5 Catering operations, costs and
menu planning
In this chapter you will learn how to:
1. understand the organisation of kitchens,
including:
the importance of layout and workflow
job roles, the staffing hierarchy and the partie system
2. know how to plan and prepare menus:
the factors to be considered
the technical terminology used
The organisation of the kitchen
Effective organisation will help a kitchen to run
efficiently. An efficiently run kitchen will prepare
and cook the right amount of high-quality food for
the required number of people, on time, making
the most effective use of staff, ingredients and
equipment.
Menus and the systems
Regardless of the size of the organisation, the
most important factors in its success will be
the menu and the systems used to prepare and
present the food.
A kitchen with a large brigade of chefs can offer
an extensive menu as long as the majority of
the mise en place (preparation prior to service)
is carried out during the day. The food can be
kept refrigerated until it is needed at service
time. If an establishment has a finishing kitchen,
the final preparation and presentation of many
foods (fish, meat, vegetables, potatoes, pasta and
eggs) can be completed quickly and efficiently
(by sauting, grilling, deep frying, and so on) just
before they are served, so the dishes are served
to the customer quickly and freshly cooked. The
design of the finishing kitchen is important and
needs to include refrigerated cabinets for holding
perishable foods, adequate cooking facilities and
bain-marie space for holding sauces, etc.
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3. understand basic costs and apply basic
calculations, including:
using calculator and manual methods
gross and net profit
the factors which must be monitored to control food
costs and profit
calculating the food cost of dishes and determining the
food cost per portion
determining selling prices at specific percentages of
gross and net profit.
Restaurants that provide a limited menu, such as
steak houses, can employ fewer staff to cope with
large numbers of customers, if they are organised
well. The required standard can still be reached
because few skills are needed. Nevertheless,
whether producing grilled steaks or pancakes,
the staff have to be organised and work in a
systematic way so that the flow of work is smooth.
Other types of establishment, such as schools,
hospitals, airlines and department stores, also
have to produce large amounts of food to be
served at the same time. In order to achieve this,
the catering staff have to be well organised,
and supplied with large-scale preparation and
production equipment and the means to finish
dishes quickly. There has to be a good system in
place for the preparationproductionfreezing
or chillingreheat cycle, so that staff can simply
reheat or finish the foods just before service. It is
essential that very high standards of hygiene are
maintained in situations that use a system of deep
freezing or chilling and reheating.
Organisation and layout of the kitchen
As the costs of space, equipment, fuel,
maintenance and labour are continually going up,
considerable time, thought and planning must be
given to the organisation and layout of kitchen
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 88 Practical Cookery for Level 2 vrq
systems. The requirements of the kitchen have
to be clearly identified with regard to the type of
food that is to be prepared, cooked and served.
The working areas and the different types of
equipment available must be thought through
carefully, and the organisation of the kitchen
personnel must be planned.
In the late nineteenth century, when labour was
relatively cheap, skilled and plentiful, the public
wanted elaborate and extensive menus. In
response to this, Auguste Escoffier, one of the
most respected chefs of his era, devised what
is known as the partie system, in which different
sections of the kitchen were delegated to carry
out specific jobs, such as preparing or cooking the
fish, meat or vegetables. This system is still used
in many establishments today. The number of
parties (different areas) required, and the number
of staff in each, will depend on the size of the
establishment.
ACTIVITY
Describe in a sentence why a kitchen needs to be well organised.
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With a sound knowledge of fresh, part-prepared
and ready prepared foods, together with an
understanding of kitchen equipment and planning,
a kitchen can be organised economically and
efficiently. Even with two similar kitchens, the
internal organisation is likely to vary, as each
person in charge will have their own way of
running their kitchen. However, everyone working
in the system should know what he or she has to
do, and how and when to do it.
The kitchen organisation will vary according to
the size and type of establishment. Obviously
the organisation of a kitchen with 100 chefs
preparing banquets for up to 1000 people and a
lunch and dinner service for 300 customers with
an la carte menu and floor service, will be quite
different from that of a small restaurant serving
30 table dhte lunches, or a full-view coffee shop,
a speciality restaurant with a busy turnover or a
hospital kitchen.
A tidy and organised
kitchen promotes
efficiency and good
hygiene
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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 89

Staffing hierarchy and good working relationships

Teamwork is essential to develop good working Head chef

relationships and improve efficiency and
productivity.
Sous chef

The organisation of the staffing hierarchy depends Chef de partie (sectional chefs)
on the establishment. A large hotel or restaurant
will have a head chef or executive head chef
Commis chefs
with one or two sous chefs, who deputise for the

head chef. They may also run a department for
example, the pastry chef may also be the sectional Apprentices
chef, chef de partie and one of the sous chefs.
and kitchen assistants working under them. A
The chef de partie is in charge of a section such
centralised kitchen is one that serves a number
as sauces or vegetables. There may also be a
of different outlets, and the food is transported to
demi chef de partie, who works on the opposite
these outlets usually chilled or frozen. Each outlet
shift to the chef de partie. There will also be a
will have a satellite or finishing kitchen where the
number of assistant chefs (e.g. commis chefs), and
food is finished and made ready to serve to the
there could be apprentices and trainees. The latter
customer.
will move from section to section to complete their
training. Today, kitchens are organised in many different
ways but, in each case, a senior member of staff
Kitchen porters will also be employed, and in
will be responsible for the smooth operation of the
large establishments a kitchen clerk or personal
kitchen. This person must have leadership skills,
assistant to the chef will be employed to assist
human resource management skills and detailed
with paperwork.
product knowledge. In order to achieve an efficient
In other establishments, such as hospitals and and effective system that satisfies customers
centralised kitchens, a kitchen manager will take needs, it is important to work as a team and
charge of the kitchen and have a number of cooks develop good working relationships in the kitchen

Head Chef

Senior Sous Chef

Sous Chef Sous Chef Sous Chef Senior Pastry Chef

Chef de Partie Chef de Partie Chef de Partie Pastry Chef
Sauce/meat Fish/soup Larder Commis Chef
Demi Chef de Partie Vegetables Demi Chef de Partie Apprentice
Commis Chefs Demi Chef de Partie Commis Chef Porter
Apprentice Commis Chef
Porter Kitchen Assistants
Example of a kitchen brigade for a 4-star deluxe hotel: 300 rooms, 1 fine-dining restaurant (50 covers), 1 brasserie restaurant
(80 covers), banqueting (up to 200 covers)

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 90 Practical Cookery for Level 2 vrq

and with the food service staff. This will also

contribute to high staff morale and will improve
Chef Patron
the productivity of staff.

Apprentice (trainee) General Assistant

or Commis

Example of a kitchen brigade for a 30-seater restaurant

Working Chef

Chef for cold work and sweets Chef for hot fish, meat and Chef for soups, eggs, pasta and
poultry vegetables

Apprentice Apprentice General Assistant General Assistant

(trainee) (trainee)

Example of a kitchen brigade for a restaurant kitchen serving 6080 meals a day

Chef

Pastry Chef Larder Chef Main dishes Soups, vegetables, etc.

Apprentice (trainee) General assistant General assistant

Example of a kitchen brigade for an industrial catering kitchen

Chef

Sauce, roast, fish Vegetables, soups, etc. Larder Chef Pastry Chef

Commis Commis Commis Commis

General Assistant Apprentice (trainee) Apprentice (trainee) General Assistant

Example of a kitchen brigade for the kitchen of a commercial hotel or restaurant

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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 91

Head chef: has overall responsibility for the organisation and management of the kitchen, including
staffing, training, menus, budget control and sourcing of food.
Sous chef: is the deputy to the head chef and would take overall responsibility in the head chefs
absence. The sous chef may also have specific areas of responsibility, such as food safety, health and
safety, quality control or training of staff.
Chef de partie: is in charge of a specific section within the kitchen, such as meat, vegetables or fish.
There may be a demi chef de partie working on an opposite shift and covering days off. Commis chefs
and apprentices usually work with these chefs in different sections.
Commis chef: is the junior chef in the kitchen and works under overall supervision of the sous chef. A
commis chef will work around the various kitchen sections.
Apprentice: is similar to a commis chef and will complete similar tasks but is usually on a planned
programme of learning, often managed by a college or training provider.

