# 2006 University of South Africa

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Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

EDA304-6/1/20072009
97979937

3B2

PRS styl
 (iii) EDA3046/1/20072009

Contents
Study unit Page
1 AN INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The concept ``environment'' 4
1.2.1 A dictionary definition 4
1.2.2 A holistic representation of the environment 4
1.3 Development of the concept ``environmental education'' 5
1.3.1 Development of the concept in different parts of the world 5
1.3.2 Development of the concept in South Africa: A case study 6
1.3.3 Inclusion of environmental education in formal education in South
Africa 6
1.3.4 The concepts ``environmental studies'' and ``environmental education'' 6
1.4 Definitions of the concept ``environmental education'' 6
1.4.1 Values 7
1.4.2 Concepts in environmental education 11
1.4.3 Skills 14
1.4.4 Attitudinal or behavioural change 19
1.4.5 Decision making 21
1.4.6 The role of human needs in environmental education 21
1.5 Paradigms, philosophies and ideologies for environmental education 24
1.5.1 Dominant social paradigm versus new environment-oriented paradigm 25
1.5.2 Ecocentrism versus anthropocentrism 26
1.5.3 Technocentrism versus ecocentrism 26
1.5.4 Empirical versus hermeneutic versus critical sciences 28
1.6 Environmental literacy 31
1.7 Sustainable development and education for sustainability 33
1.8 Principles of environmental education 34
1.8.1 Introduction 34
1.8.2 Principles of the Tbilisi Conference and their implications for
environmental education in South Africa 34
1.8.3 Conclusion 35

2 ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING IN THE CURRICULUM 36

2.1 Introduction 36
2.2 The introduction of environmental learning in the curriculum 36
2.3 Methods, techniques and resources for environmental education 38
2.3.1 Introduction 38
2.3.2 What is a method? 39
 (iv)

Study unit Page

2.4 Resources for environmental educators 39
2.4.1 What are resources (media)? 39
2.4.2 Why are resources (media) used? 40
2.4.3 Groups of resources (media) and their use in environmental education 40
2.5 Environmental learning 42
2.6 Assessment in environmental education 42

3 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND SOME

ENVIRONMENTAL THEMES AND ISSUES BASIC ECOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 What is ecology? 44
3.3 Interaction between living organisms 44
3.4 Food chains and food webs 45
3.5 Energy 46
3.6 Ecological cycles 48
3.6.1 The carbon cycle 48
3.6.2 The nitrogen cycle 49
3.7 Population ecology 50
3.8 Environmental issues 51
3.8.1 Introduction 51

SOURCES USED IN THE COMPILATION OF THIS WORKBOOK 56

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Study unit 1

An introduction to environmental
education

a LEARNING OUTCOMES
After working through this study unit, you should be able to
. evaluate and explain the term ``environmental education''
. explain the origin and attributes of environmental education in South Africa
. define, analyse and critically evaluate environmental education in South Africa
. describe the events that led to the recognition of environmental education in
formal education in South Africa
. describe and give examples of some important facets of environmental
education, such as values, attitudes and environmental concepts
. analyse various philosophies, paradigms and ideologies relating to
environmental education and give your views in this regard
. define the concept ``environmental literacy'' and make a list of criteria that can
be used to assess whether or not a person is environmentally literate
. explain the concept ``sustainable development''
. list 12 principles of environmental education
. explain the meaning of these principles in a Southern African context
. give environment-related examples to which these principles apply
. identify the central meaning of each principle and apply it to a specific situation

1.1 Introduction
``Greenies'', a hobby, an enjoyable relaxation during adventure camps, ecology,
nature conservation, outdoor education and environmental studies these are all
ideas which people sometimes attach to environmental education. But if this is not
environmental education, what then is it? What is its role? Can we change people's
attitudes towards the environment in any way? We will attempt to put the concept
``environmental education'' into perspective in this study unit. One way of
emphasising the role of conservation in terms of natural resources is through the
metaphor of a spaceship: Imagine the earth as a spaceship whose inhabitants, or
passengers, have to survive in space for a long period of time. These people will
have no contact with their home base during this time. What effect will this have
on them?
 2

D ACTIVITY 1
What do the people in the spaceship need to survive in space for a long period of
time? In terms of food supplies? In terms of their social lives?
These supplies are like the earth's resources (eg water, oxygen, plant life, coal and
gold). Think about these questions: How will life in space affect these people's
personal environment? Does the spaceship have sufficient supplies for them?

The people on the spaceship will have to use their supplies carefully. Do you see
that this metaphor shows that people have to take great care of their environment?
If we do not care for our environment, we may end up with a situation where all the
resources have been used up and cannot be replaced as could happen in a
spaceship.

Icke (in Schreuder sa:4) tries to portray the role of human beings on earth by
means of the following analogy:

Planet Earth is 4,600 million years old. If we condense this inconceivable time span
into an understandable concept, we can liken the Earth to a person of 46 years of
age.
Nothing is known about the first seven years of this person's life, and whilst only
scattered information exists about the middle span, we know that only at the age of
42 did the Earth begin to flower.

Dinosaurs and the great reptiles did not appear until a year ago when the planet
was 45. Mammals arrived only eight months ago and in the middle of last week
man-like apes evolved into ape-like men, and at the weekend the last ice age
enveloped the earth.

Modern man has been around for four hours. During the last hour Man discovered
agriculture. The industrial revolution began a minute ago and during those 60
seconds of biological time man has made a rubbish tip of paradise. He has
multiplied his numbers to plague proportions, caused the extinction of 500 species
of animals, ransacked the Planet for fuels and now stands like a brutish infant,
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gloating over his meteoric rise to ascendancy, on the brink of war to end all wars
and of effectively destroying this oasis of life in the solar system.

D ACTIVITY 2
(1) What is Icke trying to tell us in the first three paragraphs?
(2) Do Icke's ideas change the way you think about the earth as you know it and if
so, why?
(3) Think about the last paragraph. How does it change your views about the
importance of the role that human beings play in the environment?

Remember: One year in this person's life is like 100 million years in the life of the
earth. So we human beings have been on earth for a very short
period of time. Think about the effect human beings can or will have
on the environment in the future.

After answering these questions, you may realise that human beings have a greater
role to play in environmental conservation than we generally realise. Indeed, if we
look at Icke's model, it is clear that the earth survived very well without people for a
very long period of time. People have become a threat to the earth in the short time
they have existed. This tells us that human activities play a very important role in
the relationship between human beings and the environment we should,
therefore, study the relationship continually. We also need education about how to
act positively in our relationship with the environment so that we can conserve our
environment.

D ACTIVITY 3
Think about your relationship with the environment today. Are you more aware of
the environment than you were ten years ago?
 4

Consider the following questions: What is your contribution to the environment?

How did you become more aware of environmental issues and what role do you
play in the environment?

Nowadays, educators are paying far more attention to environmental issues than
they did in the past. Written and visual media are used to present environmental
education programmes. People today probably know a great deal more about
environmental issues than they did ten years ago.

The numbers of learners at school level are increasing steadily. It is, therefore,
important that educators understand the principles of environmental education.

In this study unit, we will look at the meaning of the term ``environmental
education''. In order to understand it, however, you first need to understand the
term ``environment''. As we explain the terms, we will introduce you to
philosophies on environmental education and indicate how environmental
education can be included in formal education.

1.2 The concept ``environment''

Various authors have written about the concept ``environment''. They do not,
however, all define the concept in the same way. An author's definition of the
environment usually depends on his or her point of view. We are going to examine
a few of these definitions so that you can see how one author emphasises certain
things, while another emphasises others.

1.2.1 A dictionary definition

Chamber's Etymological Dictionary (1939:156) described the environment long
ago as a surrounding.

D ACTIVITY 4
This description refers to a circle or ring. What do you think this circle or ring
includes?
What does your personal environment include?

1.2.2 A holistic representation of the environment

Various authors have made holistic representations of the environment. The
following diagram is a model of such a representation:
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DIAGRAM 1
Sustainable existence

(Adapted from O'Donoghue 1994:19)

D ACTIVITY 5
Indicate which of the following are environmental elements and which are not:
dams, savannas, tarred roads, schools, mines, art festivals, cultivated fields, rock
formations and human fellowship.
Remember to consider environments other than your own.

You should have highlighted each of the elements listed above, for it should be
clear by now that the environment is more than just nature. Everything around us is
part of our environment. We must decide how important it is for us to conserve it
and whether we want to conserve it. Even the last item on the list (human
fellowship) forms a part of our human (personal) environment. The space created
by personalities influences perceptions, attitudes and behaviour in the
environment. Aggression, love, helpfulness, et cetera influence people's attitudes
towards the environment and others. According to diagram 1, we can add
politically-related issues, economic issues, and more to the list above.

Remember: The environment is not just nature!

1.3 Development of the concept ``environmental education''

1.3.1 Development of the concept in different parts of the world
Study sections 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 in chapter 2 of your textbook for information on
this section.
 6

1.3.2 Development of the concept in South Africa: A case study

Study sections 2.7 and 2.8 in chapter 2 of your textbook for information on this
section.

D ACTIVITY 6
Find other examples of environmental projects and list at least three of them.
Consult environmental journals for this activity.

1.3.3 Inclusion of environmental education in formal education in South

Africa
Study section 2.8 in chapter 2 of your textbook for information on this section.

1.3.4 The concepts ``environmental studies'' and ``environmental

education''
The concepts ``environmental education'' and ``environmental studies'' are often
(and incorrectly) used interchangeably. The easiest way to explain the differences
between the two concepts is to regard environmental studies as studies ABOUT
the environment and environmental education as education FOR the environment.
In environmental studies, aspects of the environment such as geography, biology,
nature conservation, physics, chemistry, and so on are studied as fields of study.

