ch0 PDF

Preliminaries Section P
Chapter
Real Numbers System
Sets 1 Understand what a

set is.
A set is a collection of distinct objects called elements of the set. If
x is a member of the set S , we write x ! S (read as x belongs to S ). 2 Perform operation
If x is not a member of the set S , we write x " S . on sets.
There are two ways of describing the members of a set. One way 3 Perform operations
is by listing each element of the set. The elements are separated by
on real numbers.
commas and are enclosed by curly braces. For example, the set of
prime numbers between 0 and 10 (excluding 0 and 10) represents 4 Understand the
the set {2, 3, 5, 7}.
main properties of operations
The second way is by using a rule description of the elements of the on real numbers.
set. For example, the set C = {2, 3, 5, 7} can be written as
C = {x | x is prime and 0 1 x 1 10} .
The universal set, denoted by U, is the set of all elements and the
empty set, denoted by {} or Q is the set that contains no elements.
For sets A and B ,
1. A is said to be a subset of B , denoted by A 3 B , if every
element of A is also an element of B .
2. A and B are said to be equals, A = B , if they contain the same
elements, that is; A 3 B and B 3 A .
3. The union of A and B , denoted by A , B , is the set that consists
of all elements that are in A or in B or in both A and B .
4. The intersection of A and B , denoted by A + B , is the set that
consists of all elements that are in A and in B at the same time.
5. A - B is the set of all elements in A and not in B .
6. The complement of Awith respect to the universal set, denoted
1
Real Number System
Section P.1
byA is all elements of U but not inA, which equivalent to the

difference of U andA (U - A) .

Example 1
Let A = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10}, B = {1, 3, 5, 9} and C = {4, 9} . Find

a. A + B . b. B + C . c. A + C . d. A , B .
Remark e. B , C . f. A , C . g. A - B h.B - A
The difference operation on sets is not Solution:

commutative, that is for two sets, then
A-B ! B-A a. A + B = {1, 5} . b. B + C = {9} .
c. A + C = Q. d. A , B = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 3, 9} .
e. B , C = {1, 3, 5, 9, 4} . f. A , C = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 4, 9} .
g. A - B = {2, 7, 8, 10} h.B - A = {3, 9}
Answer Key
Related Problem (1)
Related Problem 1
a. #c, d -
b. #f - Let A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {c, d, f, g} andC = {b, f, r} Find
a. A + B . b. B + C .
c. "b ,
c. A + C . d. A , B .
d. #a, b, c, d, e, f, g - e. B , C . f. A - C .
e. "c, d, f, g, b, r ,

f. #a, c, d, e - Example 2
Let U = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10}, B = {1, 2, 5} and C = {7, 8} . Find

a. B . b. B + B .
c. C . d. C + B .
e. U - B . f.U - B
Answer Key
Related Problem (2) Solution:
a. #6, 8 - a. B = {7, 8, 10} . b. B + B = Q.
c. C = {1, 2, 5, 10} . d. C + B = {10} .
b. Q
e. U - B = {7, 8, 10} . f. U - B = {1, 2, 5} .
c. B = {4, 2, 10}
Related Problem 2
Let U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {4, 2, 10} and C = {2, 10} . Find

a. B . b. B + C . c. U - B
2
Preliminaries Chapter P
Properties of Sets
For the sets A, B, and C
1. Associative Law: 2. Commutative Law:
_A , B i , C = A , _B , C i A,B = B,A
_A + B i + C = A + _B + C i A+B = B+A
3. Distributive Law: 4. Identity Law
A + _B , C i = _A + B i , _A + C i A,Q = A
A , _B + C i = _A , B i + _A , C i A+U = A
5. Complement Law: 6. Idempotent Law:
A,A = A
A,A = U
A+A = A
A+A = Q
7. Bound Law: 8. Absorption Law:
A,U = U A , _A + B i = A
A+Q = Q A + _A , B i = A
9. DeMorgans Law: 10. Involution Law:
A,B = A+B
_A i = A
A+B = A,B

