didacta Italia rig

1. Set up apparatus as shown in the figure

2. Adjust flow rate until suitable to carry out the experiment (scale from 1-10)
3. Allow water to flow slightly before turning on the pump
4. Turn the tap to maximum until water fills the pipes, orifice plate and venturi tube
5. Stop water flowing out and measure the time taken for water to fill a predetermined volume of
the tank using a stopwatch
6. Record the heights (h1 and h2) of the fluid in the water manometer for the orifice plate and the
fluid in the mercury manometer for the venturi tube
7. Repeat steps 2-6 at least 7 times for varying flow rates

4.0 Results
Using continuity:
m 1 = m 2
1 A1 v1 = 2 A2 v2

Assumption: Incompressible fluid flow (1 = 2 )

2
D v1 = 4 d2 v2
4

= ................................................................... (1)
Using Bernoulli equation:
Assumption: Steady, incompressible fluid flow, inviscid flow (no viscosity), with no work done by or on
the fluid.
1 1
P1 + 2 v12 + gh1 = P2 + 2 v22 + gh2 (h1 h2 )
1 1
P1 + 2 v12 = P2 + 2 v22

= [ ] ................................................................. (2)

Substitute [1] in [2]

2
2(P1 P2 )
[( ) 1] v12 = w

( )
=
(( ) )

( )
Therefore, = =
................................................................. (3)

(( ) )

Calculations for Orifice plate Calculation for Venturi tube

(P1 P2 ) = (water air )x g x |h| (P1 P2 ) = (mercury water )x g x |h|
air = 1.23 kg/m3 mercury = 13000kg/m3
water = 998kg/m3 water = 998kg/m3
D = 50mm , d = 20mm v1,venturi = QIdeal /A1
v1,orifice = QIdeal /A1 D = 20mm , d = 10mm
Re = (v1,orifice water D)/water Re = (v1,venturi water D)/water

To determine the QActual 6L of water was collected in a time period. =

Discharge coefficient, =

Orifice Plate
0.66
Discharged Coefficient ,Cd

0.64
0.62
0.6
0.58
0.56
0.54 Figure 4.1: Graph of the Discharge Coefficient
0.52 vs The Reynolds Number for the Orifice Plate
0.5
0.48
0 5000 10000 15000

Reynolds Number ,Re

 Venturi Tube
0.86
Discharged Coefficient ,Cd

0.84
0.82
0.8
0.78
Figure 4.2: Graph of the Discharge Coefficient
0.76
vs The Reynolds Number for the Venturi Tube
0.74
0.72
0.7
0.68
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000

Reynolds Number ,Re

Rotameter reading vs Actual flowrate

0.45
Rotameter Reading (10-3 m3/s)

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45

Actual flow ((10-3 m3/s)

Figure 4.3: Graph of the Rotameter versus the actual flow

5.0 Discussion
5.0.1 Comparison of Processed Data to Literature Values
During the experiment it was noted that the ratio of the diameter of the throat to that of the upstream
was 0.4. Also as per table A3, given in the appendices of this report, the results for the orifice plate can
be summarized as data ranges of 2366 to 10412 for the Reynolds number, and 0.49 to 0.64 for the
discharge coefficient.

We noted down the literature value from a graph taken from Munsons Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics plotting the Discharge Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number for an Orifice Plate, and we noted
that for a ratio of the throat diameter to the upstream of 0.4, the Reynolds number ranged from 104 to
105 and the discharge coefficient ranged from 0.60 to 0.61.

Upon comparison between the literature value and the results we noticed that the processed data range
of 0.49<Re < 0.60 and 0.61<Re < 0.64 for the discharged coefficient, and the values for the Reynolds
number do not corroborate the expected results and this can be attributed to experimental errors which
will be discussed in detail in the latter part of this discussion.
Also, we can explain the vast difference in the range of values for the discharge coefficient by mechanical
theory. The discharge coefficient for the orifice plate is dependent upon the ratio of the diameter of the
throat to the diameter of the upstream as well as its shape and size. During the experiment the water
was pumped through the tube and was forced through the orifice plate. Before the restoring region
there existed a vortex form; a spiral of water entering the restoring region. This vortex leads to energy
losses when the water is travelling through the tube. To offset the energy losses an orifice plate of
greater diameter was used which resulted in a smaller vortex being formed, and hence there was a
smaller magnitude of energy loss as compared to the orifice plate with a smaller diameter. However
due to this increased diameter the volumetric flow rate / velocity of the water will be significantly
higher, resulting in the discharge volume per unit time to be greater. Therefore it can be inferred from
the aforementioned statement that the discharge coefficient is expected to increase and will be higher
than the literature value.