Environmental education, however, deals with education, that is, creating positive
attitudes towards the environment. It is concerned with actions taken or skills
learned to prevent environmental problems. It cannot, however, be separated from
environmental studies, because it is essential to influence individual's attitudes
towards the environment.

Now study the attempts to define the concept ``environmental education''.

1.4 Definitions of the concept ``environmental education''

There are different views on how environmental education ought to be defined. We
quote only three definitions. Decide for yourself which definition you find most
acceptable or whether you agree with any of them at all.
(a) Stapp (1969:3031)
Environmental education is aimed at producing a citizenry that is
knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated
problems, aware of how to help solve these problems, and motivated to work
toward their solution.

(b) Brennan (1970:2)

Environmental education is that education which develops in man a
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recognition of his responsibility to maintain the environment in a manner fit

for life and fit for living an environment of beauty and bounty, in which
man lives in harmony. The first part of environmental education involves
development of attitudes a conservation ethic.

(c) IUCN (1972)

It seems as though the majority of environmental educators who do accept a
definition, agree with the definition of the International Union for the
Conservation of Natural Resources (IUCN 1972). This definition reads as
follows:
Environmental education is a process during which values are discovered
and concepts explained in order to develop skills and attitudes pertaining
to an appreciation of the relationship between man, his culture and his
biophysical environment. Environmental education also includes the
practice of decision-making and the formulation of a personal code of
conduct on matters affecting the quality of the environment.

D ACTIVITY 7
Read these definitions carefully and indicate six key concepts which environmental
educationists should study.
These are probably not the only concepts that relate to environmental education,
but they give you a fair idea of the most important ones. One such concept is skills.

We shall now discuss some of the key concepts in the IUCN definition, as well as
the concepts ``human needs'', ``environmental literacy'' and ``sustainability''.

1.4.1 Values

D ACTIVITY 8
Which of the following statements, in your opinion, represent your community's
values as regards the environment?
(1) People who put their own welfare first should not affect the satisfaction of
everybody's needs.
(2) Exhaustible resources must be recycled unless alternative resources can
replace them.
(3) Military budgets must be cut in favour of environmental security and
sustainable development.
(4) Nature reserves must be used for farming activities.

Write down your chosen responses.

How would you react if some people were to disagree with you? Are your values
different to those of others? Some people say that values give rise to observable
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behaviour, while others believe that values are synthetic, metamorphic and
symbolic pictures of our world. Here are some other views of values:

Values are
. internalised standards and criteria that can be used to direct and develop
actions, maintain attitudes and take moral decisions.
. highly integrated sets of attitudes.
. a collection of views on abstract things, often classified as good or bad, and
indicating preferred behavioural norms and standards.
. what an individual would like to be true.
. broad motivating factors in people's lives.

Values may also be classified according to the following categories:

. intrinsic, unchanging values necessary for human existence, universal values
(eg responsible behaviour towards the environment)
. inferred, relative, instrumental, special, extrinsic, ephemeral values
. universal values
. specific values
. group values
. personal values

D ACTIVITY 9
Give an example related to the environment for each of these types of values.
This should make you realise that people have different values even as regards
environmental issues.

The following ethical, ecological and social environmental rules may serve as
guidelines for possible universal values:

(a) Ethical rules

We need to consider why environmental problems exist. The heart of the matter is
that there are usually some people whose harmful actions spoil other people's lives.
Pieters (1993:12) gives the following list of ethical rules:
. We should always behave towards the environment in a way that satisfies our
own needs.
. We should always behave towards the environment in a way that satisfies the
needs of other people.
. In our treatment of the environment, we should always consider the needs of
future generations.
. We should always treat the environment in a way that the needs of species other
than humans are satisfied.
. Adequate nutrition, hygiene, a safe habitat, shelter and medical care are basic
requirements for need satisfaction.
. Satisfaction of the needs of other species, populations and ecosystems should
not interfere with the satisfaction of basic human needs.
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D ACTIVITY 10
Could you live with these ethical rules? Give a reason for your answer. Name those
ethical rules with which you do not agree.
There is nothing wrong with disagreeing with these ethical rules. It could lead to
an interesting debate.

(b) Ecological rules

A combination of ethical rules and knowledge of the characteristics of the
environment could help us to work out a set of ecological rules, such as the
following (Pieters 1993:1011):
. The use of exhaustible resources should be stopped entirely.
. We should not harvest more agricultural products and other products from an
ecosystem than the ecosystem can produce.
. We should not tax ecosystems that process waste products naturally (eg the
sea) beyond their capacity.
. The production of waste products that are harmful to life, such as nuclear waste,
should be prohibited.
. Industrial activities should not be permitted in places where they interfere with
human needs. If a factory is erected next to an informal settlement, for example,
it will cause pollution that will be harmful to the people in the settlement.
. We should conserve as many kinds of organisms as possible, but not artificially
(eg by artificially saving them from extinction).
. We should manage technological systems carefully and only replace them if we
find another system that is more economical in terms of materials, energy and
space. When, for examples, a new coal mine is planned, measures to limit
pollution should be planned simultaneously.
. Ecosystems should be continuously monitored.
. Population growth should be limited.

D ACTIVITY 11
Write down a few examples of ecological rules that could help to improve your
community's environment.

(c) Social rules

Pieters (1993:11) gives some social rules that represent a combination of political,
economic, cultural and ecological considerations. The following are examples of
these rules:
. Economic policy should give guidelines for preserving the quality of the
environment. (What role can funding play in the improvement of the
environment?)
. The per capita consumption of resources should be reduced, that is, each
individual should use less of the scarce resources.
 10

. Prices should reflect ecological realities. In other words, products that are
unfriendly to the environment should be more expensive than those that are
more environmentally friendly.
. The use of private motor transport in urban areas should be restricted.
. Cars should be designed to use less energy.
. People should not buy products in disposable packaging.
. People should not dump garbage in vacant areas.
. People should be forbidden to have more than two children per family.

D ACTIVITY 12
Write down a few examples of how social rules could help to improve your
community's environment. How do your values fit in with these rules? We must
recognise that not all people's personal rules and values will be in line with these
rules.
We must, therefore, realise that not all rules will apply to everybody; rather, we
should all develop a set of rules by which we live and which will be beneficial to
the environment.

The following points about values may help to clear up problems in this regard:

Values and culture

Le Roux and Schreuder (1988:75) maintain that different cultural groups have
different environmental values. In their study of different views of nature and
nature conservation, they conclude that ``the identification of perceptions about
nature and wildlife are clearly influenced by value systems associated with ethnic,
cultural and socio-economic background''.

From this observation, we can conclude that if environmental education is to

influence people's values as regards the environment, we need to research the
social, economic, cultural and political factors that affect communities.

One could also argue that a more positive approach to the environment will often
develop once a community discovers for itself how important its environment is.
Ruckleshaus (1989:116) observes: ``The maintenance of a liveable global
environment depends on the sustainable development of the entire human family.''

This means that the poor, for example, cannot live according to the standards of
the rich and that the rich will sometimes have to help the poor for the sake of their
own survival. In the interests of the environmental cause, therefore, we need to pay
attention to the delicate balance between the roles of individuals and communities.

How to transmit values

Indirectly, the creation of circumstances that promote good values implies that
when we plan a teaching strategy or even a teaching method, we have to include
content that will promote positive values. Iozzi (1989:7) agrees with this view:
``Various types of teaching methods seem to be effective in improving
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environmental attitudes and values.'' This statement is based on the fact that
values, like attitudes, have to do with feelings and are influenced by education.
Teaching of specific values can, however, be seen as indoctrination. Learners can
be taught techniques for value clarification so that they will become aware of the
many different kinds of values. Educators could, for example, get their learners to
debate the desirability of the steel plant at Saldanha Bay or mining close to the
Blesbokspruit.

Values and decision making

Experience in relation to the environment can play a major role in the making of
either positive or negative environmental decisions. Part of the task of
environmental educators is to provide decision makers at all levels with suitable
experiences regarding environmental matters. Decision makers such as managers
of firms and government officials can help greatly to establish environmental
education in the non-formal sector. Decisions on how to promote environmental
education are crucial for the attainment of environmental education goals. More
important though are the day-to-day decisions of ordinary officials (sometimes
even more important than high-level decisions), as these decisions may contribute
to establishing positive values towards the environment.
One's personal value system will influence one's behaviour towards the
environment.

D ACTIVITY 13
Mention some teaching strategies that you or an environmental educator could use
to teach positive environmental values.
Use your field of interest or the learning area/subject that you teach as the basis for
your answer.

1.4.2 Concepts in environmental education

Marsh (1994:180) defines concepts as a group of specific things with certain
characteristics in common. Slabbert (1988:120) defines concepts as the
classification of facts into categories so that the interrelationships between these
categories can help us make general statements.

D ACTIVITY 14
After reading these two definitions, compile a list of concepts which relate to the
environment.
We have included some examples of concepts below and we suggest that you
compare your answer with the one provided.

Educators should understand what concept formation is all about, since concepts
are important for communication and help to make the complex world in which we
 12

live more meaningful. Concepts also promote learners' cognitive development and
use of language. The following five steps may be followed when teaching
concepts:
(1) Introduce the concept.
(2) Define the concept.
(3) Identify distinctive features.
(4) Provide examples.
(5) Practise the recognition and utilisation of the concept.