Example 3
Let U = {- 3, - 2, ..., 10}, A = {- 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3},C = {0, 4}
and B = {- 3, 0, 7} , use the properties of sets to find each of the
following.
a. ^ A , Bh , C b. A + ^ B , C h c. B , Q.
d. C + C . e. A , A f. A , ^ A + C h
g. B , C
Solution:
a. (A , B) , C = A , (B , C)
= # - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 - , # - 3, 0, 4, 7 -
= # - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 -
b. A + _B , C i = _A + B i , _A + C i = # - 3, 0 - , #0 - = # - 3, 0 -
c. B , Q = B = #- 3, 0, 7 -
d. C + C = Q
e. A , A = U = {- 3, - 2, ..., 10}
3
Real Number System
Section P.1
f. A , ^ A + C h = A , "0 , = " - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ,
g. B , C = B + C
= # - 2, - 1, 1, ..., 6, 8, 9, 10 - + # - 3, - 2, - 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ...10 -
Answer Key
Related Problem (3) = # - 2, - 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 -
a. #1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 -
b. #3 - Related Problem 3
c. {4, 5, 7}
Let U = {0, ..., 10}, A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 7} and C = {3, 4}
d. Q use the properties of sets to find each of the following.
e. U a. ^ A , Bh , C b. A + ^ B , C h c. B , z.
f. #1, 2, 3 - d. C + C . e. A , A f. A , ^ A + C h
g. B , C
g. {0, 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10}
The Real Number System
In order to understand the real number system, it is helpful to

start by looking at some of its subsets. The first subset consists of
numbers which are used for counting, that is;
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ............} .
This set is referred to the set of counting or natural numbers.
When the number zero is included along with the natural numbers,
the new set is called the set of whole numbers denoted by W , that
is;
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ............} .
The second subset is the set of integers denoted by Z , that is;
Remark
Z = {....., - 6, - 5, - 4, - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, .....} .
The following cases represent ra
tional numbers The third subset is the set of rational number which any number
All of integers, terminating deci that can be written as a ratio of two integers, that is; p/q where
mals, and repeating decimals p and q are integers and q ! 0 . For example, 1 , 46 and - 2 are
5 21 3
rational numbers. The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q
. Clearly, every integer n is a rational number because n = n . In
1
addition terminating and repeating decimals are also rational because
they can be written as a ratio of two integers, for example, 1.75
is a rational number because 1.75 = 175 = 7 , and the repeating
100 4
decimal 0.333... = 0.3 is a rational number because 0.333... = 1 .
3
Numbers that cannot be written as a ratio of two integers are called
irrational numbers, which is the fourth subset denoted by I . Many
square roots, cube roots, etc, are irrational numbers. For example,
4
2 , 3 , 5 , 3 4 , 5 6 are irrational numbers. Another common

irrational number is the number denoted by the letter r , which
represents the fixed ratio of the circumference of any circle to its
diameter.
The set of real numbers denoted by R, consists of rational and Remark
irrational numbers. The ordered nature of real numbers allows us
to arrange them along a line known as the real number line. The The number r is approximately
equal to 3.14
points on this line are ordered so that points to the right are larger
than points to the left. Every real number corresponds to a distance
on the line staring at zero. Positive numbers represent distances to
the right of zero, and negative numbers represent distances to the
left of zero.
The following strategy is used to construct the real number line.
Strategy for constructing the real number line
Step 1: Draw a horizontal line.
Step 2: Choose any point on the line and label it 0.
0
Step 3: Choose a convenient length. This length is called 1 unit.
Starting at 0, mark this length off in both directions.
... -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 ...

Example 4
Plot each of the following numbers on the real number line.
0.5, - 0.5, 0, 1.5, 2 .
Solution:
Using the above strategy, first we plot the integers - 1, 0, 1, 2 , and
then we plot - 0.5, 0.5, 1.5 . Finally we plot 2 using the fact that
2 . 1.4 .
2
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Answer Key
Related Problem (4)
Related Problem 4
0.4 1.4 5
Plot each of the following numbers on the real number line.
0 3 1 2
0.4, 3 , 1.4, 5 . 4
4
5
Real Number System
Section P.1
The following diagram illustrates the relationships of the sets that

make up the real numbers.
Real Numbers (R )
Rational Numbers(Q ) Irrational Numbers (I )
Integers (Z ) Nonintegers
Natural Numbers (N )
Negatives
Negatives of
of
Zero
Zero
Natural
Natural Numbers
Numbers

Example 5
Determine which of the following numbers is integer.
- 14, - 25, 0, 3 , 64 , 1.3 .
8
Solution:
- 14, - 25, 0, and 64 are integers.
8
Related Problem 5
Answer Key
Related Problem (5) Determine which of the following numbers is integer.
3
64, - 18, 21 - 2.26, 3 64, - 18, 21 , - 10, 7.63 .
7 7