ACTIVITY

1 How can the layout of the kitchen you work in be improved?

2 Think of a successful team. Say why you think it is successful and what you could learn from this
teams success.

Planning a kitchen

Different establishments will have different
requirements for their kitchens. The most
important factor to consider is the menu that
is going to be offered, which will determine the
amount of space and type of equipment you will
need (known as operational requirements) in order
to produce the food the customers are going to
buy.
Equipment and layout
Properly planned layouts with adequate
equipment, tools and materials to do the job are
essential if practical work is to be carried out
efficiently. If equipment is in the right place then
work will proceed smoothly and in the proper
sequence, without back-tracking or criss-crossing.
Work surfaces, sinks, stores and refrigerators
should be within easy reach in order to avoid
unnecessary walking.
Food deliveries should have a separate entrance
because of the risk of contamination. It is also a
good idea to have a separate staff entrance to the
kitchen and, for food safety reasons, it is essential
to have separate changing facilities for employees
wherever possible they should not have to use
customer facilities.
The layout of the preparation areas (for
vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, etc.) is
also important. In large catering establishments
the preparation areas will be zoned to assist
with the workflow. The flow of work through the
kitchen and serving areas is essential to the
smooth running of any operation. Where possible,
the layout of the kitchen should focus on a linear
workflow.
Effective workflow will:
help to establish good communication between
departments
improve efficiency
improve the quality of the finished product
reduce the risk of accidents
promote good health and safety and food
safety,
all of which will provide a better service to customers.

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 92 Practical Cookery for Level 2 vrq

Table 5.1 An example of a job description: senior sous chef

Reporting to head chef Personal specification: senior sous chef

The senior sous chef position reports to the head chef Qualifications
and is responsible for the day-to-day kitchen operation, Level 3 /Level 4 qualification
overseeing the stores, preparation and production
Experience
areas. The position involves supervising and managing
the kitchen staff, with direct responsibility for rostering Five years experience in four- and five-star hotel
and scheduling production. In the absence of the head kitchens; restaurant and banqueting experience
chef, the senior sous chef will be required to take Skills
on the duties of the head chef and to attend senior Proficiency in culinary arts
management meetings in his or her absence.
Microsoft Excel, Access, Word
Duties
Operation of inventory control software
Monitor and check stores operation
Written and oral communication skills
Train new and existing staff in health and safety,
HACCP (hazard analysis critical and control point), Team-building skills
etc. Knowledge
Chair the Kitchen Health and Safety Committee Current health and safety legislation
Develop new menus and concepts together with Food hygiene
senior management HACCP
Schedule and maintain accurate records of staff Risk assessment
absences
Production systems
Maintain accurate kitchen records
Current technology
Be responsible for the overall cleanliness of the
Other attributes
kitchen operation
Honesty
Assist in the production of management reports
Reliability
Establish an effective and efficient team
Attention to detail
Assist with the overall establishment and monitoring
of budget Initiative
Roster all kitchen staff Accuracy
Conditions Essential
Grade 3 management spine Basic computer skills
Private health insurance High degree of culinary skills
Five-day week Good communication skills
20 days holiday Supervisory and leadership skills
Profit-share scheme after one years service Desirable
Knowledge of employment law
Public relations profile

Kitchen layout Other factors to consider

Chefs and managers are often asked to assist
Remember: in the design of food service systems. There are
health and safety various factors that influence the planning and
food safety design of a kitchen, including:
time and motion (workflow). the size and extent of the menu and the market
it serves
services gas, electricity and water
labour skill level of staff

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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 93

PRODUCT FLOW Food store Avoid backtracking

and cross-over, e.g.
cooked food entering
preparation areas

WORK FLOW Cold room Cold room Cold room Changing rooms

Hand wash

Preparation areas
e.g. meat fish vegetables Waste

Hand wash Hand wash

Pot wash

Dish washing
Hand wash

Food service Waste

Example of linear workflow

amount of capital expenditure, costs Services

use of prepared convenience foods
types of equipment available
hygiene and the Food Safety Acts and
Regulations (see Chapter 2)
design and decor
multi-usage requirements.
The size and extent of the menu
If possible all designs should be market-led.
Before a kitchen is planned, the management
must know its goals and objectives what it is
aiming to achieve. In other words, what market
is it aiming at (e.g. fine dining, gastro pub), what
style of operation is it going to run (e.g. traditional,
modern contemporary, silver service, plate
service) and what type of food and prices will the
customers expect? Management will have found
out answers to these questions by carrying out
market research, and this will determine the menu.
They also need to know the number of customers
they intend to cater for at each service.
The designer must know, when planning the layout
of the kitchen, where the services (gas, electricity,
water) are located. The designer must make sure
that the layout of the kitchen uses the services in
the most efficient way.
Labour and skill level
How many and what kind of people does the
company intend to employ? This will have an
effect on the technology and equipment that is
installed. For example, will they employ fewer,
unspecialised staff and a lot of pre-prepared food,
or more skilled people and a traditional partie
system that makes dishes with entirely fresh
ingredients. Whichever system they choose will
affect the overall kitchen design.
Amount of capital expenditure
There will be a detailed budget for most kitchen
designs. It is not always possible, and is not a good
idea, to design a kitchen and then worry about how
much it will cost. The money available (the finance)
will very often determine the overall design.