Some concepts are very complex. In a case where a concept is complex, first teach
some sub-concepts before teaching the concept itself.

D ACTIVITY 15
Compare your list of concepts with the following concepts that the Ontario
Ministry of Education (Smith 1992) considers necessary for environmental
literacy. Which of these concepts did you leave out?
Note how these concepts relate to the characteristics of concepts given above.

Concept 1
The earth as a closed system: the concept ``ecosystem''
. factors: sunlight, rain, temperature, wind, energy, soil, plants, animals and fungi
. everything interrelates with everything else
. renewable and non-renewable resources

The factors given here correspond with the major components of the environment
(see section 1.2.2 of this study unit).

Concept 2
Human interaction with the environment; every action (however small) has an
effect on the environment
. personal awareness of impact
. effect of consumer and market influences (economics)
. energy needed to maintain people's current standards of living

Concept 3
Cycles
. natural cycles: water, minerals, life-death, growth-decomposition, carbon-
oxygen, et cetera
. relationship between cycles
. circulation of consumer products, manufacturing, et cetera
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. competition, adaptation and succession as natural relations

. energy flow is no longer cyclic once the energy has been lost
(see study unit 3 for more information about ecological concepts)

Concept 4
Management of the environment and resources for long-term sustainability
. effective use of resources: plants and animals, domesticated and wild
. population control and carrying capacity
. relationship between predator and prey
. farming and wildlife conservation as examples of simplified ecosystems or
shortened food chains
. high productivity, modern technology and economic development that have to
harmonise with a healthy environment

How do the sub-concepts of this concept (eg high productivity) relate to

sustainability?

Concept 5
Interaction of economics, science (biology, chemistry, physics) and politics in
environmental issues: integration of learning about our world.

Concept 6
Habitat
. importance of food, water, shelter, space for personal, human and animal
survival
. availability of food cannot be taken for granted: determine the source of each
food type
. availability of water cannot be taken for granted: determine the source(s) of the
water supply
. garbage and sewage form spontaneously; trace their course
. a healthy, beautiful environment is a human need

Consider how well your environment meets all these requirements. How polluted is
it?

Concept 7
Food webs and food chains
. principle of interdependence; effect of biological spread of contamination (eg
pesticides)

Concept 8
Complexity of decision making in terms of environmental issues
 14

. shortage of exact information and knowledge on how the world functions

. invisibility of many of the things that cause damage (eg water pollution)
. long-term and/or unintentional effects
(see section 1.4.5 of this study unit for more information)

Concept 9
Hope: natural rehabilitation and regeneration of environmental damage
. the environment shows resistance but has limitations
. individuals can make a difference: success stories

In South Africa, the mountain zebra, bontebuck, marsh rose, rhinoceros and other
creatures have been saved from extinction, but many other species have become
extinct.

Concept 10
Personal commitment to care for and to respect the environment
. economising, re-using, recycling, rethinking as a way of life
. environmental ethics in your home and workplace
. reduce the use of substances that are harmful to the environment: chemicals,
insecticides, insect repellents, CFCs, domestic products, indigenous firewood,
coal
. respect all living things

Consider your own role in the environment.

Example of how a concept can be taught:

It has often been shown that people do not understand concept 3 (cycles) too
well. Consider what we said at the beginning of this section: it might help if
you first discussed sub-concepts such as the circulation of consumer
products, competition, adaptation and succession, and energy flow. This
would help to explain the complex concept of cycles. Once this has been
grasped, you could expand the concept to include the interrelationship
between cycles.

From your study of these ten concepts you may have gathered that concepts
contain important generalisations about ecology, cycles and energy about the
environment. They therefore indicate what you have to know about the
environment.

1.4.3 Skills
A major distinction can be made between mental (intellectual, cognitive) skills
(Puhl 1990:422) and physical skills (Montague 1987:7). There are also a number
of other skills that we will discuss briefly.
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(a) Physical skills

Physical skills have to do with psychomotor abilities. Montague (1987:7) refers to
``simple motor skills like typing or more complex skills like talking and writing''.
Environmental educators must be able to teach learners certain motor skills (eg
techniques for making a compost heap) so that they can apply them in practice.
Stapp (in Hawkins & Vinton 1973:106) observes: ``Learning takes place through
the active behaviour of the student. It is what he does that he learns, not what the
teacher does.'' Clearly, learning from experience is important in environmental
education.

(b) Cognitive skills

A leading scientist in the field of cognitive skills, De Bono (1976:33), defines
thought as the operating skill through which intelligence acts on experience. Puhl
(1990:422) draws the important conclusion that a person who uses cognitive skills
to solve problems will not simply accept the first solution that comes to mind as the
correct one, but will apply energy to justify the choice of that solution.

D ACTIVITY 16
List some examples of where cognitive skills have been used to solve
environmental problems in South Africa.
Look for good examples in magazines, newspapers or television programmes.

We will now look at some of the other skills that need to be mastered:

(c) Communication skills

Some of the important communication skills that need to be mastered include
. conveying ideas and views on the environment via various media (see study
unit 2 for examples of activities)
. presenting clear and succinct solutions to environmental problems
. investigating environmental
issues and communicating
the results with relevant
stakeholders
. presenting information
orally and in writing (ie via
diagrams, graphs and
sketches)

Please note that many of these

skills can be learnt in language
and communication courses
and the learning area:
Language.
 16

(d) Numeracy skills

Some of the important numeracy skills
that need to be mastered include
. collecting, classifying and analysing
data
. interpreting statistics (eg on the
weather)

These techniques are typically taught in the Natural Sciences learning area.

(e) Study skills

Some of the important study skills that need
to be mastered include
. searching for, analysing, interpreting and
evaluating information about the
environment from different sources
. planning a project (eg landscaping part of
the school grounds)
. studying environmental issues from
different angles

These skills can be learnt in various disciplines.

(f) Problem-solving skills

Some of the important problem-solving skills that need to be mastered include
. identifying the causes and results of environmental problems
. forming considered opinions and making balanced judgments on environmental
issues
. developing divergent thinking
. considering and predicting the effects
(ecological, social, political, economic,
etc) of certain actions relating to the
environment
. selecting, designing and implementing
appropriate actions relating to the
environment
. evaluating, clarifying and adapting
values in the light of fresh information
. taking decisions on actions relevant to
environmental issues
. evaluating action taken in terms of how it affects the attainment and/or
preservation of a dynamic balance between quality of life and quality of
environment

These skills can be learnt in various disciplines.

 17 EDA304-6/1

(g) Personal and social skills

Some of the important personal and social skills that need to be mastered include
the ability to

. cooperate with others (eg group projects) to improve the environment

. take individual and group responsibility for the environment
. use all the different sense organs for the study of all kinds of environments
. identify, analyse and make value judgments about the environment
. develop the political qualities needed for active citizenship (eg to
demonstrate peacefully, organise petitions and delegations, write letters to the
press)
. promote responsible individual and collective behaviour towards the local
community, the world community and the biophysical environment
. bring about and accept change

These skills relate to the affective (emotional) domain.

(h) Information and technical skills

Some of the important information and technical skills that need to be mastered
include

. collecting data and feeding the data into a

data base (eg recording details of
all birds in the school grounds)
. simulating or duplicating a study in which
information technology is used

Learners may learn these skills in learning areas

such as Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and
Mathematics.
 18

D ACTIVITY 17
Which skills are essential for the conditions where you will be doing environmental
education?

In the formal education system, educators should possess certain skills in order to
make learners aware of the importance of the environment. The following are
examples of skills and knowledge that an environmental educator should possess
(adapted from Opie 1, Department of Education, Queensland 1993:11):

Environmental educators should be able to

. select material relating to the environment from a curriculum, programme,
learning area or subject
. identify basic environmental problems and motivate people to explore and solve
them
. cultivate individual awareness of the environment
. share the learners' learning process
. encourage critical thinking
. deal with groups in an outdoor environmental situation
. integrate different learning areas/subjects
. cultivate positive values and attitudes
. bring about a supportive and democratic learning process in the classroom or
learning situation

D ACTIVITY 18
Assess yourself. How many of these skills do you possess. Write down examples of
occasions when you used these skills to teach learners about the environment.
Consider the way in which you teach or deal with groups in the course of
environmental education programmes.
 19 EDA304-6/1

1.4.4 Attitudinal or behavioural change

It is commonly accepted that environmental education is meant to change people's
attitudes and behaviour towards the environment (Goals of environmental
education are discussed in study unit II.) Swanepoel (1986:130) studied different
definitions of attitudes and arrived at the following conclusions:
. Attitudes have a cognitive (knowledge), volitional (the will) and an affective
(emotion) component.
. Attitudes can be general or specific.
. Attitudes vary in intensity or depth depending on the depth or intensity of the
person's convictions.
. Attitudes may be individual or belong to a group.
. Attitudes are largely subconscious.
. Attitudes create a state of tension or readiness to act.
. Attitudes play a role in a person's mental processes or thoughts.
. Attitudes develop partly from personal experience and thought, and partly
from education and influence.

D ACTIVITY 19
What do these statements tell you about the environment?
Describe in one or two sentences what the implications of these statements could
be for your work situation.

Here are some general remarks about these statements:

. These statements indicate the importance of attitudes when one has to convince
an individual or group that a cause is worthwhile. If you wanted to persuade a
group not to erect a factory in a certain locality, for example, you would need to
have a very positive personal attitude towards that environment.
. It would appear that attitudes are abstract and that, like values, they are difficult
to assess. One cannot see an attitude and it is difficult to describe a positive
attitude towards, say, soil conservation.
. Knowledge and attitudes relate to behaviour. It is more important what people
do in their environment than what they feel or believe. People may, for example,
recognise the danger of destroying the ozone layer and protest against the use
of substances that destroy it, yet continue to use sprays containing these
destructive substances.
. In the last statement, Swanepoel admits that attitudes are influenced by
education to a certain extent (probably by teaching). Young people's attitudes
to the environment may, therefore, be indirectly influenced by good education.