Example 6
Determine which of the following numbers is rational.
- 14, - 76, - 108, 9 , - 9 , 5.2 .
8
Solution:
- 14, - 108, 9 , - 9 , 5.2 are rational numbers.
8
Answer Key Related Problem 6

Related Problem (6)
- 2.26, - 44, 11 , - 25, 1.23 Determine which of the following numbers is rational.
7
- 2.26, 28, - 44, 11 , - 25, 1.23 .
7
6
Operations on Real Numbers
The four common operations on the set of real numbers are: addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. In order to perform
subtraction, one needs to remember the following:
a - b = a + ^ - bh ^3 - 5h = 3 + (- 5)
-]- a g = a. - (- 7) = 7
Regarding Addition, if the numbers have negative signs, we simply

add the numbers regardless of their signs and give the answer the
negative sign. For example,
- 3 + ^- 5h =-]3 + 5g =- 8.
- 2.1 + ^- 1.7h =-]2.1 + 1.7g =- 3.8
Also, if the numbers have opposite signs, we subtract and give the answer
the sign of the bigger number regardless of its sign. For example,
- 5 + 8 = 3 (Here, 8 is bigger than 5) .
- 7 + 3 =- 4 (Here, 7 is bigger than 3) .
The rule of signs for the multiplication and division of real numbers are:
For two positive real numbers a, b, we have
(+ a) $ (+ b) =+_ab i (+ a) ' (+ b) =+^a ' bh
(- a) $ (- b) =+_ab i (- a) ' (- b) =+^a ' bh
(- a) $ (+ b) =-_ab i (- a) ' (+ b) =-_a ' b i
(+ a) $ (- b) =-_ab i (+ a) ' (- b) =-_a ' b i
For example,
- 3 $ (- 2) = 6 ^ - 2h $ 5 =- 10 7 $ ^- 2h =- 14
-6 = 3 - 6 =- 3 6 =- 3
-2 2 -2

Example 7
Perform each of the following operations.
a. - 11 + (- 2) b. - 3 - (- 9) c. 7 + (- 2)
d. - 18 ' (- 3) e. - 72 ' 9 . f. - 2 $ (- 8)
Solution:
a. - 11 +- 2 =-]11 + 2g =- 13 . b. - 3 - (- 9) =- 3 + 9 = 6 .
c. 7 +- 2 = 7 - 2 = 5 . d. - 18 ' - 3 = 6 .
e. - 72 ' 9 =- 8 . f. - 2 $ ^- 8h = 16 .
7
Real Number System
Section P.1
Answer Key
Related Problem (7) Related Problem 7
a. - 26 Perform each of the following operations.
b. -9 a. - 14 +- 12 . b. - 2 - 7 .
c. 4 c. 9 +- 5 . d. - 28 ' - 4 .
e. - 63 ' 7 . f. - 4 $ ^- 6h .
d. 7
e. -9
We close the section by listing the main properties of operations on
f. 24 real numbers.
For the real numbers (a, b, c are real numbers), we have the following
properties
Table P.1.1: Main Properties of Operations on Real Numbers

Property Example
Additionis commutative, that is;
1 2+5 = 5+2
a +b =b +a
Multiplication is commutative, that is;
2 3$5 = 5$3
a$b = b$a
Addition is associative, that is;
3 _2 + 3 i + 4 = 2 + _3 + 4i
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Multiplication is associative, that is;
4 _2 $ 3 i $ 4 = 2 $ _3 $ 4i
(a $ b) $ c = a $ (b $ c)
Multiplication is distributive over
5 addition, that is; 2 $ (3 + 4) = 2 $ 3 + 2 $ 4
a $ _b + c i = a $ b + a $ c
0 is the additive identity, that is;
6 3+0 = 3
a+0 = a
1 is the multiplicative identity, that is;
7 3$1 = 3
a$1 = a
- a is the additive inverse of a , that is;
8 3 + (- 3) = 0
a +(-a )=0
Multiplicative Inverse Property
9
For, a ! 0 , a $` 1 j = 1 3 $`1 j = 1
a 3
Zero Property
10 5$0 = 0
a$0 = 0

8
Exercises P.1
Use the given sets to answer the exercises (1-6)
A = {- 1, 2, 11, r, 8, h}, B = {1, r, 5, 9} and C = {4, 9, 11}
1. A + B . 2. B + C .
3. A + C . 4. A , B .
5. B , C . 6. A , C
Use the given sets to answer the exercises (7-12)

A = {- a, - b, - h, - i, c}, B = {h, - i, n, v} andC = {- b, n, r} .
Find:
7. A + B . 8. B + C . 9. A + C .
10. A , B . 11. B , C . 12. A , C .
13. Plot each of the following numbers on the real number line.
0, 0.5, 1.5 , 2 , - 2.5, - 5 .
14. Determine which of the following numbers is integer.