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 94 Practical Cookery for Level 2 vrq
Because space is at a premium (property is
expensive and the best use possible needs to
be made of the space), kitchens are generally
becoming smaller. Equipment is therefore being
designed to cater for this trend, becoming more
modular and streamlined and generally able to fit
into less space. Equipment is also being designed
to be easy to use, maintain and clean, because
labour is a significant cost and the best use needs
to be made of peoples time.
Use of prepared convenience foods
A kitchen preparing a fast-food menu using
prepared convenience food will be planned and
equipped very differently from an la carte or
cookchill kitchen. Certain factors must be taken
into consideration:
Will sweets and pastries be made?
Will there be a need for a larder or a butcher?
Will fresh or frozen food be used, or a
combination of both?
Types of equipment available
The type, amount and size of the equipment will
depend on the type of menu being provided. The
equipment must be located in the right place.
When planning a kitchen, standard symbols are
used for the different equipment. A scale design
can be produced on squared paper and these
symbols can be included to show where each
piece of equipment will be located. Hand-washing
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facilities and storage of cleaning equipment
should also be included. Computer-aided design
(CAD) is now often used to do this.
Not only should the equipment be suitably
situated, it should also be the right weight it is
important that it can be used without overtiring the
user.
Kitchen equipment manufacturers and gas and
electricity suppliers can provide technical details
for equipment, such as output and size.
ACTIVITY
List the four pieces of large equipment you
would expect to find in most commercial
kitchens.
Hygiene and the Food Safety Act
1990/91/95
The design and construction of the kitchen must
comply with the Food Safety Act 1990/91/95
and Food Hygiene Regulations 2006. The basic
layout and construction should allow enough space
for all food-handling areas, and associated areas
for equipment. There should be enough room for
the work to be carried out safely, and for frequent
cleaning of the different areas and equipment.
Design and decor
The trend towards providing more attractive eating
places (which can be seen in particular in many of
The type and location of equipment
should be considered when planning
a kitchen
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 CATERING OPERATIONS, COSTS AND MENU PLANNING
the chain and franchise operators), has also had
an effect on kitchen planning and design. One
trend has been to bring the kitchen area totally or
partially into view, with back-bar equipment for
example, grills or griddles may be in full public
view and food prepared on them to order.
Future trends in design and decor will be
affected by:
changesintechnology
socialchangesineatinghabits
lifestylechanges.
While there will be a continuing demand for the
traditional heavy-duty type of equipment found in
larger hotels and restaurant kitchens, the constant
need to change and update the design and decor
of modern restaurants means that the equipments
life is generally shorter reduced perhaps from
ten years to seven or five, or even less to cope
with the rate of change and redevelopment. This
has resulted in the design of catering equipment
generally being improved.
Multi-usage requirements
The need for round-the-clock catering, such as
in hospitals, factories where shift work takes
place, the police and armed forces, has forced
Kitchen design
Kitchens must be designed so that they can be
managed easily. Managers must have easy access
to the areas under their control and must have a
clear view of the areas they have to supervise. For
reasons of efficiency and hygiene, large kitchens
should have different working areas for different
processes. The following factors must be taken
into consideration:
Product how and where the different processes
are carried out (raw materials to finished product),
e.g. raw food should be prepared and stored in
different areas from cooked food.
Personnel how people move within the
kitchen, e.g. staff working in dirty areas (areas
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95
kitchen planners to consider how kitchens can be
used efficiently outside peak times. As a result,
equipment is being made more adaptable and
flexible, so that whole sections of the kitchen can
be closed down when they are not in use, which
means that savings can be made on heating,
lighting and maintenance.
When planning a kitchen, it is important to
consider the following:
Whattypeofcustomersdoyouwantto
attract?
Whattypeoffooddoyouwanttoserve?
Willyourmenubelacarte,tabledhte,a
combination of both, or will it be self-service?
Willyouorganisethekitchenbasedonthe
traditional partie system?
Doesthedesigncomplywithfoodsafetylaw
and health and safety regulations?
You must remember that whatever systems
you choose, good communication between all
departments in the kitchen and restaurant is
important in order to improve efficiency.
ACTIVITY
What is meant by good communication?
of contamination) should not enter areas of
finished product, or where blast-chilling is
taking place.
Containers/equipment/utensils equipment
should, where possible, be separated out into
specific process areas, e.g. pastry equipment
should not leave the pastry area, equipment and
containers used for preparing and storing raw
food should be washed and stored in the
raw food area, chopping boards and other small
equipment used for raw preparation should not
be allowed to enter the cooking areas.
Refuse rubbish must be kept in an appropriate
area and should not have to pass through other
areas to get to its storage destination.
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Product and workflow
Each section should be subdivided into high-risk
and contaminated sections.
High-risk food which is likely to be
contaminated easily while it is being prepared,
e.g. ready-to-eat foods such as soups and
sauces, cooked meat and desserts.
Food that may be already contaminated when
it arrives, before processing, e.g. unprepared
vegetables, raw meat.
Back-tracking or crossover of materials and
products must be avoided. Food preparation
rooms should be planned so that the flow of
work to process the food allows it to be moved
through the premises, from the point of delivery
to the point of sale or service, with the minimum
of obstruction. The various processes should be
separated as far as possible, and food intended
for sale should not cross paths with waste food
or refuse. Staff time is valuable, so a design
that reduces wasteful journeys is efficient and
cost-effective.
The overall sequence of receiving, storing,
preparing, holding, serving and clearing should
involve:
minimum movement
minimal back-tracking
maximum use of space
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maximum use of equipment with minimum time
and effort.
Working areas
A good receiving area needs to be designed
for easy delivery of supplies. Storage facilities
should be located nearby, in a suitable position
for the food to be distributed to preparation and
production areas.
The size and style of the menu and the ability of
the staff will determine the number of preparation
and production areas necessary and their layout. A
straight-line layout would be suitable for a snack
bar, while an island layout would be more suitable
for a hotel restaurant.
Food safety must also be considered. There
should be room to access all kitchen equipment so
that it can be cleaned thoroughly, and there should
be room for all used equipment from the dining
area to be cleared, cleaned and stored. Still room
facilities (e.g. for storing preserves and cakes) may
also be required. Sufficient handwashing facilities
for staff must also be provided
Kitchens can be divided into sections based on
the process involved. For example:
dry areas for storage
wet areas for fish preparation, vegetable
preparation, butchery, cold preparation
Good kitchen design will consider
the flow of the food through the
preparation and service areas
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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 97
hot wet areas for boiling, poaching,
steaming; equipment needed will include
atmospheric steamers, bratt pans, pressure
steamers, steam jacketed boilers, combination
oven
hot dry areas for frying, roasting, grilling;
equipment needed will include cool zone fryers,
salamanders, pressure fryers, induction cookers,
bratt pans, halogen cookers, roasting ovens,
microwave, charcoal grills, cook and hold ovens
dirty areas for refuse, pot wash areas,
plate wash; equipment needed will include
compactors, dishwashers, refuse storage units,
glass washers, pot wash machines.
Preparation areas
The various preparation processes require
different areas depending on what food is
involved. In a vegetable preparation area, water
from the sinks and dirt from the vegetables are
going to accumulate, so adequate facilities for
drainage should be provided. Pastry preparation,
on the other hand, involves mainly dry processes.
Whatever the processes, there are certain basic
rules that can be applied to make working
conditions easier and help to ensure that food
hygiene regulations are complied with.
Proper design and layout of the preparation area
can make a major contribution to good food
HE31093.indb 97
safety. Staff generally respond to good working
conditions by taking more of a pride in themselves,
in their work and in their working environment.
Adequate workspace must be provided for
each process and every effort must be made to
separate dirty and clean processes.
Vegetable preparation and wash-up areas should
be separate from the actual food preparation
and service areas. The layout must ensure a
continuous workflow in one direction in order to
avoid crossover of foods and cross-contamination.
The staff should not get in each others way by
having to cross each others paths more than is
absolutely necessary.
Actual worktop areas should be big enough for
the preparation processes that will be done on
them, and should be designed so that the food
handler has all the necessary equipment and
utensils close to hand.
The cooking area
Because raw materials enter the cooking section
from the main preparation areas (vegetables, meat
and fish, dry goods), this section will be designed
so that the flow movement continues through to
the servery. So, for example, roasting ovens are
best located close to the meat preparation area,
and steamers next to the vegetable preparation
area.
A chef making ice cream in the pastry
section
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However, layout is not just a question of choosing
and positioning equipment; it also depends on
the management policy regarding the use of
prepared foods and the operating cycle. Obviously
the cooking area should not be used by other
staff to cross to another section of the kitchen
or to get to the service area. The layout should
be planned so that raw foodstuffs arrive at one
point, are processed in the cooking section and
then despatched to the servery. There should be a
distinct progression in one direction.
The operating cycle is the numbers of meals
you are serving, which meal you are serving
(breakfast, lunch or dinner) and the number of
days a week you are open. So it is about the
frequency of the operation.
As with other areas, the cooking section should be
designed with a view to making maximum use of
the available space with as little effort as possible.
Maintenance and cleaning
Planning and equipping a kitchen is an expensive
investment, so to avoid any action by the
Environmental Health Officer, efficient, regular
cleaning and maintenance is essential. (For
example, the kitchens at the Dorchester hotel are
swept during the day, given soap/detergent and
water treatment after service, and any spillages
cleaned up immediately. At night, contractors
clean the ceilings, floors and walls.)
In most cases, throughout the industry, companies
are trying to reduce labour costs while maintaining
or enhancing the meal experience for the
customer. Some trends that will affect the design
of kitchens are as follows:
Hotels: there is greater use of buffet and
self-assisted service units.
Banqueting: there is a move towards plated
service, with less traditional silver service.
Fast food: new concepts are coming onto the
market, with more specialised chicken and
seafood courts, more choices in ethnic food.
Roadside provision: there is an increasing
number of operations and partnerships with
HE31093.indb 98
service station companies. Basic grill menus are
now enhanced by factory-produced la carte
items.
Food courts: development has slowed down;