There is a positive correlation between attitudes and interest. By teaching the

history of an area to learners in an interesting way, one may cultivate their interest
in history and give them a positive attitude towards history as a school subject. In
 20

this way, educators can make a real contribution by cultivating interest in a

particular environment and thus exert a positive influence on learners' attitudes
towards that environment.

Although it is difficult to evaluate attitudinal change, there are some tests that
determine (measure) people's attitudes. According to Brooks (1978:41), the value
of measuring attitudes is that it enables one to predict and control human
behaviour. This means that one can try to predict and control people's behaviour
on the basis of their attitudes towards the environment and so prevent continued
damage to the environment.

Anti-behaviourists and anti-positivists object to the so-called measurement and

prediction of behaviour. Nowadays, case studies are used more frequently to
determine people's attitudes towards various environmental problems.

All these aspects of attitude formation and the influence of attitudes on human
behaviour are extremely important to educators, since virtually all their actions are
aimed at changing attitudes towards the environment. Agnihotri (in Ruhela
1986:41) suggests a way to change attitudes: ``Both attitude and behaviour, being
the functional aspects of one's personality, are apt to be greatly influenced by
education.''

Although attitudes can be changed through formal education, environmental

educators in the non-formal sector have just as important role to play as educators
in the formal education sector. They sometimes act as role models and can do
much to instil a positive attitude towards the environment.

Traditional thinking has been that making an individual more knowledgeable about
the environment will change his or her behaviour. Research, however, does not
bear out the validity of this thinking. Being better informed about the environment
does not necessarily make people more favourable towards the environment.
Pettus (1976), however, contends that some basic knowledge of the environment
is needed to promote the development of desirable attitudes and to enable people
to make sound environmental decisions. In a study to determine the effect of an
outdoor experience on self-concept, knowledge and attitude towards the
environment, Gillett, Thomas, Skok and McLaughlin (1991) found that outdoor
experiences result in changes in knowledge, but not necessarily changes in
attitude. This is not, however, consistent with the findings of other researchers (eg
Gifford, Hay & Boros 1982). Further research in this field is, therefore, necessary.

Iozzi (1989:5) sums up the difficulty of changing attitudes: ``The relationship

between environmental knowledge and positive attitudes is unclear.''

Iozzi is probably saying that someone can know a lot about the environment, but
still not have a positive attitude towards it. So a person who has done
environmental studies has not necessarily received environmental education.
 21 EDA304-6/1

Even though attitudes are complex (especially because they are subconscious),
strategies devised for environmental education programmes must always strive to
change attitudes. When trying to change attitudes, one must always consider the
importance of communicating knowledge and information.

1.4.5 Decision making

Decisions that affect environmental education whether in a formal education
setting or a less formal one are taken at the following levels:
. Government level: Documents are published (eg the White Paper on
Environmental Education [South Africa 1989]) and laws are passed (eg on
environmental issues such as the conservation of marshlands) (Vosloo
1987:24).
. Education Department level: A decision was made, for example, to include
environmental education in the school curriculum (eg the Environmental Policy
Initiative).
. Management level: Decisions are made in the private sector and trade unions
and the general public influence decisions.

D ACTIVITY 20
How can decisions made by organisations benefit the environment? Give some
examples.
Look for good examples in magazines, newspapers or television programmes.

You should note the role of evaluation in decision making. Decisions relating to
actions that affect the environment are often determined by the outcome of
evaluation exercises (eg municipal environmental studies). Some issues, such as
dune mining in KwaZulu-Natal, are controversial and can cause great uproar (ie
has advantages and disadvantages for all parties concerned) (Cooper 1989:118
121; Goedhals 1989:176177). In these cases, careful evaluation and correct
decision making are vitally important. Environmentally-sensitive people will
probably make the best decisions.

1.4.6 The role of human needs in environmental education

Humans have different needs and the satisfaction of these needs may have an
enormous impact on the environment.

D ACTIVITY 21
Identify your needs and try to determine those of a colleague. Compare those
needs you listed with the needs that will now be discussed.
 22

This discussion does not necessarily include all possible needs, so you will
possibly want to add other needs. Try to predict what impact the satisfaction of
each of these needs will have on the environment.

(a) Physiological needs

From birth, humans try to satisfy physiological needs such as hunger and thirst.
Think about how a baby cries when he or she is hungry. Humans utilise the
environment in various ways to satisfy their needs. Farming activities, for instance,
are aimed at providing humans with food, but these activities have a definite
impact on the environment.

D ACTIVITY 22
What other types of activities will influence the environment?

(b) Need for self-preservation and security

Apart from physical security, humans nowadays also focus on health. Shelter,
whether in a squatter camp or in an upmarket neighbourhood, serves as a means to
protect oneself from the assaults of nature and other humans. This need also relates
to the aim of some individuals to conserve plants, animals, soil and natural
resources. The satisfaction of these needs may, as already indicated, have a
considerable impact on the environment.

D ACTIVITY 23
How does the need for self-preservation and security influence the environment?

(c) The need for self-respect, pride and praise

Humans have a tendency to see themselves as more important than others and this
may cause them to do things for their own gain. In making others aware of their
presence, they bolster their self-image and pride in themselves. Activities may also
be directed towards achieving prestige and self-esteem. Think about why you
registered for this module. Do they not relate to pride and self-respect? It is
important for environmental educators to keep these needs in mind when dealing
with people.

D ACTIVITY 24
People generally participate in projects so that they can feel good about
themselves and so that they can make a contribution to their community. How
 23 EDA304-6/1

would you use these needs to motivate a group of young people to keep a
recreation area clean?

(d) The need for material wealth and the aesthetic

Material wealth relates to the need for safety as well as to ego needs. Members of a
community usually have a high regard for people who are wealthy. Suppose, for
instance, that decisions have to be made about the mining of minerals purely for
financial reasons. This could compete with the aesthetic that which is beautiful
to people. People, however, have different aesthetic needs some like beautiful
paintings, while others place a high premium on the beauty of nature.

D ACTIVITY 25
What are your personal aesthetic needs? Would the satisfaction of these needs
compete with your need for material wealth?

(e) Need for affection, love and the emotional

Love and affection can be coupled with the need for security, because people will
protect their relatives and friends out of love. Demographic circumstances also play
a role a teenager may be more concerned about a first love than about
biodiversity. Organisations that collect money, say for conservation purposes or for
a community fund, call on the emotional side of humans. Consider the strategies
which are sometimes used to convince people to sign petitions.

D ACTIVITY 26
How would you utilise the need for affection, love and the emotional in your
profession?

(f) Need for information

People want to know what is happening around them irrespective of whether it
is an environmental, political or financial issue. The new trend of ``transparency'' is
related to this. The media are often used to provide information to people and the
environmental educator also has an important role to play in this regard.

D ACTIVITY 27
What information do you consider important enough to share with those around
you? Why would you like to provide them with this information?
 24

(g) The need for entertainment and adventure

People have different needs for entertainment some like to read, some find
watching television more rewarding, while others like to relax in nature. Identify
some entertainment needs of people you come into contact with.

Most people have a desire for adventure, because it satisfies their curiosity. People
usually like new experiences and ideas. Hikers, for example, visit new wilderness
areas not just for the physical activity, but also for adventure. The need for the
aesthetic also plays a role.

D ACTIVITY 28
How would you, as an environmental educator, build adventure into your
environmental education programmes? Name a number of activities.

(h) Ideological needs

Each person has his or her own opinions and views about matters, and these may
concur or differ from those of others. A person should make allowances for
differences in ideological needs and be sensitive about those differences. Consider
the different opinions regarding the utilisation of resources.

D ACTIVITY 29
What is your opinion about the culling of game? Does it concur or differ from the
views of others? Which reasons may be given for this?

1.5 Paradigms, philosophies and ideologies for

environmental education
This section should be read in close conjunction with section A (paragraphs 3A.1
3A.5) in chapter 3 of your textbook.