1.3, - 64, 0, - 13, - 64 , 5 64 .
8
15. Determine which of the following numbers is rational.
64, 9 , 11.3, 0, 0.26, 18, 11 .

3 7
In Exercises (16-21). Perform each of the following operations.

16. 101 + ^- 20h . 17. - 3 - ^- 9h . 18. ^- 17h + 2 .
19. - 30 ' 4 . 20. 72 '- 9 . 21. 12 $ ^- 3h .
Use the given sets to answer the exercises (22-29).

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {1, 3, 5, 9} and C = {5, 11} . Find:
22. A + B . 23. B + C . 24. A + C . 25. A , B .
26. B , C . 27. A , C . 28.A - B 29.B - A
Use the given sets to answer the exercises (30-35).

U = {a, b, c, d, x, y}, B = {a, c, y} and C = {x, y} Find
30. B . 31. B + B .
32. C . 33. C , B .
34. U - B . 35.U - B
9
Real Number System
Section P.1
Answer key for Exercises P.1

1. " r , 2. "9 , 3. "11 ,
4. " - 1, 2, 11, r, 8, h, 1, 5, 9 , 5. "1, r, 5, 9, 4, 11 ,
6. " - 1, 2, 11, r, 8, h, 4, 9 , 7. { - i} 8. " n ,

9. {- b} 10. " - a, - b, - h, - i, c, h, n, v ,
11 "h, - i, n, v, - b, r , 12 " - a, - b , - h, - i, c, n, r ,
- 5 1.5 2
13
- 2.5 - 2
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
64 64, 11.3, 0, 0.26, 11
14 - 64, 0, - 15
8 7
16 81 17 6 18 -15
15
19 - 2 20 -8 21 - 36
22 "1, 3, 5 , 23 "5 , 24 "5 ,

25 "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 , 26 "1, 3, 5, 9, 11 , 27 "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11 ,
28 "2, 4, 6 , 29 "9 , 30 "b, d, x ,
31 Q 32 " a, b, c, d , 33 "b, d, x, a, c ,
34 "b, d, x , 35 "a, c, y ,
10
Chapter
Exponents and Radicals
In this section, we introduce the concept of exponents which gives us 1 Know the definition
a very convenient way of writing very large and very small numbers.
of integer exponents.
Then we learn some rules of exponents and discuss how to use them
in simplifying expressions. 2 Develop and
understand the rules of
Integer Exponents exponents.
A positive integer exponent is a short hand notation for repeated 3 Simplify expressions
multiplication of the same factor, which is called the base of the using rules of exponents.
exponential expression. The number of repetitions is called the power
or exponent of the expression. 4 Know the definition
of rational exponents and
Definition P.2.1: Integer Exponent radicals.
Let n be a positive integer and x a real number. Then 5 Simplify radical

1. xn = x $ x $ x $ .......... $ x expressions.
1 4444n -2 4444 3
times
2. x0 = 1 , where x ! 0
Example 1
Evaluate each of the following quantities.
a. 25 . b. (- 2) 3 .
d. b 1 l .
3
c. - 25 .
3
Solution:
a. 25 = 21 444
$ 24 2 $ 423 = 32 .
2 $444
$ 2
5 times
11
Section P.2
b. (- 2) 3 = 1- 244
$ -2 $ - 23 =- 8 .
2 44
3 times
Common Mistake c. - 2 =-(2 $ 2 $ 2 $ 2 $ 2) =- 32 .
5
1 4444 2 4444 3
5 times
Evaluate - 2 4 .
Solution: d. b 1 l = 1 $ 1 $ 1 =
3
1 = 1 .
- 2 4 = - 2 $ - 2 $ - 2 $ - 2 = 16. 3 3 3 3 ]3g]3g]3g 27
144 4244 43 1 44 2 44 3
4 times 3 times
Related Problem 1
Answer Key
Related Problem (1)
a. 3 4 b. (- 4) 3
a. 81
d. b 1 l
5
c. - 53
b. - 64 2
c. - 125
Example 2
1
d. 32 Write each of the following in exponential notation.
a. 2 $ 2 $ 2 $ 2 b. - 3 $ - 3 $ - 3 $ - 3 $ - 3
c. b 1 l . b 1 l . b 1 l d. x $ x $ x $ x $ x $ x
2 2 2
Solution:
a. 2 $ 2 $ 2 $ 2 = (2) 4 b. - 3 $ - 3 $ - 3 $ - 3 $ - 3 = (- 3) 5
c. b 1 l . b 1 l . b 1 l = b 1 l
3
d. x $ x $ x $ x $ x $ x = x6
2 2 2 2
Answer Key
Related Problem (2)
Related Problem 2
a. 75 Write each of the following in exponential notation.