The processed data results for the Venturi meter as given in table A4 in the appendices of this report
can be summarized as data ranges of 0.70 to 0.84 for the discharge coefficient and 5915 to 26030 for
the Reynolds number.

We noted down the literature value from a graph taken from Munsons Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics plotting the Discharge Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number for a Venturi Meter, and we noted
that the Reynolds number ranged from 104 to 105 and the discharge coefficient ranged from 0.94 to
0.98.

Upon comparison between the literature value and the results, we notice that the processed data for
the Reynolds number and discharge coefficient does not fall within the specified literature value data
range.

This discrepancy may be attributed to the fact that the discharge coefficient depends on the geometry
of the Venturi meter, and that there may have been energy losses to the systems surroundings. More
specifically, the steeper the slope of the wall of the Venturi tube the more energy is required to force
the water to travel across it. Hence more energy is lost for a Venturi tube with a steeper slope. Also, the
steeper slope will result in a decrease in the discharge coefficient due to a decrease in the volume of
water being discharged. However a bigger throat diameter counteracts the effects of the steeper slope
and hence there is an overall increase in the discharge coefficient as seen in the results.

5.0.2 Errors
In the duration of this experiment many errors were encountered which include random and systematic
errors.

A random error that occurred was parallax error due to the observers incorrect measurement when
using the instruments provided. This error can be offset by conducting more trials or more pertinently,
in this case, taking more readings. Another random error that was encountered was when the observer
was recording the time; the human reaction time delays when starting and stopping the stop watch. In
order to overcome this error we used the actual recorded time to calculate V, and factored in the human
reaction time of 0.2 seconds into our calculations.

Some systematic errors that took place when obtaining the raw data, was when taking measurements
for the Venturi meter and Orifice plate. The reading of the manometer was not precise as the fluids were
fluctuating. This led to difficulties in reading for the mercury and the water manometer in order to
calculate delta h. To increase the accuracy and precision of this exercise / observer measurement, a
camera capturing the fluctuations should have been installed to capture the readings.
6.0 Conclusion

In the duration of this experiment, various instruments were used to collect raw data and process this
data to calculate the volumetric flow rates. However, the data that which was collected from each
instrument yielded different results as compared to the expected flow rate (Bernoullis Principle was
employed to calculate the value of the ideal volumetric flow rate), which can be owed to uncertainties
that arose due to experimental errors.

7.0 Refereces

1. Munson, Young, Okiishi 2007, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition. pp. 513-516

2. http://www.kellyaerospace.com/articles/Accessory_AMT.pdf [Accessed: 13.09. 2013]

3. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pitot-tubes-d_612. [Accessed: 13.09. 2013]

4. http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-3-Physics-Vol-
1/Bernoulli-s-Principle-Real-life-applications.html#b [Accessed: 13.09. 2013]
Appendices

Appendix I: Raw Data

Table A1: Set of values measured during the experiment

No Scale Measurement Orifice Plate, Water Venturi Tube, Rotameter

(Actual Flow Rate) Manometer D=50mm, Mercury (m3/h)
d=20mm Manometer

Volume (L) Time h1(cm) h2(cm) h1(cm) h2(cm)

(s)
1 6.0 14.6 29.5 8.7 7.4 22.2 1.5
2 6.0 14.56 29.1 8.6 7.4 22.2 1.5
3 6.0 15.63 26.3 8.6 8.5 21 1.4
4 6.0 18.46 21 8 10.2 19.3 1.2
5 6.0 22.37 15.4 6.7 11.5 17.9 0.9
6 6.0 27.59 10.7 5 12.7 16.9 0.8
7 6.0 36.59 6 2.6 13.6 16 0.6
8 6.0 64.25 1.8 0 14.3 15.4 0.3

Appendix II: Calculated Values

Table A2: Results of the volumetric flow rate for the Rotameter and the actual flow rate.