there are minor changes all the time; most
food courts offer an all day menu. Restaurant
Associates (Compass) are introducing food
courts into hotels.
Restaurants/hotels: there is less emphasis on
luxury-end, five-star experience.
Theme restaurants: will continue to improve and
multiply.
Hospitals: there is greater emphasis on
bought-in freezer and chilled foods, meaning
less on-site preparation and cooking. Some
hospitals operate their own cook/chill or cook/
freeze systems. Many hospitals now have food
courts occupied by well-known high street
names as franchises, such as Pizza Hut or
Burger King.
Industrial: there are more zero-subsidy staff
restaurants, increased self-service for all items.
The introduction of cashless systems will
enable multi-tenant office buildings to offer
varying subsidy levels.
Prisons and other institutions: little if any
change; may follow hospitals by buying in more
pre-prepared food; may receive foods from
multi-outlet central production units, tied in with
schools, meals-on-wheels provision, etc.
University/colleges: greater move towards
providing food courts; more snack bars and
coffee shops. There is evidence of more small
satellite outlets around the buildings rather
than large refectories or cafeterias.
Self-service is when the customers serve
themselves from a self-service counter or buffet.
Self-assisted service is when there is someone
on duty to help the customer choose and, in
some cases, there will be a section on a buffet
where a chef will be cooking fresh items such
as stirfry, omelettes, waffles, pancakes. Here
the guest is helped to choose and will take the
finished item to their table. This is also known as
theatre cookery.
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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 99
Zero-subsidy: No financial contribution or
benefit. A zero-subsidy staff restaurant is one
in which the business does not contribute to the
costs of the staff restaurant to allow its staff to
Planning and preparing menus for catering operations
As you have already learned, planning the menu is
one of the most essential elements in designing and
costing the operations of a catering establishment.
Evolution the historical development
of menus
Initially, menus were simply lists of food. Menus
as we know them today came into use early in
the nineteenth century, and courses began to
be formulated. For special occasions as many
as seven courses might be served, e.g. hors
doeuvres, soup, fish, entre, sorbet, roast, sweet,
savoury.
With the formulation of menus, artistry and flair
began to influence the various ways of cooking,
and dishes were created after the style of (e.g.
la Franaise) and/or given the names of important
people for whom they had been created (e.g.
peach Melba, a simple dish of poached fresh
peach, vanilla ice cream and fresh raspberry pure
created by Escoffier at the Savoy for Dame Nellie
Melba, the famous opera singer).
As the twentieth century advanced, and people
travelled more and settled around the world, styles
of food and service from a wide variety of nations
began to be introduced, resulting in the large
number of ethnic dishes and ethnic restaurants
that abound today.
Rapid air transport made it possible for foods
from all corners of the globe to be available which,
together with domestic and European produce,
gives those who compose menus a tremendous
range of choice.
Eating at work, at school, in hospitals and
institutions led to a need for healthy, budget-
conscious food.
HE31093.indb 99
purchase meals at a discounted rate. Instead,
staff are expected to pay the full cost of anything
they buy.
The importance of the menu (a means
of communication)
Essential considerations prior to planning a menu
are:
Competition: be aware of any competition in
the locality, including prices and quality. It may be
wiser to produce a menu that is quite different
from those of competitors.
Location: study the area in which your
establishment is situated and the potential
target market of customers.
Analysis: analyse the type of people you are
planning to cater for (e.g. office workers in the
city requiring quick service or holidaymakers in
a seaside resort).
Outdoor catering: are there opportunities for
outdoor catering or takeaway food?
Estimated customer spend per head:
this is important when catering, for example,
for hospital staff and patients, children in
schools, workers in industry. Whatever level of
catering, a golden rule should be offer value
for money.
Modern trends in food fashions: these
should be considered alongside popular
traditional dishes.
Range of dishes and pricing structure:
decide what you are going to offer and at what
price. Will you price each dish separately, or
offer set two- or three-course menus? Or a
combination of both?
Space and equipment in the kitchens:
this will influence the composition of the
menu (e.g. avoiding overloading the deep fryer,
salamanders or steamers).
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Number and capability of staff:
overstretched staff can easily reduce the
standard of production envisaged and the
quality of individual dishes.
Availability of supplies and reliability of
suppliers: consider issues such as seasonal
foods and storage space.
Food allergies (see Chapter 4).
Cost factor: these are crucial if an
establishment is to be profitable. Costing is
essential for the success of any menu. Modern
computer techniques can analyse costs swiftly
and on a daily basis.
Types of menu
The main types of menu in use are:
Table dhte or set-price menu: a menu
forming a meal, usually of two or three courses
at a set price. A choice of dishes may be
offered at all courses.
la carte: a menu with all the dishes
individually priced. Customers can therefore
compile their own menu, which may be one, two
or more courses. A true la carte dish should
be cooked to order and the customer should be
prepared to wait.
Special party or function menus: menus for
banquets or functions of all kinds.
Ethnic or speciality menus: these can be
set-price menus or with dishes individually
priced, specialising in the food of a particular
country (or religion) or in a specialised food
itself, e.g. ethnic (Chinese, Indian, kosher,
African-Caribbean, Greek), speciality (steak,
fish, pasta, vegetarian, pancakes).
Hospital menus: these usually take the form
of a menu card given to the patient the day
before service so that his or her preferences
can be ticked. Both National Health Service and
private hospitals cater for vegetarians and also
for religious requirements.
Menus for people at work: these vary in
standard and extent from one employer to
another due to company policy on the welfare
of their staff and workforce. There may also
HE31093.indb 100
be a call-order la carte selection charged
at a higher price. The food will be varied
with traditional British and some ethnic and
vegetarian dishes. Menus may consist of
soup, main course with vegetables, followed
by desserts and yoghurts. According to the
policy of the management and employee
requirements, there will very often be a salad
bar and healthy-eating dishes included on
the menu. Many companies now also serve
breakfasts in their staff restaurants. When
there is a captive clientele who face the same
surroundings daily and meet the same people,
then no matter how long the menu cycle or
how pleasant the people, or how nice the decor,
boredom is bound to set in and staff then long
for a change of scene. So, a chef or manager
needs to vary the menu constantly to encourage
customers to patronise the establishment
rather than going off the premises to eat.
The decor and layout of the staff restaurant
plays a very important part in satisfying the
customers needs. The facilities should be
relaxing and comfortable so that he or she
feels that the restaurant is not a continuation of
the workplace. Employees who are happy, well
nourished and know that the company has their
interests and welfare at heart will tend to be
well motivated and work better.
Menus for children: in schools there is an
emphasis on healthy eating and a balanced diet,
particularly in boarding schools. Those areas
with children of various cultural and religious
backgrounds have appropriate items available
on the menu. Many establishments provide
special childrens menus that concentrate on
favourite foods and offer suitably sized portions.
Considerations when deciding which type of
menu is appropriate:
types of customers
pricing
staff available to produce and serve the menu
waste control
portion control.
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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 101
Consider how many service staff are available
Cyclical menus
These are menus that are compiled to cover a
given period of time: one month, three months,
etc. They consist of a number of set menus for
a particular establishment, such as an industrial
catering restaurant, cafeteria, canteen, directors
dining room, hospital or college refectory. At the
end of each period the menu cycle starts again,
thus overcoming the need to keep compiling new
ones. The length of the cycle is determined by
management policy, by the time of the year and by
the different foods available. These menus must
be monitored carefully to take account of changes
in customer requirements and any variations
in weather conditions that are likely to affect
demand for certain dishes. If cyclical menus are
designed to remain in operation for long periods
of time, then they must be compiled carefully so
that they do not have to be changed too drastically
during operation.
Advantages:
Cyclical menus save time by removing the daily
or weekly task of compiling menus, although they
may require slight alterations for the next period.
When used in association with cookfreeze
operations, it is possible to produce the entire
number of portions of each item to last the
whole cycle, once it has been determined that
the standardised recipes are correct.
HE31093.indb 101
They give greater efficiency in time and labour.
They can cut down on the number of
commodities held in stock, and can assist in
planning storage requirements.
Disadvantages:
When used in establishments with a captive
clientele, the cycle has to be long enough for
customers not to get bored with the repetition
of dishes.
The caterer cannot easily take advantage of
good buys offered by suppliers on a daily or
weekly basis, unless such items are required for
the cyclical menu.
ACTIVITY
Design a cyclical menu for two weeks at a family
holiday centre.
Pre-planned and pre-designed menus
Before selecting the dishes that he or she prefers,
the caterer should consider what the customer
likes, and the effect of these dishes upon the meal
as a whole.
Advantages:
Pre-planned or pre-designed menus enable the
caterer to ensure that good menu planning is
practised.
Menus that are planned and costed in advance
allow banqueting managers to quote prices
instantly to a customer.
Menus can be planned to take into account the
availability of kitchen and service equipment,
without placing unnecessary strain on it.
The quality of food is likely to be higher if
kitchen staff are preparing dishes they are
familiar with and have prepared a number of
times before.
There is likely to be less waste.
Disadvantages:
Pre-planned and pre-designed menus may
be too limited to appeal to a wide range of
customers.
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They may reduce job satisfaction for staff who
have to prepare the same menus repeatedly.
They may limit the chefs creativity and
originality.
The structure of menus
Length
The number of dishes on a menu should offer
the customer an interesting and varied choice. In
general, it is better to offer fewer dishes of good
standard than a long list of mediocre quality.
Design
This should complement the image of the dining
room and be designed to allow for changes, which
may be daily, weekly, monthly, etc. An insert for
dishes of the day/week gives the customer added
interest.
Language
Accuracy in dish description helps the customer
to identify the food they wish to choose. Avoid
over-elaboration and using flowery words.
Wherever possible, use English language. If a
foreign dish name is used then follow it with a
simple, clear English version.
Factors to consider when planning a
menu
Presentation
Ensure that the menu is presented in a sensible
and welcoming way so that the customer is
put at ease and relaxed. An offhand, brusque
presentation (written or oral) can be off-putting
and lower expectations of the meal.
Planning
Consider the following:
type and size of establishment pub, school,
hospital, restaurant, etc.
customer profile different kinds of people
have differing likes and dislikes
special requirements kosher, halal.
time of the year certain dishes acceptable in
summer may not be so in winter
HE31093.indb 102
foods in season are usually in good supply