a. 7 $ 7 $ 7 $ 7 $ 7 b. - 4 $ - 4 $ - 4
b. _- 4i
3
2 4 c. b 2 l . b 2 l . b 2 l . b 2 l d. x $ x $ x $ x $ x
c. `5j 5 5 5 5
d. x5
Example 3
Simplify: 32 $ 33
Solution:
32 $ 33 = (32) $ (33) = (3 $ 3) $ (3 $ 3 $ 3) = 3 $ 3 $ 3 $ 3 $ 3 = 35 .
Answer Key
82 $ 87 = 8 9 Simplify 82 $ 87
12
Example 3 shows that when multiplying two exponentials having the

same base, the output will be an exponential of the same base whose
exponent is the sum of their exponents.
Product Rule of Exponents
If b is a real number and m , n are integers, then

bm $ bn = bm + n .
Example 4
Simplify each of the following using the product rule of expo-
nents.
a. b 1 l b 1 l
2 3
b. 2x3 $ x5
3 3
c. - 4y2 (3y7) d. - 4x3 ` 1 x2j
2
Solution:
a. b 1 l b 1 l = b 1 l = b 1 l = 15
2 3 2+3 5
3 3 3 3 3
b. 2x .x = 2x = 2x
3 5 3+5 8
c. (- 4y2) (3y7) = (- 4) (3) (y2)(y7) =- 12y2 + 7 =- 12y9

d. - 4x3 ` 1 x2j = b - 4 $ 1 l (x3 $ x2) =- 2 (x3 + 2) =- 2x5
2 2
Answer Key
Related Problem (4)
Related Problem 4 a. 2-7
Simplify each of the following using the product rule of expo- b. 5x11
nents.
c. - 15t10
a. b 1 l b 1 l
4 3
b. 5x2 $ x9
2 2 - 4x9
d.
c. - 5t8 (3t2) d. - 12x3 $ ` 1 x6j
3
Example 5
Simplify 42
5
4
Solution:
45 = 4 $ 4 $ 4 $ 4 $ 4 = 4 $ 4 $ 4 = 43
Answer Key
42 4$4
Related Problem (5)
Related Problem 5 565
Simplify 520
85
13
Section P.2
Example 5 shows that when dividing two exponential expressions hav-

ing the same base, the output will be an exponential of the same base
whose exponent is the difference of their exponents.
Quotient Rule of Exponents

bm = bm - n, b ! 0 .
bn
Example 6
Simplify each of the following using the quotient rule of exponents.
(- 2) 5
a. 2 7 b. x2
10 3
c.
2 x (- 2) 2
Solution:
a. 2 7 = 210 - 7 = 23
10
b. x2 = x3 - 2 = x1 = x
3
x
(- 2) 5
c. - 5 - 2 = (- 2) 3
2 = ( 2)
(- 2)
Answer Key
Related Problem 6
Related Problem (6)
a. 34 Simplify each of the following using the quotient rule of exponents.
y11 y23 (- 6) 5
a. 3 9
13
b. b. c.
3 y12 (- 6) 3
c. (- 6) 2
Example 7
Simplify (32) 3 .
Solution:
(32) 3 = (32) .(32) .(32) = (3.3) .(3.3) .(3.3) = 3.3.3.3.3.3 = 36 .
Related Problem 7
Answer Key
Related Problem (7)
Simplify: (22) 4 .
8
2
Example 7 shows that when raising an exponential to another exponent,

the output will be an exponential of the same base whose exponent is the
product of exponents.
14
Power Rule of Exponents