In order to understand the different interpretations of the concept ``environmental

education'', it is important to take note of the paradigms, philosophies and
ideologies that are used in this field. There is no agreement, even amongst
specialists, about what the terms ``paradigm'', ``philosophy'' and ``ideology''
actually mean. Sometimes the same concept is described as both a paradigm and a
philosophy. Nevertheless, we are introducing you to some current paradigms,
philosophies and ideologies in the field of environmental education. We do not
classify these trends in this workbook, as it is better for you to form your own
opinions.
 25 EDA304-6/1

1.5.1 Dominant social paradigm versus new environment-oriented

paradigm
Fien (1993:2325) uses the term ``paradigms'' and contrasts ``social paradigm''
and `'new environment-oriented paradigm'' as follows:

TABLE 1
Contrasting values and beliefs of the dominant social and new environment-oriented
paradigm

Dominant social paradigm New environment-oriented paradigm

1 Low valuation on nature
. uses nature to produce goods
. human domination of nature
. economic growth important (sometimes
more important than environmental
conservation)
1 Great emphasis on nature
. worshipful love of nature
. holistic relations between humans and nature
. environmental conservation takes priority over
economic growth

2 Restricted compassion for those near and dear 2 Universal passion for
. exploitation of other species for human needs . other species
. lack of concern for other people . other people
. concern for this generation only . other generations

3 Risk acceptable to maximise wealth 3 Careful planning to avoid risk

. science and technology a great boon to humans
. swift development of nuclear power
. emphasis on hard technology
. de-emphasis on regulation: use of the market;
individual responsibility for risk
. science and technology not always good
. halt to further development of nuclear power
. development and use of soft technology
. government regulation to protect nature and
humans

4 No limits to growth 4 Limits to growth

. no resource shortages . resource shortages
. no problem with population . increased needs of an exploding population
. production and consumption . conservation

5 Present society satisfactory 5 Completely new society needed

. no serious damage to nature by humans . serious damage by humans to nature and
. hierarchy and efficiency themselves
. emphasis on market . openness and participation
. competition . emphasis on public goods
. complex and fast labels . cooperation
. emphasis on jobs for economic needs . simple lifestyles
. emphasis on worker satisfaction

6 Current politics satisfactory 6 New politics needed

. determination by exports . consultation and participation
. emphasis on market control . emphasis on foresight and planning
. opposition to direct action; use of normal . willingness to use direct action
channels . new party structure along a new axis
. left-right party axis; argument over ownership
of means of production

(Adapted from Milbroth [1984:119])

D ACTIVITY 30
Compare the points provided in the table with your views. Compare, for example,
 26

your views on science and technology as mentioned in point 3. With which

paradigm do you identify? Weigh up the elimination of power stations against the
convenience of electricity.

1.5.2 Ecocentrism versus anthropocentrism

Some authors divide environmental ideologies into two categories: ecocentric
(nature is the focal point, humans are equal to all other forms of life) and
anthropocentric (human beings are the focal point, the rulers or owners of nature).

1.5.3 Technocentrism versus ecocentrism

Supporters of technocentrism want the status quo to remain, but feel that it should
be regulated by planned political and economic structures. This ideology is
subdivided into the Cornucopian and the Accommodative Management light
green ideologies (see table 2).
Technocentrism wants to combat environmental problems by developing technical
apparatus, such as taller chimney stacks on factories.
Ecocentrism, on the other hand, focuses on
. redistribution of power, decentralisation and a federated economy
. informal economics and social transactions
. striving for participatory justice

This ideology is subdivided into Communal Ecosocialism and the Gaia or Utopian
dark green ideologies.
Fien (1993:27) summarises the main features of these ideologies as follows:

TABLE 2
A pattern of environmental ideologies

Technocentric Ecocentrism
Cornucupian Accommodative Ecosocialist Gaian/Utopian
1 Optimistic about 1 Reformist belief that 1 Does not believe in large-scale technology
human ability to economic growth and and its relationship with elitist expertise,
improve the human resource exploitation can central government control and anti-
lot and find a way continue, provided democratic institutions
out of any scientific, (a) appropriate econo-
political and tech- mic adjustments are
nological problems made via taxes, fees,
etc
2 Believes that all (b) right to minimum 2 Rejects materialism; believes that economic
economic growth is level of growth should cater for everybody's basic
good, sets goals in environmental quali- needs
advance and ty is legislated
formulates policy (c) compensation
and developmental arrangements are
made to those who
decisions
experience adverse
environmental and/
or social affects
 27 EDA304-6/1

3 Believes that all 2 Acceptance of 3 Believes in the intrinsic importance of nature

problems can be development appraisal for defining and sustaining humanity
overcome given the techniques and decision-
will, insight and making arrangements to 4 Emphasises less is more beautiful in
sufficient resources allow for wide discussion community identity, work and leisure
that can be obtained or genuine search for
from economic consensus among
growth and representative groups of
technological interested parties
development
4 Confident that 3 Provision of effective 5 Believes in the rights 5 Believes in the
science and environmental manage- of nature and the cooperative ability
technology will ment agencies at national importance of co- of communities to
provide a basis for and local levels evolution of natural establish self-
economic growth and human systems reliant communi-
and public health, ties based on sus-
and will solve tainable resource
environmental pro- utilisation and
blems appropriate tech-
nology
5 Suspicious of attempts to promote 6 Believes that 6 Integration of the
participation in social and environmental ecological (and other concepts of work
recognition and policy reviews natural) laws should and recreation
dictate human through a process
morality of personal and
community devel-
opment
7 Upholds bio-rights 7 Importance of
and the rights of participation in
threatened species community affairs
and unique natural and guarantees of
regions minority rights;
sees participation
as an ongoing
educational and
political function

D ACTIVITY 31
Which of these paradigms or ideologies, in your opinion, prevail in your
community? Are you happy with these paradigms?

You could decide that a technocentric approach is best. If spray cans containing
ozone, for example, were filled with other substances, it would solve the problem
of ozone layer destruction. You might, however, feel that an ecosocialist approach
is better, that is, that it would be better to change people's attitudes towards the
environment.
 28

1.5.4 Empirical versus hermeneutic versus critical sciences

Fien (1993:62) considers these sciences to be philosophies and summarises the
characteristics of each.

(a) Empirical sciences

Empirical means to be based on experience; empiricism means to learn through
experience, that is, experiential learning.

Characteristics
. Function in the experiential sphere.
. Accept a positivist philosophy.
. People get to know the world through observation.
. People should critically evaluate the world and classify observations to discover
common features and general laws in order to predict future events.

Importance for human beings

. Empirical sciences allow for technical checks and the control of people and
society. Experts monitor things like health care, nature conservation and
agriculture in communities.
. There is great support for the empirical sciences, because they make it possible
to manage environmental and societal problems.

Related ideologies
Empirical sciences relate to a conservative ideology. Conservative ideology takes
the present structure and functioning of society as a given and tries to determine
and manipulate its direction.

Empirical sciences and environmental education

Environmental educators who support the approach of the empirical sciences try to
inform managers, professionals and youths about their own vision of the
environment. The curricula and programmes compiled by these educators are
meant to ``green'' society without changing its present structure and functioning.
The actions of supporters of the empirical sciences are based mainly on empirical
and technological knowledge of the environment and environmental education.
One could call their approach education for environmental management and
control.

Some people describe the empirical scientists' environmental education as

education about the environment.
 29 EDA304-6/1

(b) Hermeneutic sciences

Hermeneutic relates to explanation and interpretation.

Characteristics
. Focuses on individuals in society, their actions and the implications of those
actions.
. Want to appreciate people and what they do.

Importance for human beings

Hermeneutic sciences promote mutual understanding and interpersonal
accommodation. These sciences enrich society by making people aware of one
another, the environment and themselves.

Related ideologies
Hermeneutic sciences are conservative in that they are not necessarily associated
with social change. Supporters of these sciences are liberal in the sense that they
champion individual freedom, with due regard for the freedom of other people.

Hermeneutic sciences and environmental education

These sciences use environmental education to try and make people understand
their behaviour in the environment. This helps people to evaluate and share the
beliefs, attitudes and values that lead to a non-sustainable lifestyle.

Some people regard the type of environmental education that supporters of the
hermeneutic sciences provide as education for environmental awareness and
interpretation.

(c) Critical sciences

Critical refers to, inter alia, value judgments of scientific and artistic views and
human behaviour.

Characteristics
. Tries to explain the world in terms of the underlying structures, mechanisms
and events that activate it.
. Demands not just analysis of reality (empiricism) and explanation (hermeneutic
understanding), but also theoretical explanations of actions.
. Works out valid theories of the abstract world and uses these theories to
explain actual events and experience.

Importance for human beings

The aim of the critical sciences is to free people from the restrictions or constraints
imposed on them by ideologies. Self-determination and development of people's
full potential requires knowledge not just empirical and hermeneutic
knowledge, but also critical knowledge. The critical sciences try to show people
 30

how and why their society works in a particular way. This helps them to participate
fully in changing it into the kind of society that they want.

Related ideologies
The critical sciences are basically radical. Critical scientists oppose the dominance
of the empirical sciences in capitalist society, because the empirical sciences do
nothing about the basic inequalities on which societies are based. Critical
scientists also reject the hermeneutic sciences because they teach a false ideology
of human self-determination.

Critical sciences and environmental education

Critical sciences want to use environmental education to empower people to
become agents of social change and sustainable development. They want to
enable people to shape the structures and mechanisms that regulate society's use
of nature in such a way that a future democracy and sustainable society can come
about. One could call this environmental education towards sustainability.

Each of the three ideologies that we have discussed here has its supporters.

D ACTIVITY 32
Reread the section on these ideologies. Try and decide which one you find most
acceptable. Give reasons for your answer.
Do not let one-sided statements influence you.

We shall now describe two models that reflect the views of these three ideologies.

DIAGRAM 2
A reflection model

Reflection
!
!

Empirical Critical
sciences sciences
!

Hermeneutic
sciences

(Adapted from Van Rensburg 1995)

This model indicates that one should think about the meaning of the three
ideologies in order to make decisions about environmental education.
 31 EDA304-6/1

The next model indicates that the best characteristics of each ideology should be
selected. Characteristics of all these ideologies are used in different situations.

DIAGRAM 3
A selection model

Empirical Critical
sciences sciences

Hermeneutic
sciences

D ACTIVITY 33
How do these two models compare with the opinion you formed in the previous
activity? Write it down. Has it changed your ideas about ideologies in relation to
environmental education?
Is it possible to support just one ideology?
Also study chapter 2 about philosophies and values, such as religious values.

D ACTIVITY 34
Name three major religions in the world. Now compare their ideas about the
environment.

1.6 Environmental literacy

One of the aims of environmental education is to guide people towards responsible
and active environmental literacy. Environmental literacy can be defined as follows:

In essence, environmental literacy is the ability to observe and interpret the relative
healthiness of environmental systems and to take appropriate action to maintain,
restore or improve the state of these systems.