and reasonable in price
special days Christmas, Shrove Tuesday, etc.
time of day breakfast, brunch, lunch, tea, high
tea, dinner, supper, snack, special function
price range charge a fair price and ensure
good value for money; customer satisfaction can
lead to recommendation and repeat business
number of courses
sequence of courses
use menu language that customers understand
sensible nutritional balance
no unnecessary repetition of ingredients
no unnecessary repetition of flavours and
colours
be aware of the Trade Descriptions Act 1968
Any person who in the course of a trade or
business: applies a false trade description to
any goods or supplies or offers to supply any
goods to which a false trade description is
applied shall be guilty of an offence.
Mediocre: Only of average, or middling quality;
not very good.
Brusque: Abrupt, rude or rough.
Consumer protection
There is a whole range of laws concerned with
consumer protection. Some are concerned with
health and safety, and some are concerned with
economic protection.
Fundamentally, however, all consumer protection
starts with the basic contractor. If a supplier does
not supply what a consumer has contracted to
purchase (e.g. if a menu says that something is
fresh or free range, if the customer is served
something that is not fresh or free range), the
supplier may be in breach of contract. However,
breach of contract cases can be difficult to prove.
ACTIVITY
Suggest two types of menu that reflect religious
beliefs.
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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 103
Breakfast menus
Breakfast menus can be compiled from the
following foods and can be offered as continental,
table dhte, la carte or buffet. For buffet service
customers can self-serve the main items they
require with assistance from counter hands.
Ideally, eggs should be freshly cooked to order.
Fruits, fruit juices, stewed fruit, yoghurts, cereals
(porridge, etc.
Eggs: fried, boiled, poached, scrambled;
omelettes with bacon or tomatoes, mushrooms
or saut potatoes.
Fish: kippers, smoked haddock, kedgeree.
Meats (hot): fried or grilled bacon, sausages,
kidneys, with tomatoes, mushrooms or saut
potatoes, potato cakes.
Meats (cold): ham, bacon, pressed beef with
saut potatoes.
Preserves: marmalade (orange, lemon,
grapefruit, ginger), jams, honey.
Beverages: tea, coffee, chocolate.
Bread: rolls, croissants, brioche, toast, pancakes,
waffles.
Points to consider when compiling a breakfast
menu:
It is usual to offer three of the courses
previously mentioned: fruit, yoghurt or cereals;
fish, eggs or meat; preserves, bread, coffee or
tea.
As large a choice as possible should be offered,
depending on the size of the establishment,
bearing in mind that it is better to offer a
smaller number of well-prepared dishes than a
large number of hurriedly prepared ones.
A choice of plain foods, such as boiled eggs
or poached haddock, should be available for
people who may not require a fried breakfast.
HE31093.indb 103
Buffet breakfast offers a choice of as many
breakfast foods as is both practical and economic.
It can be planned on a self-service basis or part
self-service and assisted service (e.g. hot drinks
and freshly cooked eggs prepared to order).
C O N T I N E N TA L B R E A K F A S T 2 0 . 0 0
Freshly squeezed juices
Traditional Scottish porridge with milk or water,
topped with your choice of seasonal fruits, East London honey or brown sugar
Freshly baked croissants, Danish pastries, muffins, breads and toast
with butter, preserves, marmalade and honey
A selection from our breakfast buffet
Selection of coffee, tea or herbal infusions
TRADITIONAL FULL ENGLISH BREAKFAST 27.00
Freshly squeezed juices
Freshly baked croissants, Danish pastries, muffins, breads and toast
with butter, preserves, marmalade and honey
A selection from our breakfast buffet
Two free-range Burford Brown eggs cooked to your liking with grilled bacon,
sausage, black pudding, tomato, mushroom and baked beans
Coffee, tea or herbal infusions
A L A C A RT E B R E A K FA S T
Freshly squeezed juices 5.00
Basket of pastries 6.50
Browns bacon butty 8.25
Drop scones with seasonal fruit compote 6.75
De Beauvoir smoked salmon Hix cure with scrambled Burford Brown eggs 13.50
Orkney kippers with lemon butter 12.75
Kedgeree 11.50
Omelette with your choice of filling 8.75
Fried ducks eggs with brown shrimps and sea purslane 9.75
Two soft-boiled Gladys May ducks eggs with sourdough soldiers 7.50
Eggs Benedict 8.25 / 12.50
Bubble and squeak with fried Burford Brown egg 11.75
Cumbrian black pudding hash with pan-fried Burford Brown eggs 8.50
Coffee, tea or herbal infusions 4.90
Any of the above may be included as part of the full English breakfast
Sample continental, English and la carte breakfast menu
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Luncheon and dinner menus
Types of menu:
A set-price one-, two- or three-course menu,
ideally with a choice at each course.
A list of well-varied dishes, each priced
individually so that the customer can make up
his or her own menu of whatever number of
dishes they require.
Buffet, which may be all cold or hot dishes, or
a combination of both, either to be served or
organised on a self-service basis. Depending on
the time of year and location, barbecue dishes
can be considered.
Special party, which may be either: set menu
with no choice; set menu with a limited choice,
such as soup or melon, main course, choice of
two sweets; served or self-service buffet.
Tea menus
These vary considerably, depending on the type of
establishment, and could include, for example:
assorted sandwiches
bread and butter (white, brown, fruit loaf)
assorted jams
scones with clotted cream, pastries, gteaux
tea (Indian, China, iced, fruit, herb).
A buffet table at a function
HE31093.indb 104
Commercial hotels, tea rooms, public restaurants
and staff dining rooms may offer simple snacks,
cooked meals and high teas. For example:
assorted sandwiches
buttered buns, scones, cakes, Scotch pancakes,
waffles, sausage rolls, assorted bread and
butter, various jams, toasted teacakes, scones,
crumpets, buns
eggs (boiled, poached, fried, omelettes)
fried fish, grilled meats, roast poultry
cold meats and salads
assorted pastries, gteaux
various ices, coupes, sundaes
tea, orange and lemon squash.
Light buffets (including cocktail
parties)
Light buffets can include:
hot savoury pastry patties of, for example,
lobster, chicken, crab, salmon, mushrooms, ham
hot chipolatas; chicken livers, wrapped in bacon
and skewered
bite-sized items quiche and pizza;
hamburgers; meatballs with savoury sauce or
dip; scampi or fried fish goujons with tartare
sauce
savoury finger toast to include any of the
cold canaps; these may also be prepared on
biscuits or shaped pieces of pastry
game chips, gaufrette potatoes, fried fish balls,
celery stalks spread with cheese
sandwiches; bridge rolls, open or closed but
always small
fresh dates stuffed with cream cheese; crudits
with mayonnaise and cardamom dip; tuna and
chive catherine wheels; crab claws with garlic
dip; smoked salmon pin wheels; choux puffs
with Camembert
sweets (e.g. trifles, charlottes, bavarois, fruit
salad, gteaux).
For fork buffets, all food must be prepared in
a way that enables it to be eaten with a fork or
spoon.
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Fast-food menus
Although some people are scornful of the
items on this type of menu, calling them junk
food, nevertheless their popularity and success
is proven by the fact that, starting with the
original McDonalds, which opened in Chicago
in 1955, there are now many thousands of
outlets worldwide. McDonalds offers customers
a nutrition guide to its products, as well as
information for diabetes sufferers.
There are now many more well-known fast-food
brands operating successfully in the UK.
Banquet menus
Banquets often serve a set menu of three or more
courses, often to large numbers of people.
When compiling banquet menus, consider the
following points:
The food, which will possibly be for a large
number of people, must be dressed in such a
way that it can be served fairly quickly. Heavily
garnished dishes should be avoided.
If a large number of dishes have to be dressed
at the same time, certain foods deteriorate
Food purchasing
Once a menu is planned, a number of activities
must occur to bring it into reality. One of the first
and most important stages is to purchase and
receive the required materials. Skilful purchasing
with good receiving can help to make the best
of a good menu. There are six important steps to
remember:
1. Know the market.
2. Design the purchase procedures.
3. Determine purchasing needs.
4. Receive and check the goods.
5. Establish and use specifications.
6. Evaluate the purchasing task.
HE31093.indb 105
quickly and will not stand storage, even for a
short time, in a hot place.
A normal menu is used, bearing in mind the
number of people involved. It is not usual to serve
farinaceous (e.g. pasta, noodles, rice) dishes,
eggs, stews or savouries. A luncheon menu
could be drawn from the following and would
usually consist of three courses. Dinner menus,
depending on the occasion, generally consist of
three to five courses.
First course: soup, cocktail (fruit or shellfish),
hors doeuvres (assorted or single item), a small
salad.
Second course: fish, usually poached,
steamed, roasted or grilled fillets with a sauce.
Third course: meat, poultry or game, hot
or cold, but not a stew or made-up dish;
vegetables and potatoes or a salad would be
served.
Fourth course: if the function is being held
during the asparagus season, then either hot
or cold asparagus with a suitable sauce may be
served as a course on its own.
Fifth course: sweet, hot or cold, and/or
cheese and biscuits.
Knowing the market
Since markets vary considerably, to do a good
job of purchasing a buyer must know the
characteristics of each market.
A market is a place where buying and selling
takes place. This could be done using the
telephone, on a street corner, in a retail or
wholesale establishment, or at an auction.
It is important that a food and beverage purchaser
knows certain things about the items they plan to
buy, such as:
where they are grown
seasons of production
approximate costs
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conditions of supply and demand
laws and regulations governing the market and
the products
marketing agents and their services
processing
storage requirements
commodity and product, class and grade.
The buyer
This is the key person who makes decisions
regarding quality, amounts, price and what will
satisfy the customers but also make a profit. The
wisdom of the buyers decisions will be reflected
in the success or failure of the operation. The
buyer must not only be knowledgeable about the
products, but must have the necessary skills to
deal with sales people, suppliers and other market
agents. The buyer must be prepared for hard and
often aggressive negotiations.
The responsibility for buying varies from company
to company according to size and management
policy. Buying may be the responsibility of the
chef, manager, storekeeper, buyer or buying
department.
A buyer must have knowledge of the internal
organisation of the company, especially the
operational needs, and be able to obtain
the products needed at a competitive price.
Buyers must also acquaint themselves with the
procedures of production and how these items
are going to be used in the production operations
(how they are going to be prepared and cooked),
in order that the right item is purchased. For
example, the item required may not always have to
be of prime quality, e.g. tomatoes for use in soups
and sauces.
A buyer must also be able to make good use of
market conditions. For example, if there is a glut of
fresh salmon at low cost, has the organisation the
facility to make use of extra salmon purchases?
Is there sufficient freezer space? Can the chef
make use of salmon by creating a demand on the
menu?
HE31093.indb 106
ACTIVITY
What qualities does a buyer have to have in
order to be successful?
Buying methods
These depend on the type of market and the
kind of operation. Purchasing procedures can be
formal or informal. Both have advantages and
disadvantages.
Informal buying usually involves oral
negotiations, talking directly to sales people,
face to face or using the telephone. Informal
methods are suitable for casual buying,
where the amount involved is not large, and
speed and simplicity are desirable. They vary
according to market conditions prices and
supply tend to fluctuate more than with formal
methods.
Formal buying, known as competitive buying,
involves giving suppliers written specifications
quantity needed. Negotiations are normally
written. Formal contracts are best for large
quantities purchased over a long period of time;
prices do not vary much during a year once the