(bm) n = bmn .
Example 8
Simplify each of the following.
b. bb - 1 l l .
2 4
a. (22) 3 .
2
Solution:
a. (22) 3 = 22.3 = 26 .
b. bb - 1 l l = b - 1 l = b - 1 l .
2 4 2.4 8
2 2 2
Answer Key
Related Problem 8 Related Problem (8)
a. 612
b. 1
b. bb - 1 l l .
3 8
a. (63) 4 . 324
3
The following two rules of exponents show that exponentiation is

distributive over product and division of real numbers.
Distributive Rules of Exponents
1. If a, b are real numbers and m is an integer, then

(ab) m = am .bm
2. If a, b are real numbers with b ! 0 , and m is an integer, then
( a ) m = am
m
b b
Example 9
Expand each of the following expressions.
c. b - 5a3 l
4 2 3
d. c 4x2 m
3
a. (pq2) 3 b. (- 2h5 k2) 3
7b 3x y
Solution:
a. (pq2) 3 = (p) 3 (q2) 3 = p3 q6 .
b. (- 2h5 k2) 3 = ]- 2h5g3 (k2) 3 = (- 2) 3 (h5) 3 k6 =- 8h15 k6 .
15
Section P.2
(- 5a 4) 2 (- 5) 2 (a 4) 2
c. b - 5a3 l =
4 2
= 25a8 .
3 2 =
7b (7b )
3 2
(7) (b )
2
49b6
3
(4x3) 3 (4) 3 (x3) 3
d. c 4x2 m = 64x5 .
3
= 3 =
3x y (3x y)
2 3
(3) (x ) (y)
3 2 3
27y3
Answer Key
a. 1296p8 q4 Expand each of the following expressions.

- 243h15 k10 a. (6p2 q) 4 . b. (- 3h3 k2) 5 .
b.
c. b - 9a5 l .
3 3
d. c 4x2 3 m .
2 6
c. - 729a 6
4b 5x y
64b15
d. 64x12
Now we have looked at positive integer exponents we need to start
125y 9
looking at non-positive integer exponents.
Non-Positive Integer Exponents
If a, b are real numbers with b ! 0 , and n is a positive integer,

then
b - n = 1n , 1 = bn, b a l- n = b b ln, a ! 0 .
Remark b b-n b a
let a, b, c, and d are real numbers
1.
a
!
c
=
ad ! bc
with b, d are nonzeros. The rules of exponents for positive integer exponents are still valid for
b d bd
non-positive integer exponents. Let us consider some examples.
a
2. 1 can be written as with a ! 0.
a
Example 10
Evaluate each of the following.
a. 3 0 + 4 - 1

b. 5- 2
2
Solution:
a. 3 0 + 4 - 1 = 1 + 11 = 4 + 1 = 5 .
4 4 4 4
b. 5- 3 = 5 b 1- 3 l = 5 ]23g = 5 ]8g = 40 .
2 2
Answer Key
Related Problem (10)
1 Related Problem 10
a.
2
9
b. 16 a. 9 + 2 - 2 .
0
b. 2 - 2 .
-4
4 3
16
Example 11
Simplify each of the following using positive exponents only.

-4
b. b a - 2b l .
-3
a. (3xy - 2) 2 (6x - 2 y - 3) - 2 .
c
Solution:
a. (3xy - 2) 2 (6x - 2 y - 3) - 2 = 6(32) (x2) (y- 2) 2 @ [(6) - 2 (x - 2) - 2 (y - 3) - 2]
= [9x2 y - 4] [6 - 2 x 4 y 6]
= 9 $ 6 - 2 $ x2 $ x 4 $ y - 4 $ y6
9 $ x2 + 4 $ y - 4 + 6
=
62
9 $ x6 $ y2
=
36
xy
6 2
= .
4
-4 4
(c - 2) 4
b. b a - 2b l = b c- 3 l = - 3 4 = - 3c4 4 = -c12 4 = a8 4 .
-3 -2 -8 -8 12
c a b (a b) (a ) (b) a b cb
Related Problem 11 Answer Key