D ACTIVITY 35
Would you consider yourself an environmentally literate person?
 32

Consider each of the points mentioned in the definition.

The following activity is meant to establish (a) how you measured up to the criteria
of environmental literacy before you started with this module and (b) how
environmentally literate you are at the end of the module. This activity should only
be used for your own purposes. Please do not submit it!

Answer all the questions as honestly as possible

Indicate your position on all the aspects using the following sliding scale (Circle
your answers):
(1) Very good
(2) Good
(3) Average
(4) Bad
(5) Very bad

Statement My assessment
1 I am sensitive to environmental issues 12345
2 I become involved in actions to improve my 12345
environment
3 I can think critically about environmental 12345
problems
4 I am able to organise information about the 12345
environment logically
5 I can forecast environmental problems 12345
6 I am able to see the relationship between the 12345
causes and outcomes of environmental
problems
7 I understand environmental concepts 12345
8 I am involved at many levels in the search for 12345
solutions for environmental problems
9 I understand the outcomes that community 12345
decisions will have on the environment
10 I understand the outcomes that businesses 12345
decisions will have on the environment
11 I understand the difference between renewable 12345
and non-renewable sources
12 I am aware that everybody should save electricity 12345
13 I recycle certain materials 12345
14 There ought to be a harmony between conserva- 12345
tion and development
15 Scientific knowledge is necessary to solve 12345
environmental problems
 33 EDA304-6/1

16 I try to improve the appearance of my environ- 12345

ment by planting natural plants
17 I am aware that certain insect poisons can be 12345
dangerous for other organisms
18 I am aware that the emission of harmful gasses 12345
can cause damage far away from its source
19 I believe that certain environmental problems can 12345
be solved
20 My personal life is organised in such a way that 12345
I can prevent damage to the environment

Add the numbers you circled and write it down: .....................

You can repeat this exercise after you have completed this module and determine
whether or not you have improved your environmental literacy.

1.7 Sustainable development and education for

sustainability
Read this section in conjunction with chapter 5 of your textbook.

Sustainable development is a relatively new, confusing and controversial concept.

If it is to become a reality on a local, national and global scale, new priorities must
be set, new decisions made and new programmes and policies created (World
Resources Institute 1993:1).

D ACTIVITY 36
What is your view of sustainable development? Describe in a sentence or two what
you understand by the term.
Do not be afraid to voice your opinions.

Did you know that 2005 to 2014 has been designated the official United Nations
Decade of Education for Sustainable Development?

D ACTIVITY 37
How has your country reacted to the Decade for Sustainability? Name any
activities that have been launched to promote the Decade for Sustainability in your
country.

One can argue that it is important for educators to focus on sustainability in the
 34

Decade for Sustainability and that they should know what education for
sustainability entails.

D ACTIVITY 38
In a paragraph, describe what education for sustainability means. How will you
include sustainability during your lessons.
Sustainability is not an easy concept to understand or implement. Sustainable
development may, therefore, be thought of as a process requiring simultaneous
progress in four dimensions: economic, human, environmental and technological.
There are close links between these dimensions and actions in one area can
reinforce goals in another.

1.8 Principles of environmental education

1.8.1 Introduction
In general terms, principles are conditions that something or someone has to meet.
One of the great challenges of environmental education is the application of the
principles of environmental education to a modern world with its special
environmental problems. Damage to the ozone layer, for example, affects people all
over the world. For this reason, there are continual attempts to apply certain
principles in environmental programmes, both locally and internationally. It is
important to lay down uniform principles for environmental education worldwide.
The emphasis on conservation of the natural environment has also shifted to issues
like the prevention of squatting, fair and responsible land ownership, combating
poverty and the proper utilisation of resources. In these circumstances, it is
important to take note of the principles according to which environmental
education should be taught.

1.8.2 Principles of the Tbilisi Conference and their implications for

environmental education in South Africa
Two international conferences, the Tbilisi Conference and the Moscow
Conference, laid down some important principles for environmental education. The
Tbilisi Conference (UNESCO 1980:6970) produced 12 principles for
environmental education, which were endorsed at the Moscow Conference
(UNESCO 1988):
Recommendations of the Tbilisi Conference (1977) on environmental
education: Goals, objectives and guiding principles are to be considered as
providing the basic framework for environmental education at all levels, inside
or outside the school system (UNESCO 1988:6).
 35 EDA304-6/1

D ACTIVITY 39
In view of the statement made at the Moscow Conference, it is essential to
examine these principles in a South African context. Study section 2.4 in chapter 2
of your textbook for a list of guiding principles for environmental education. Ask
yourself the following questions:
Do these principles apply to the South African context? Are there other
principles that apply to South Africa? You have to find cases in South Africa,
or in your local environment, where these principles apply.

For example
Principle 4
Environmental education should look at major environmental issues from a local,
national and international perspective.
Environmental educators at grass root levels will probably not play a major role in
the international sphere. But what can educators do to inform people about the
importance that decisions made in South Africa can have on the environment?
More importantly, can environmental educators play a role at an international level?
Think of recent events. Use newspapers, magazines and television programmes to
find answers to these questions.
This principle requires us to think widely about environmental issues and to apply
common, worldwide strategies to solve some of the problems. Think of things such
as the trade in ivory and rhinoceros horn and the greenhouse effect.

1.8.3 Conclusion
We trust that this study unit has taught you more about the theory of
environmental education and about how that theory relates to practice. We will
concentrate on communication in the next study unit, that is, the practical planning
and presentation of lessons, programmes and activities. We will also endeavour to
help you understand your audiences or learners better.
 36

Study unit 2

Environmental learning in the

curriculum

a LEARNING OUTCOMES
After working through this study unit, you should be able to
. explain how environmental learning came to be included in the curriculum
. discuss how to teach environmental issues in the classroom
. select suitable methods for teaching environmental issues
. explain how learners react (learn) to the teaching of environmental issues
. assess environmental learning in an appropriate way.

2.1 Introduction
As an environmental educator whether in formal education or in the private
sector you will be expected to communicate with people. You could, for
example, be invited by members of your community to give a talk on how to
combat littering, or to give information to children on water as an essential
resource. You could even be expected to start a petition, or to write letters to the
press or to government officials. Irrespective of the form it may take, you will be
required to communicate with others.

There are currently more than 15 million learners in South African schools. It is,
therefore, important that you are able to select the best ways of introducing
environmental learning during your teaching.

2.2 The introduction of environmental learning in the

curriculum
This section must be studied in conjunction with sections 2.7, 2.8, 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3
in chapters 2 and 5 of your textbook.

After studying the appropriate sections in your textbook, you may have realised
that it was not easy to get environmental education included in the curriculum.
 37 EDA304-6/1

D ACTIVITY 40
What is the exact status of environmental learning in the curriculum at the
moment? Is it necessary for you to teach environmental issues in your learning area
or subject? Why?

The National Environmental Education Project (NEEP) came to an end in 2004

and the following needs to be highlighted about the project:
(1) The aims of the Project
The relationship between human rights, social justice, inclusivity and a
healthy environment should be emphasised in all teaching.

(2) Environmental learning in all the learning areas

The Project established the role of environmental learning in all the learning
areas up to grade 9.

Natural Sciences Emphasises the importance of biodiversity in life

support systems
Social Sciences Emphasises learners' abilities to identify and
analyse a range of environmental and
developmental issues
Life Orientation Emphasises environmental health, and creates
links between human health and environmental
health risks (eg water pollutions).
Economic and Emphasises sustainable development and growth,
Management Sciences and calls for approaches to reduce waste and
protect resources
Arts and Culture Considers the importance of cultural and natural
heritage
Technology Emphasises the importance of environmentally-
friendly designs, and encourages learners to
investigate technological impacts on the
environment
Languages Develops critical literacy skills needed to analyse
and address environmental issues and risks
Mathematics Develops numeracy skills needed to address
environmental issues and risks

(3) Educators' role in establishing environmental learning

The Project found that educators lack the capacity to understand how
environmental learning should be incorporated in their day-to-day teaching.
In order to integrate environmental learning in the curriculum, the Project
identified that Curriculum Support (CS) should be implemented to assist
 38

educators in developing skills in the following areas: (ie they should support
educators in gaining these skills):
. in-depth knowledge of curriculum issues and processes (particularly
related to the requirements of the National Curriculum Statement [R-9])
Read chapter 5 in your textbook for more information on this.)
. in-depth knowledge of environmental learning (including knowledge of
environmental issues, and the different approaches to teaching and
learning) (Read chapter 1 in the textbook and study unit 3 of this study
guide for more information on this point.)
. greater understanding of professional development approaches within a
context of curriculum change (eg cluster-based approaches, spiral model)
(Read section 5.3.1 in your textbook for more information on the spiral
model.)
. development of a range of management skills (eg planning, report writing,
professional writing, programme management, budgeting, business
planning)
. improved job-related functions (eg interactions within departmental
structures)
. reflexive practice (ie improved ability to deal with uncertainty and change,
and to evaluate and review programmes and activities through action
research strategies) (Read section 8.3.5 for more information on action
research.)
Educators should, therefore, work on gaining skills such as those listed
above and to create some environmental learning in their learning areas/
subjects.

(4) Sustainability of environmental learning

NEEP stated that much effort should go into strengthening interpretations and
understanding of the environmental focus in different learning areas at
provincial and national levels, and in the ongoing NCS (R-9) training
programmes and follow-up educator development programmes and materials
development initiatives in order for environmental learning to reach
sustainable proportions.