basic price has been established.
Selecting suppliers
Selecting suppliers is an important part of the
purchasing process. First, think about how a
supplier will be able to meet the needs of your
operation. Consider:
price
delivery
quality/standards.
Information on suppliers can be obtained
from other purchasers. Visits to suppliers
establishments are to be encouraged. When
interviewing prospective suppliers, you need to
question how reliable a supplier will be under
competition and how stable under varying market
conditions.
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Principles of purchasing
A menu dictates what an operation needs. Based
on this, the buyer searches for a market that
can supply these requirements. Once the right
market is found, the buyer must investigate the
various products available. The right product must
be obtained it must be suitable for the item or
dish required and of the quality desired by the
establishment. Other factors that might affect
production needs include:
type and image of the establishment
style of operation and system of service
occasion for which the item is needed
amount of storage available (dry, refrigerated or
frozen)
finance available and supply policies of the
organisation
availability, seasonality, price trends and supply.
The skill of the employees, catering assistants and
chefs must also be taken into account, as well
as condition and the processing method and the
storage life of the product.
Three types of product
The main products that an establishment
purchases can be divided into three types:
1. Perishable: products that do not stay fresh
for very long, such as fresh fruit and vegetables,
dairy products, meat and fish; prices and
suppliers may vary; informal methods of buying
are frequently used; perishables should be
purchased to meet menu needs for a short
period only.
2. Staple: supplies that are canned, bottled,
dehydrated or frozen; formal or informal
purchasing may be used; because items are
staple and can be stored easily, bid buying
is frequently used to take advantage of the
favourable prices available when purchasing
large quantities.
3. Daily use needs: daily use or contract items
are delivered frequently to match usage; stocks
are kept up to the particular level and supply
is automatic; supplies may arrive daily, several
HE31093.indb 107
times a week, weekly or less often; most items
are perishable, therefore supplies must not be
excessive but only sufficient to get through to
the next delivery.
Buying tips
The following is a list of suggestions to assist the
buyer.
Learn about all commodities, both fresh and
convenience, to be purchased. Keep your
knowledge up to date.
Be aware of the different types and qualities of
each commodity that is available.
When buying fresh commodities, be aware
of part-prepared and ready-prepared items
available on the market.
Keep a sharp eye on price variations. Buy at the
best price that will ensure the required quality
and also make a profit. The cheapest item may
prove to be the most expensive if lots of it ends
up being wasted. When possible, order by number
and weight. For example, 20 kg plaice could be
80 250 g plaice, 40 500 g plaice, 20
1 kg plaice. It could also be 20 kg total weight of
various sizes, which makes it difficult to control
portion sizes. Some suppliers (e.g. butchers,
fishmongers) may offer a portion-control service
by selling the required number of a given weight
of certain cuts, for example, 100 150 g sirloin
steaks, 25 kg prepared stewing beef, 200
100 g pieces of turbot fillet, 500 100 g plaice
fillets.
Organise an efficient system of ordering,
keeping copies of all orders for cross-checking,
whether orders are given in writing, in person or
by telephone.
Compare purchasing by retail, wholesale and
contract procedures to ensure the best method
is selected for your particular organisation.
Explore all possible suppliers: local or markets,
town or country, small or large.
Keep the number of suppliers to a minimum.
At the same time, have at least two suppliers
for every group of commodities, when possible.
This should help to keep the suppliers prices
and terms competitive.
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Issue all orders to suppliers fairly, allowing
enough time for the order to be delivered on
time.
Request price lists as often as possible and
compare prices continually to make sure that
you buy at a good market price.
Buy perishable goods when they are in full
season as this gives the best value at the
cheapest price. To help with purchasing the
correct quantities, it is useful to compile a
purchasing chart for 100 covers from which
items can be divided or multiplied according to
requirement. An indication of quality standards
can also be incorporated in a chart of this kind.
Deliveries must all be checked against the
orders given, for quantity, quality and price. If
any goods delivered are below an acceptable
standard they must be returned, either for
replacement or credit.
Containers can account for large sums of
money. Ensure that all containers are correctly
stored, returned to the suppliers where possible
and the proper credit given.
All invoices must be checked for quantities and
prices.
All statements must be checked against
invoices and passed swiftly to the office so
that payment can be made on time, to ensure
maximum discount on purchases.
Portion control controlling waste and costs
Portion control means controlling the size or
quantity of food served to each customer. The
amount of food allowed depends on the three
following considerations.
1. The type of customer or establishment:
there will obviously be a difference in the size
of portions served, such as to those working
in heavy industry or to female clerical workers.
In a restaurant offering a three-course table
dhte menu for X, including salmon, the size
of the portion would naturally be smaller than
in a luxury restaurant charging X for the
salmon on an la carte menu.
HE31093.indb 108
Develop good relations with trade
representatives (sales people) because much
useful up-to-date information can be gained
from them.
Keep up-to-date trade catalogues, visit
trade exhibitions, survey new equipment and
continually review the space, services and
systems in use. Always be on the lookout for
ways to increase efficiency.
Organise a testing panel occasionally to keep
up to date with new commodities and new
products coming on to the market.
Consider how computer applications might help
the operation.
Study weekly fresh food price lists.
The people on a testing panel look at the
quality of the produce, the potential portion
control and yield, and will taste the products for
flavour.
Yield: What is produced or generated. In a
restaurant this may refer to how many portions
or what size of portion can be made from a
certain quantity of produce.
2. The quality of the food: better-quality food
usually yields a greater number of portions
than poor-quality food: low-quality stewing beef
often needs so much trimming that it is difficult
to get six portions to the kilogramme, and the
time and labour involved also loses money. On
the other hand, good-quality stewing beef will
often give eight portions to the kilo, with much
less time and labour required for preparation,
and more customer satisfaction.
3. The buying price of the food: this should
correspond to the quality of the food if the
person responsible for buying has bought
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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 109
wisely. A good buyer will ensure that the price
paid for any item of food is equivalent to the
quality in other words, a good price should
mean good quality, which should mean a good
yield, and so help to establish sound portion
control. If, on the other hand, an inefficient buyer
has paid a high price for food of indifferent
quality then it will be difficult to get a fair
number of portions, the selling price necessary
to make the required profit will be too high and
customer satisfaction can be affected.
Portion control should be closely linked with the
buying of the food; without a good knowledge of
the food bought it is difficult to state fairly how
many portions should be obtained from it. To
develop a sound system of portion control, each
establishment (or type of establishment) needs
individual consideration. A golden rule should be:
a fair portion for a fair price.
Conveniently portioned items are available, such
as individual sachets of sugar, jams, sauce, salt
and pepper, individual cartons of milk and cream,
and individual butter and margarine portions.
These make planning easier and create less waste
but are expensive compared to non-portioned
commodities.
Standard purchasing specifications
Standard purchasing specifications are drawn
up for every item to be purchased, describing
exactly what is required. It includes various criteria
related to quality, grade, weight, size and method
of preparation, if required (such as washed and
selected potatoes for baking). Other information
might include variety, maturity, age, colour, shape
and so on.
Once an accurate specification is approved, it will
be referred to every time the item is delivered.
A copy is often given to the supplier and the
storekeeper, who then know exactly what is
needed.
These purchasing specifications (known
as primary specifications) will help with the
formulation of standardised recipes and assist in
the costing and control procedures. Commodities
that can be specified include the following:
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grown (primary): butchers meat; fresh fish;
fresh fruit and vegetables; milk and eggs
manufactured (secondary): bakery goods; dairy
products
processed (tertiary): frozen foods including
meat, fish and fruit and vegetables; dried goods;
canned goods.
So, any food product can have a specification
attached to it. However, the primary specifications
focus on raw materials, ensuring that they are
of the required quality. Without good quality raw
materials, secondary or tertiary specifications are
useless. For example, to specify a frozen apple pie,
this product would use:
a primary specification for the apple
a secondary specification for the pastry
a tertiary specification for the process (freezing).
But, no matter how good the secondary or tertiary
specifications, if the apples used in the beginning
are not of a very high quality, the whole product
will not be of a good quality.
Example of a standard purchasing
specification for tomatoes
Commodity: round tomatoes.
Size: 50 g (2oz) 4757 mm diameter.
Quality: firm, well formed, good red colour, with
stalk attached.
Origin: Dutch, available MarchNovember.
Class/grade: super class A.
Weight: 6 kg (13 lb) net per box.
Count: 90100 per box.
Quote: per box/tray.
Packaging: loose in wooden tray, covered in
plastic.
Delivery: day following order.
Storage: temperature 1013C (5055F) at
a relative humidity of 7580%.
Note: avoid storage with cucumbers and
aubergines.
For most perishable items, a daily or monthly
quotation system is more common than entering
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into a long-term contract. This is essentially a Each recipe should tell you the following:
short-term contract that is regularly reviewed to
the ingredients to be used
ensure that a competitive situation is maintained.
the exact amounts of ingredients required
The standard recipe how the dish is prepared
The standard recipe is a written formula for how the dish is cooked
producing a food item of a specified quality and the number of portions it will produce (yield).
quantity for use in a particular establishment. It
Always read through the recipe carefully and
should show the precise quantities and qualities of
check that you:
the ingredients, together with the sequence
of preparation and service. It enables the 1. have the right ingredients and equipment
establishment to have greater control over cost 2. have the correct weights
and quantity.
3. have enough time to prepare the dish.
The objective of a standard recipe is to
To facilitate menu planning, purchasing and
predetermine the following:
internal requisitioning, food preparation and
the quantities and qualities of ingredients to be production, and portion control:
used, stating the purchase specification
know the food cost per portion
the amount (number of portions) a recipe
know the nutritional value of a particular dish.
should make.
The standard recipe will also help new staff in the
Accurate weighing and measuring preparation and production of standard products,
which can be made easier by using photographs
It is important that, when designing standardised
or drawings illustrating the finished product.
recipes, the correct weights and measures are
recorded, to achieve consistency, so no matter
who prepares the dish the same standard portion
size and quality is achieved.