Simplify each of the following using positive exponents only. 49 x23 y2
a.
-3 8
b. b a - 7b l .
-2
a. (7x 4 y - 2) 2 (2x - 5 y - 2) - 3 .
c b. a6
b3 c21
Rational Exponents and Radicals
In order to extend the definition of integer exponents to rational exponents,

we need to understand the concept of a principal root or a radical, which
is defined as follows.
Definition P.2.2. Principal Root or Radical ( n a )
1
Let n 2 1 be an integer, and let a be a real number. Then a n
is the principal radical denoted by n

a , defined as
1. If a = 0 , n
a = 0.
2. If a 2 0 , n
a is the positive real number b such that bn = a .
3. If a 1 0 and n is odd, n a is the negative real number b such
that bn = a .
4. If a 1 0 and n is even then n
a is not a real number.
Here, n is called the index, a the radicand and the radical
sign.
17
Section P.2
For the case n = 2 , we usually write a instead of 2

a.
Example 12
a. 25 . b. 5 1 .
Common Mistake 32
c. 3
- 64 . d. 4
- 16 .
Evaluate 25
Solution: Solution:
25 =! 5 a. Since 52 = 25 , we conclude that 25 = 5 .
b. Since b 1 l = 1 , we conclude that 1 = 1.
5
5
2 32 32 2
c. Since (- 4) 3 =- 64 , we conclude that 3
- 64 =- 4 .
Answer Key d. 4
- 16 , is not a real number.
a. 7 Related Problem 12
b. 1 Evaluate each of the following

2
a. 49 . b. 4 1 . c. 5
- 243 . d. 4
- 81 .
c. -3 16
d. Not a real number
The following properties are useful in evaluating radicals.
Properties of Radicals
Let n be a positive integer. Then
1. ^n a h = a if n a is a real number.
n
2. n an = a if a $ 0 .
3. n an = a if a 1 0 and n is odd.
4. n an =- a if a 1 0 and n is even.
Example 13
a. ^ 5 h . b. ^3 - 8 h .
2 3
c. 52 .
3
d. 23 . e. 5
(- 2) 5 . f. (- 3) 2 .
Solution:
a. ^ 5 h = 5 . b. ^3 - 8 h =- 8 .
2 3
c. 52 = 5 .
18
d. 3
23 = 2 . e. 5
(- 2) 5 =- 2 . f. (- 3) 2 =-]- 3g = 3 .
Answer Key
a. 3
b. - 67
a. ^ 3 h . b. ^5 - 67 h .
2 5
c. 72 .
c. 7
3
d. 23 . e. 3
(- 8) 3 . f. 6
(- 5) 6 .
d. 2
e. -8
The following properties are known as laws of radicals. f. 5
Laws of Radicals
For n a natural greater than 1, x and y are positive real numbers

2. n a = n a .
n
1. n ab = n a n b .
b b
In order to simplify a radical we need to get factors out of its radicand

so that no factor left has an exponent greater than or equal to the index
of the radical, and the index is as low as possible. Let us consider some
examples.
Example 14
a. 98 .
b. 3
- 32 . Common Mistake
c. 5 .
3
27 Evaluate
1. 32 + 42 .
Solution: 2. 4 + 9 .
a. 98 = (49)(2) = 49 2 = 7 2 . Solution:
1. 32 + 42 = 3 + 4 = 7
b. 3
- 32 = 3 (- 8) (4) = 3
- 8 3 4 =- 2 3 4 . 2. 4 + 9 = 4 + 9 = 2 + 3 = 5
c. 3 5 = 3
5 = 3 5 .
27 3
27 3

Simplify each of the following. a. 2 7
a. 28 .
b. -2 3 6
b. 3 - 48 .
c. 3 81 . c. 33 3
125 5
19
Section P.2
Example 15
Simplify 3
24x 4 y6 z3 .
Solution:
Rearranging the radicand into cubes, we get that
3
24x 4 y6 z3 = 3 (23 x3 y6 z3) (3x) .
Using laws of radicals, we conclude that
3
(2xy2 z) 3 (3x) = 3 (2xy2 z) 3 3
3x = 2xy2 z 3
3x .
Answer Key
3x4 y3 z 3
z2 Simplify 3
27x12 y9 z5 .
Now, we are ready to define rational exponents.
Definition P.2.3 : Rational Exponents

Let m, n be integers, n 2 1 , such that m is in lowest terms. If
n
a is a real number such that n a is real, then
1. a1/n = n a .
2. am/n = ^n a h = n am .
m
3. am/n = ]a1/ngm = ]amg1/n .
Example 16
c. b 32 l .
3/5
a. (27) 1/3 . b. (125) 2/3 .
243
Solution:
a. (27) 1/3 = 3 27 = 3 .
b. (125) 2/3 = ^3 125 h = ^3 53 h = 52 = 25 .
2 2
c. b 32 l = b5 32 l3 = c5 2 5 m3 = b 2 l3 = 8 .
3/5
243 243 `3j 3 27