D ACTIVITY 41
How would you integrate environmental learning in your learning area?

2.3 Methods, techniques and resources for environmental

education
2.3.1 Introduction
Environmental educators should help people to explore and investigate subject
matter relevant to the environment. In the broad context of environmental
 39 EDA304-6/1

education, the environmental educator could be any one of the following: an

educator or lecturer, or a person in the non-formal education sector (game warden,
municipal official, museum curator). Learners could be school children, members
of associations, students, members of the army, farmers, et cetera.

The subject matter of a lesson or training session could be anything that affects the
environment, that is, anything that the environmental educator chooses in order to
fulfil the stipulated aims and objectives of his or her lesson. The environmental
educator should use the best possible methods and strategies to help learners to
master the subject matter.

2.3.2 What is a method?

A method may be described as a planned manner of doing something. A method is
also a planned procedure to reach a particular goal. A teaching method, therefore,
is any planned procedure used in the teaching situation. No single teaching
method can be called the best, so one cannot prescribe any particular method.
Environmental educators should choose a suitable method for themselves. We
suggest that you use a combination of methods. Strydom (1981:112) recommends
the following criteria for choosing methods:
. The methods chosen should suit the personal talents, subject knowledge,
experience, teaching style and interests of the instructor (environmental
educator).
. The selected methods should suit the learners' talents and learning styles as far
as possible.
. The methods selected should take account all the components of teaching
design (aims, selection of subject matter, selection of resources, evaluation).
. The chosen methods should concur with educational principles.
. Methods should suit the content that has to be taught.

These criteria show that methods are not as formal and prescriptive as some people
think and that they can be adapted to different situations.

D ACTIVITY 42
Read section 5.5 of your textbook and indicate how you would select a suitable
method to teach an environmental issue.

2.4 Resources for environmental educators

The effective use of resources (media) is extremely important in any teaching
situation. Media are also used in environmental education.

2.4.1 What are resources (media)?

Resources or teaching media are any person or object that is used for the purpose
 40

of communicating learning content in a didactic situation. Freysen, Biel, Potgieter,

Van Graan and Van Niekerk (1989:3) prefer the term ``teaching medium'' to
``teaching aid'' and ``audiovisual medium'', because the term ``teaching medium''
refers to the integrated vehicles of subject matter and is not limited to the auditory
and visual senses. Although a distinction is made between ``teaching media'' and
``teaching and learning media'', the same media used by the educator to
communicate learning content are also used by learners to learn.

There is a wide variety of teaching media. We shall only discuss groups of media,
give a few examples of each group and indicate their use in environmental
education.

2.4.2 Why are resources (media) used?

Resources or media are as important to environmental educators as they are to
other people involved in communication. They can be used to explain a particular
point of view or to stress an important point. Resources are used to provide more
impact and to contribute to people's understanding of the matter at hand. In
addition, interest can be aroused and boredom could be prevented. Resources
have to be used judiciously and not merely ``because they are there''!

2.4.3 Groups of resources (media) and their use in environmental

education

(a) Human resources

A person communicates a message mainly by means of verbal communication and
body language (Freysen et al 1989:67). Human resources include speech, body
language and nonverbal communication.

Human resources are used in environmental education and the way in which they
are used is important. The environmental educator should not only be familiar with
the subject matter but should also know how to communicate it effectively.
Because environmental education is closely associated with the affective
(feelings), the example set by the environmental educator is also relevant. The
educator's manner, dress, appearance and body language (nonverbal
communication) to emphasise certain aspects all play a part. The person's verbal
communication of subject matter should be clear. Application relates to the
activities discussed above.

D ACTIVITY 43
Describe how you would use human resources in environmental education.
Think of things like role play, stage productions, debates, et cetera.
 41 EDA304-6/1

(b) Objects and models

Actual objects can be used to communicate subject matter (Freysen et al 1989:78)
and include aquaria, terraria, vivaria, exhibitions, the diorama, sand bowls and
interest tables. There are a variety of resources of this nature outside, including
expeditions to zoos, nature reserves and museums, as well as involvement in
community studies. When it is not possible to give learners access to the real thing,
one could use models to represent the real objects.

Objects are generally used in environmental education, especially for the natural
component. Learners could, for example, observe real plants and animals to study
the relationships between organisms. Models like a globe can be used to indicate
the limited resources on earth.

D ACTIVITY 44
Mention at least five objects which you are aware of and indicate how you would
use them for environmental education.

(c) Auditory resources

Freysen et al (1989:91) describe auditory resources as non-personal media that
communicate information to people's auditory sense organs by means of sound.
Examples of auditory resources include radios, record players and tape recorders.

In environmental education, one could use audio cassettes of bird sounds, running
water or voices to create an atmosphere and teach related subject matter. One
could also encourage learners to make their own recordings of, for example,
interviews on environmental issues with members of the public.

D ACTIVITY 45
Describe how you would use auditory resources for environmental education.

(d) Visual resources

Visual resources are directed to people's visual sense and include a host of things
like printed media (books, magazines, pamphlets, newspapers), pictures (graphs,
drawings, sketches, diagrams, posters, wall charts), boards (writing board, pin
board), slides, strip films, episcopes, overhead projectors with transparencies and
photographs. Try and think of possible uses of visual resources to promote an
environment-oriented approach.

(e) Audiovisual resources

Freysen et al (1989:173) define audiovisual resources as media that present
learners with information that has been pre-recorded in sound and images
 42

according to a fixed, planned programme. Examples are tape-slide programmes,

videos, television and films.

Good use can be made of environmental television programmes to promote

environmental awareness. Tape-slide programmes can be used in any field or
subject area and offer an opportunity to deal with relevant local environmental
problems.
Audiovisual presentations are always followed by a discussion or a debate to
stimulate critical thought.

(f) Programmable resources

Although programmable resources are not widely used at present, they will
become increasingly important in future and we need to take note of them. One
possible use of these resources is to simulate the implications of human
exploitation of the environment and illustrate the consequences. Advanced
technological aids such as computers that can run programmes to simulate
problems like the ozone layer and the greenhouse effect, are included in this group.
Several sources for environmental educators are commercially available.

2.5 Environmental learning

D ACTIVITY 46
Read sections 5.7 to 5.12 in your textbook and indicate how you could introduce
environmental learning through a specific learning strategy or approach.

2.6 Assessment in environmental education

D ACTIVITY 47
Read section 5.13 in you textbook and indicate how you would assess a lesson
with an environmental focus.

After studying this study unit, we trust you will be able to plan and present a lesson
with environmental learning as the focus.
 43 EDA304-6/1

Study unit 3

Introduction to basic ecological

principles and some environmental
themes and issues basic ecological
principles

a LEARNING OUTCOMES
After working through this study unit, you should be able to
. explain the concepts ``ecology'', ``food chains'' and ``food webs''
. explain the role of cycles in the environment
. describe the following environmental issues and risks:
biodiversity
waste, littering and recycling
the greenhouse effect and global warming
ozone depletion
pesticides
overpopulation
urbanisation
depletion of natural resources
health hazards
desertification
deforestation
pollution
poverty

3.1 Introduction
Although the word ``ecology'' is commonly used in everyday life, it is not always
understood in context. To understand human beings and their interaction with the
environment, one needs to know the basics of ecology. In this workbook, we only
 44

explain the basic principles to help you understand the complexity of environ-
mental relationships. You can consult the many books on ecology for more
information. Please read the sections on philosophies, ideologies and paradigms in
study unit I. An obsession with the role of ecology in the environment can also give
rise to negative perceptions in people.

3.2 What is ecology?

D ACTIVITY 48
See if you can supply the missing words in the following definition of ecology.
Ecology is the ... (1) ... between ... (2) ... and their ... (3) ..., as well as the ... (4) ...
between living organisms.
The missing words are as follows:
(1) interaction
(2) living organisms
(3) environment
(4) interrelationship

The following diagram may help

you to form a concept of
ecology.

Ecology, then, is the interaction

between living organisms and
their environment, as well as the
interrelationship between living
organisms.

This definition contains some

important principles. We shall
now look at the main components of the definition.

3.3 Interaction between living organisms

D ACTIVITY 49
Identify a number of organisms which interact and indicate how they interact.

Interaction can occur between plants and animals (eg cattle eat grass), between
plants and other plants (bird-lime grows on some thorn trees), between animals
and other animals (cheetah hunt impala), between animals and components of the
physical environment (animals drink water and absorb oxygen), and between
 45 EDA304-6/1

plants and the environment (plants absorb minerals from the soil). These examples
are taken from the natural environment, mostly in rural areas. But most people live
in urban areas. Are there interactions between plants, animals, people and their
environment in urban areas as well?

D ACTIVITY 50
Write down as many examples of these interactions as you can think of.
Look for examples in cracks, cement surfaces, or wherever there is some soil, such
as under large trees and lampposts.

There are obviously interactions between living organisms and their environment in
urban areas. Here are some examples:
(1) Moss grows in cool spots on the southern side of buildings. Moss needs
moisture (water), cool temperatures and a bit of soil.
(2) One finds insects (underneath the bark), bird nests and birds, and chameleons
in trees.
(3) Open spaces (eg parks) are recreational areas where people go for walks and
play games.
(4) People have to get rid of their refuse.

Let us examine the interactions in the environment in more detail.

3.4 Food chains and food webs

The following is a typical interaction in nature:

This is called a food chain. It consists of a primary level (in our example it would be
grass), a secondary level (the zebra) and a tertiary level (the lion). A food chain
could have four or more levels.