Rotameter
Qactual
Qrotameter
(m3/h) (m3/s) (x10-3) (m3/s) (x10-3)
1.5 0.416666667 0.402
1.5 0.416666667 0.379
1.4 0.388888889 0.344
1.2 0.333333333 0.318
0.9 0.25 0.297
0.8 0.222222222 0.281
0.6 0.166666667 0.252
0.3 0.083333333 0.219
Table A3: Values Calculated for the Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate, Water Manometer
h1 Vorifice Qideal Reynolds Discharge
h2 (m) h (m) P (Pa)
(m) (m/s) x10-3 (m3/s) Number, Re Coefficient, CD
0.295 0.087 0.208 2033.889 0.2092996 0.0006425 10412.814 0.639593047

0.291 0.086 0.205 2004.554 0.2098746 0.0006379 10441.42063 0.646025933

0.263 0.086 0.177 1730.762 0.1955070 0.0005927 9726.620881 0.647653395

0.21 0.08 0.13 1271.181 0.1655349 0.00050797 8235.486694 0.639859886

0.154 0.067 0.087 850.7133 0.1366015 0.00041555 6796.025229 0.645450062

0.107 0.05 0.057 557.3639 0.1107566 0.00033636 5510.224153 0.646545553

0.06 0.026 0.034 332.4627 0.0835139 0.00025978 4154.880688 0.631228195

0.018 0 0.018 176.0096 0.0475607 0.00018901 2366.180302 0.494059066

Table A4: Values Calculated for the Venturi Meter

Venturi Meter, Mercury Manometer

Reynolds
Vorifice Qideal Discharge
h1 (m) h2 (m) h (m) P (Pa) Number,
(m/s) x10-3 (m3/s) Coefficient, CD
Re
0.074 0.222 0.148 18296.59 1.3081228 0.0004912 26032.035 0.8366798

0.074 0.222 0.148 18296.59 1.3117165 0.0004912 26103.552 0.83897836

0.085 0.21 0.125 15453.2 1.2219189 0.0004514 24316.552 0.85041127

0.102 0.193 0.091 11249.93 1.0345933 0.0003851 20588.717 0.84389924

0.115 0.179 0.064 7912.04 0.8537592 0.0003230 16990.063 0.83039939

0.127 0.169 0.042 5192.276 0.6922288 0.0002617 13775.560 0.83112557

0.136 0.16 0.024 2967.015 0.5219620 0.0001978 10387.202 0.82903899

0.143 0.154 0.011 1359.882 0.2972543 0.0001340 5915.4508 0.69738647

Appendix III: Sample calculation for Orifice plate (D=50mm, d=20mm)

Reading 1: H1=29.5mm H2=8.7mm Volume=6L Time=14.6s

Referring to the table

(P1 P2 ) = (water air )x g x |h|
(P1 P2 ) = (998 1.23)x 9.81 x |0.208m| = 2033.889

By using the equation 3

D2 2(P1 P2 )
QIdeal = v1 A1 = D 4
4
w (( d ) 1)

0.052 2(2033.889) 3
QIdeal = v1 A1 = 4 998((0.05)4 1) = 0.0006425 m s
0.02

Volume collected 0.006m3

QActual = = = 0.0004109 m3 s
time 14.6

Q Actual 0.0004109
Discharge coefficient, Cd = = 0.0006425 = 0.6396
Q Ideal

QIdeal 0.0006425
vOrifice = = = 0.2093m/s
A1 0.001964

v1,orifice water D 0.20939980.05

Re = = = 10412.6
water 0.001003

Appendix IV: Imported Graphs

Figure A5: Graph of the Discharge Coefficient Figure A6: Graph of the Discharge Coefficient
vs Reynolds number for the venturi meter vs Reynolds number for the Orifice