Cost control

It is important to know the exact cost of each It will reveal possible ways to economise and
process and every item produced, so a system of can result in a more effective use of stores,
cost analysis and cost information is essential. labour, materials, and so on.
Costing provides the information necessary to
Cost analysis: The process of breaking down develop a sound pricing policy.
the costs of an operation into all its separate
Cost records help to provide speedy quotations
parts so that it is possible to look at the exact
cost of each process and every item produced, for all special functions, such as parties,
and judge the efficiency and cost effectiveness wedding receptions, and so on.
of each. It enables the caterer to keep to a budget.
No one costing system will automatically suit every
The advantages of an efficient costing system are
catering business, but the following guidelines
as follows.
may be helpful.
It tells you the net profit made by each section
The cooperation of all departments is essential.
of the organisation and shows the cost of each
meal produced. The costing system should be adapted to

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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 111
the business, not vice versa. If the accepted
procedure in an establishment is altered to fit a
costing system then there is danger of causing
resentment among staff and as a result losing
their cooperation.
Clear instructions in writing must be given to
staff who are required to keep records.
The system must be made as simple as possible
so that the amount of clerical work required
is kept to a minimum. An efficient mechanical
calculator or computer should be provided to save
time and effort.
To calculate the total cost of any one item or
meal provided it is necessary to analyse the total
expenditure under several headings. Basically the
total cost of each item consists of the following
three main elements.
1. Food and materials costs: these are known
as variable costs because the level will vary
according to the volume of business. In an
operation that uses part-time or extra staff for
special occasions, the money paid to these staff
also comes under variable costs; by comparison,
salaries and wages paid regularly to permanent
staff are fixed costs.
2. Labour costs and overheads: regular
charges come under the heading of fixed costs,
which include labour and overheads. Labour
costs in the majority of operations fall into two
categories:
direct labour cost, which is salaries and
wages paid to staff such as chefs, waiters, bar
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Labour means the cost of employing
staff
staff, housekeepers, chambermaids, which
can be allocated to income from food, drink
and accommodation sales
indirect labour cost, which would include
salaries and wages paid, for example, to
managers, office staff and maintenance staff
who work for all departments (so their labour
cost should be charged to all departments).
Overheads consist of rent, rates, heating,
lighting and equipment.
3. Cleaning materials: this is an important
group of essential items that is often overlooked
when costing. There are over 60 different
items that come under this heading, and
approximately 24 of these may be required
for an average catering establishment. These
may include: brooms, brushes, buckets, cloths,
drain rods, dusters, mops, sponges, squeegees,
scrubbing/polishing machines, suction/vacuum
cleaners, wet and wet/dry suction cleaners,
scouring pads, detergents, disinfectants, dustbin
powder, washing-up liquids, fly sprays, sacks,
scourers, steel wool, soap, soda, and so on. It
is important to understand the cost of these
materials and to ensure that an allowance is
made for them under the heading of overheads.
Overheads:
Maintenance
Gas
Electricity
Sundry expenses
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Gross profit If the selling price of a dish is expressed as 100%

(the total amount received from its sale), it can
Gross profit (or kitchen profit) is the difference
be broken down into the amount of money spent
between the cost of an item and the price it is
on food items and the gross profit. This can be
sold at. If gross profit is set as a fixed percentage
expressed in percentages as shown below.
mark-up, the food cost of each dish is calculated
and a fixed gross profit (e.g. 100 per cent) is
Food cost Gross profit
added. So, if the food costs 2 it is sold for 4.
It is usual to express each element of cost as a 35%
percentage of the selling price. This enables the
caterer to control profits.