D ACTIVITY 51
Draw any food chain with more than three levels.
 46

Compare your food chain with the following example:

The first level consists of producers (trees produce food like carbohydrates by
using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide). Second-level organisms are called first-
level consumers (they eat the producers). Organisms at the next level are called
second-level consumers (they eat the first-level consumers). Animals that eat
plants are called herbivores; animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

But in nature one often finds that food chains overlap (eg one organism might eat
several other kinds of organisms). One can represent it as follows:

(Source: Ryke 1978)

We call this a food web.

3.5 Energy
We have said that the first level of a food chain consists of plants (producers)
which use sunlight to produce food. In the production process, they capture
 47 EDA304-6/1

energy in the food that they

make. In this way,
herbivores get their energy
from the plants they eat
(indirectly, from the sun).
Carnivores, in their turn,
get their energy from
herbivores.

ENERGY FLOW IN A
ECOSYSTEM

(Source: Ryke 1978)

If you look at the width of

the arrows, you will notice
that they become narrower.
This represents a loss in
energy.

D ACTIVITY 52
Why is there a loss of energy in a food chain?

The difference in ener-

gy consumption can
be represented in an
ecological energy
pyramid:

NUMBER PYRAMID

The same grass-zebra-

lion food chain can
also be expressed in
terms of mass in an
ecological pyramid.

MASS PYRAMID
 48

A large mass of grass is required to eventually provide the lion with sufficient
energy. The numbers pyramid also indicates this:

ENERGY PYRAMID

A lot of grass plants are needed to eventually provide a lion with enough energy.

As one proceeds from one level to the next, less and less energy per unit is available
for the last level of consumers in the food chain. Food chains seldom have more
than four levels, as more than four levels would result in too little available energy
for the last levels. Fortunately, the sun continually adds more energy to
ecosystems. This last fact also explains why plants are often the staple food in poor
countries. (In China the staple food is rice, while in some African countries, it is
maize.) So the shorter the food chain, the more people can survive in a country
(Ryke 1978:16).

3.6 Ecological cycles

In this module, it is important to note that some major elements in the environment
occur in cycles.

D ACTIVITY 53
Mention a few resources that you are aware of and that are available for reuse all
the time.

Your answer could have included water, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and
nutrients. We shall briefly discuss two of these cycles to illustrate their importance.

3.6.1 The carbon cycle

The diagram shows the regular cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and
plant and animal bodies.
 49 EDA304-6/1

Atmospheric reservoir

Combustion

Respiration Photosynthesis

Fossil fuels

Oseanic reservoir Carbonates Earth reservoir

3.6.2 The nitrogen cycle

Although nitrogen comprises about 79 percent of the atmosphere, very few

organisms can use nitrogen in this form (gas). Atmospheric nitrogen is
compounded through physical-chemical and biological processes into nitrates,
 50

nitrites, ammonia, urea and protein, and nucleic acids. These compounds occur
freely in the bodies of organisms and are released into the atmosphere again
through decomposition when organisms die.

3.7 Population ecology

We do not deal with population ecology in detail, but population studies show just
how complex the structure of the environment is. Biologically, populations consist
of a number of communities, which in their turn consist of individuals. So the
composition of populations differs greatly and can also be more or less complex.
Obviously a population that has to live on extremely limited resources in a desert
will be more sensitive to environmental problems than a population that has more
accessible resources. All populations are in balance: if one disturbs the balance, the
population can become extinct.

The following factors influence the survival of a population:

. carrying capacity
. births (natality)
. deaths (mortality)
. age structure
. migrations
. competition

If the animals in an area become too numerous, the land will not have the carrying
capacity to support them all and deaths will increase. If they can, the animals will
migrate to better pastures because of the increased competition for grazing. The
age structure of the animal population also influences birth and death rates. The
older the population, the higher the number of deaths. A young population, on the
other hand, will have a high birth rate.

D ACTIVITY 54
Now give your own example to show which of these factors apply to human
populations.

These basic ecological concepts will have to suffice. We shall now indicate which
resources in the environment are endangered. It is important to realise that there
are many interactions (relationships) in the environment and that many organisms
are interdependent. You should also realise that resources are essential for human
survival.
 51 EDA304-6/1

3.8 Environmental issues

3.8.1 Introduction
The following environmental issues and risks are some of the most serious world
problems:
. biodiversity
. waste, littering and recycling
. the greenhouse effect and global warming
. ozone depletion
. pesticides
. overpopulation
. urbanisation
. depletion of natural resources
. health hazards
. desertification
. deforestation
. pollution
. poverty

We will now discuss these problems in this section. We provide only the basic
information about each problem, because there is abundant literature available to
supply more details about the problems.

(a) Biodiversity
`` ... we will have achieved adequate conservation when 100 per cent of South
Africa is under some form of conservation management'' (Clarke 1991:225).

This section needs to be studied in conjunction with section 1.2 in chapter 1 of

your textbook.

Biodiversity in South Africa and the extent to which it is endangered:

Number of species Number endangered

Plants 7 300 species in the Western Cape 2 000
Animals 227 18
Birds 700+ 22
Reptiles, amphibians 370 21
Fishes 220 freshwater 21
220 sea
Insects 80 000 ?

It is obvious from the above table that South Africa has a rich diversity of fauna and
flora. Well-known species like the elephant, rhinoceros, lion, buffalo and leopard
 52

(the big five) attract thousands of tourists every year to South Africa. The world's
biggest mammal, fastest mammal, biggest reptile, et cetera are also found in South
Africa. Can you name them? Unfortunately, at least two mammal species we know
of, namely, the bluebuck and the quagga became extinct in South Africa. Several
other species like the black rhinoceros, wild dog, Cape vulture and jackass penguin
are also on the endangered list.

D ACTIVITY 55
We have just sketched a dark picture about biodiversity in South Africa. There are
successes though. Which species in South Africa have been saved from extinction?
Name at least three.
Did you include some of the following?
Bontebok, Mountain zebra, Marsh rose, Cape vulture?

Attempts to save organisms from extinction can, therefore, be successful.

(b) Waste, littering and recycling

Study this section in conjunction with section 1.3 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 56
Name three important items that we need to recycle and indicate how you can do
this at your school.

(c) The greenhouse effect and global warming

Study this section in conjunction with section 1.4 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 57
Describe the relationship between the greenhouse effect and global warming.

(d) Ozone depletion

Study this section in conjunction with section 1.5 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 58
What can you and your school do to prevent ozone depletion?
 53 EDA304-6/1

(e) Pesticides
Study this section in conjunction with section 1.7 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 59
What alternatives are there for pesticides in the garden?

(f) Overpopulation
We shouldn't delude ourselves: The population explosion will come to an end
before very long. The only remaining question is whether it will be halted
through the humane method of birth control, or by nature wiping out our
surplus. Paul H. Ehrlich in Miller (1994:203)

Study this section in conjunction with section 1.8 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 60
World Population Day is commemorated on 11 July every year in an attempt to
make the public aware of the problems of overpopulation. How do you think
schools should commemorate this day?

Remember! Awareness about overpopulation is not enough. Action is needed!

(g) Urbanisation
Study this section in conjunction with section 1.9 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 61
(1) What are the advantages and disadvantages of urbanisation?
(2) What is the Government doing to decrease the level of urbanisation in South
Africa?

(h) Depletion of natural resources

Study this section in conjunction with section 1.10 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 62
What is the relationship between sustainable development and the depletion of
natural resources?
 54

(i) Health hazards

Study this section in conjunction with section 1.11 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

Von Schirnding (1995) asserts that the following environmental factors contribute
to disease, disability and death in South Africa:
. a lack of sewers, drains or services to dispose of solid and liquid wastes
. a lack of safe and sufficient water supplies
. overcrowded and inadequate living conditions
. insufficient safe and clean fuels for domestic cooking and heating
. poor control of workplace environments (in both the informal and formal
sectors) leading to chemical and biological contamination of land, air, water
and food resources and resulting in unacceptable levels of pollution

All the above factors have direct effects on health.

D ACTIVITY 63
For each of the factors mentioned above, list one common health problem in South
Africa today.

(j) Desertification
Below that thin layer comprising the delicate organism known as soil is a
planet as lifeless as the moon. GY Jacks and RO Whyte in Miller (1994:313).

Study this section in conjunction with section 1.12 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

Soil erosion is a very serious problem, and it is calculated that South Africa loses
between 300 and 400 million tons of soil per annum. If this soil is loaded on 7 ton
trucks and these trucks are parked bumper-to-bumper, they will form a line which
will span seven times around the earth.

D ACTIVITY 64
Ecofacts No 52 provides the following ideas as ways of preventing soil erosion:
. Teach people to make compost heaps.
. Teach people to cultivate healthy vegetables.
 55 EDA304-6/1

. Prevent the formation of dongas by stacking stones in riverines prone to donga

formation.

Indicate how an educator can become involved in each one of these methods.

(k) Deforestation
Study this section in conjunction with section 1.13 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 65
Study the carbon cycle in section 3.6.1 of this study guide. What effect will
deforestation have on this cycle?

(l) Pollution
Study this section in conjunction with section 1.14 in chapter 1 of your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 66
(1) Which types of pollution are evident in your community?
(2) How will you try to curb these types of pollution?

(m) Poverty
Study this section in conjunction with section 1.15 in your textbook.

D ACTIVITY 67
What is the relationship between poverty and natural resources? Relate this to your
community.

We trust that you now have an understanding of basic ecology and why it is
important for environmental education. We also trust that you have an
understanding of the main environmental issues and risks, and that you will be able
to include environmental issues in your teaching activities.
 56

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