Net profit 65%

Net profit is the difference between the selling

price of the food (sales) and total cost of the
product (food, labour and overheads). This box
shows an example:

Sales food cost = gross profit (kitchen profit)

Sales total cost = net profit
Food cost + gross profit = sales
Example Food sales for 1 week = 25,000
Food cost for 1 week = 12,000
Labour and overheads for 1 week = 9,000
Total costs for 1 week = 21,000
Gross profit (kitchen profit) = 13,000
Net profit = 4,000
Food sales food cost 25,000 12,000 = 13,000 (gross profit)
Food sales net profit 25,000 4,000 = 21,000 (total costs)
Food cost + gross profit 12,000 + 15,000 = 25,000 (food sales)
Profit is always expressed as a percentage of the selling price.
Therefore the percentage profit for the week is:
Net profit sales 100 = 4000 100 25,000 = 16%

A breakdown reveals the figures shown in Table

5.2.

Table 5.2 Example breakdown

Costs Percentage of sales (%)

Food cost 12,000 44
Labour 6,000 25
Overheads 3,000 18
Total costs 21,000
Sales 25,000
Net profit 4,000 13

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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 113

This can also be presented in monetary terms, as Food cost Gross profit
shown in the following diagram, if the dish was
sold at 10.00, for example. 3.50

Food cost Gross profit

3.50 10.50

To check that this is correct, the following

6.50 calculation can be applied.
14.00 (selling price)
___________________________

3 25 5 13.50
100 (brings 14.00 down to 1%)
Calculating the selling price
(brings up to 25%)
If food costs come to 3.50, to calculate the
selling price on the basis of a 65% gross profit,
.... and
the following calculation can be used. 14.00 (selling price)
___________________________
3 75 5 10.50

3.50 (food costs)
____________________________ 100 (brings 14.00 down to 1%)

3 100 5 10.00
35 (food cost asa % of the sale) (brings up to 75%)
This calculation brings the food cost to 1% of the
selling price before multiplying by 100 to bring the 11.50 (75%) + 3.50 (25%) = 14.00 (100%)
selling price to 100%.
If the restaurant served 1000 meals then the
To demonstrate this further, if the gross profit average amount spent by each customer would
requirement was raised to 75%, this would reduce be:
the food cost as a percentage of the selling price
Total sales 25,000
_________________________
to 25%. Therefore the selling price would have to = 25.00

Number of customers 1000
be higher if the food cost remained at 3.50.
As the percentage composition of sales for a
3.50 (food costs)
____________________________
3 100 5 14.00
month is now known, the average price of a meal
25 (food cost as a % of the sale) for that period can be further analysed:

Food cost Gross profit Average price of a meal = 25.00 = 100%

25p = 1%
25%
which means that the customers contribution
towards:

75% Food cost = 25 48 = 12.00

The percentages still add up to 100%, but the
proportion spent on food is smaller in terms
of the selling price. The diagrams illustrate the
breakdown on this basis.
Labour = 25 24 = 6.00
Overheads = 25 12 = 3.00
Net profit = 25 16 = 4.00
Average price of meal = 25.00

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 114 Practical Cookery for Level 2 vrq
A rule that can be applied to calculate the food
cost price of a dish is: let the cost price of the dish
equal 40 per cent and fix the selling price at 100
per cent.
Cost of dish = 400p = 40%
Selling price = 400 100 40 = 10.00
Selling the dish at 10, making 60 per cent gross
profit above the cost price, would be known as 40
per cent food cost. For example:
Sirloin steak (250 g)
250 g entrecote steak at 10.00 a kg = 2.50
To fix the selling price at 40% food cost =
2.50 100 40 = 6.25
If food costing is controlled accurately, the food
cost of particular items on the menu and the
total expenditure on food over a given period can
be worked out. Finding the food costs helps to
control costs, prices and profits.
An efficient food cost system will show up any
bad buying and inefficient storing, and should help
to prevent waste and pilfering. This can help the
caterer to run an efficient business, and enable
her or him to give the customer value for money.
The caterer who gives the customer value for
money together with the desired type of food is
well on the way to being successful.
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Example
If a dish costs 2.80 to produce, what should its
selling price be to achieve 60 per cent profit on
sales?
Gross profit 60%, food costs 40%
Selling price 2.80
100
= ____________
40
= 7.00
Add VAT (7.00 0.20) + 1.40
Final selling price = 8.40
Example
If a dish costs 2.80 to produce, what should its
selling price be to make a 200 per cent profit on
cost?
Gross profit 200%, food costs 100%
2.80 (200 + 100)
Cost price = ___________________
100
Add VAT (8.40 0.20) + 1.68
Final selling price = 8.88
ACTIVITY
If a dish costs 3.00 to produce, what should the
selling price be to achieve a 70 per cent profit on
sales?
What does each loaf cost to produce?
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 Catering operations, costs and menu planning 115

Table 5.3 Food costings

Food cost (%) To find the selling If the cost price If the cost price is Gross profit (%)
price multiply the of food is 4, the 1.20, the selling
cost price of the selling price is: price is:
food by:
60 1.66 6.64 1.92 40
55 1.75 7.00 2.04 45
50 2 8.00 2.40 50
45 2.22 8.88 2.64 55
40 2.5 10.00 2.88 60
33.3 3 12.00 3.60 66.6

Food costs and operational control Each establishment should devise its own control
system to suit its own needs. Factors that affect a
As food is expensive, efficient stock control
control system are:
levels are essential to help the profitability of the
business. The main difficulties of controlling food regular changes in the menu
are as follows. menus with a large number of dishes
Food prices fluctuate frequently because dishes with a large number of ingredients
of inflation and falls in demand and supply, problems in assessing customer demand
through poor harvests, bad weather conditions,
difficulties in not adhering to or operating
and so on.
standardised recipes
Transport costs rise due to wage demands and
raw materials purchased incorrectly.
the cost of petrol and diesel.
Fuel costs rise, which affects food companies Factors assisting a control system include:
and producers costs. menu remains constant (e.g. McDonalds,
Any food subsidies imposed by governments Harvester, Pizza Hut, Burger King)
could be removed.
Changes occur in the amount demanded by
the customer; increased advertising increases
demand; changes in taste and fashion influence
demand from one product to another.
Media focus on certain products that are labelled
healthy or unhealthy will affect demand, e.g. butter
being high in saturated fats, sunflower margarine
being high in polyunsaturates. TV cookery
programmes and celebrity chefs can make certain
dishes and ingredients more popular.
Changes in operational control may also be seen
with the increasing emphasis on food traceability,
local sourcing and reduction in food miles.

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 116 Practical Cookery for Level 2 vrq
standardised recipes and purchasing
specifications are used
menu has a limited number of dishes.
Stocktaking is therefore easier and costing is
more accurate.
In order to carry out a control system, food stocks
must be secure, refrigerators and deep freezers
should be kept locked, portion control must
be accurate. A book-keeping system must be
developed to monitor the daily operation.
HE31093.indb 116
Test yourself
1 In the nineteenth century, who devised the
system of kitchen organisation referred to as
the partie system?
2 What is the usual role of a chef de partie?
Give examples.
3 Suggest three considerations you would need
to make when planning a kitchen.
4 Why is good kitchen workflow considered to
be very important?
5 When planning a menu for a new city centre
restaurant, suggest four considerations that
need to be made.
6 When a menu is described as table dhote
what does this mean?
7 In relation to food, what is formal/competitive
buying?
8 Describe what is meant by portion control
and give three examples of how this may be
done.
9 Give an example of variable costs in a
hospitality business.
10 What is the name given to the profit made by a
business after all the costs such as food, labour
and overheads have been taken out?
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