Answer Key
a. 2 Related Problem 16
b. 81 Evaluate each of the following quantities.
c. b 16 l .
3/4
1 a. (8) 1/3 . b. (729) 2/3 .
c. 128
44 2
20
In fact, the rules of exponents for integer exponents are still valid for
rational exponents. Let us consider some examples.
Example 17
Simplify each of the following expressions.
a. (- 27) 2/3 (4) - 5/2 .
b. (x2 y6) 1/3 .
2
c. c 2x1/2 m c 3x1/3 m.
2/3 - 5/6
y y
Solution:
(- 3) 2
a.(- 27) 2/3 (4) - 5/2 = ^3 - 27 h ^ 4 h = (- 3) 2 (2) - 5 = = 9 .
2 -5
25 32
b. (x2 y6) 1/3 = (x2) 1/3 (y6) 1/3 = x2/3 y2 .
2/3 2
c. c 2x1/2 m c 3x1/3 m = c 4x mc 3x1/3 m
- 5/6 4/3 - 5/6
y y y y
(4 $ 3) x(4/3) - (5/6)
=
y1 + (1/3)
= 12x 4/3 = 12x4/3 .
(8/6) - (5/6) 1/2
y y
Answer Key
Related Problem 17
Simplify each of the following expressions.
a. -1
a. (- 8) 1/3 (16) - 3/2 . 32
4
b. (x 4 y9) 1/3 . b. x 3 y3
2/9 2
c. c 3x1/2 m c 2x2/3 m .
- 5/18 1
18x 6
y y c. 5
y3
21
Section P.2
Exercises P.2
In Exercises 1-14, evaluate the given expression.

1. 27 . 2. 5 4 .
3. b 1 l . 4. b 3 l .
3 5
2 4
5. 3 - 2 . 6. 2 - 5 .
7. (- 3) 4 . 8. (- 5) - 1 .
9. - 6 - 2 . 10. - 5 0 .
12. 2 + 0 .
0 2
11. b 1 l .
-1
3 2+0
13. 2 - 2 .
-3
14. - 2 4 + 3 - 1 .
3
In Exercises 15-25, simplify the given expression.
16. - 9x2 .
5
15. (3x3) (x2 y) .
3x
14x3 y5
17. . 18. (- 3x3 y 4) (2x3 y2) .
2xy3
19. (3x3 y) 2 . 20. (- 5pq2) 3 .
- 3 (2a - 2) 3
21. ( x ) 2 . 22. .
3y 93 a - 2
x - 2 .y - 3
23. c - 3 m . 24. b - 1 x l b 1 xy3 l.
2
z 8 3
12x - 2 yz2
25. .
6 (3x2 y - 2 z) 2
In Exercises 26-30, rewrite the given expression using rational exponents.
26. 4 x3 . 27. 5 x2 .
28. 3
(x + y) 2 . 29. 4
x2 + y2 .
30. x+ y .
In Exercises 31-35, rewrite the given expression using a radical.
31. 5x3/2 . 32. (2x) 5/2 .
33. 2 - y1/3 . 34. (4 + x) 3/2 .
35. (3 - x) 1/5 .
In Exercises 36-44, evaluate the given expression.
36. 491/2 . 37. 81 .
38. 4
256 . 39. ^1000h1/3 .
40. 272/3 . 41. 3
- 27 .
42. 3
125 . 43. 9 - 3/2 .
44. 64 - 4/3 .
22
Answers key for Exercises P.2

1
1. 128 2. 625 3. 8
243 1 1
4. 5. 6.
1024 9 32
7. 81 8. -1 9. - 1
5 36
1
10. - 1 11. 3 12. 2
13. 9 14. - 47 15. 3x5 y

8 3
16. - 3x
3
17. 7x2 y2 18. - 6x6 y6
x2
19. 9x6 y2 20. - 125p3 q6 21. 9y2
-8 x6
24. x y
3 3
22. 23. z 9 y3
243a4 192
2y5
25. 26. x3/4 27. x2/5
9x6
1 1
29. ^ x2 + y2h4 30. ^x + y 2 h2
1
28. (x + y) 2/3
31. 5 x3 32. 32x5 33. 2 - 3 y
34 (4 + x) 3 35 5
3-x 36 7
37 9 38 4 39 10
40 9 41 -3 42 5
43 1 44 1
27 256
23
Section P.2
24
Chapter
Polynomials
In this section, we will be looking at a special class of functions called 1 Know what a
polynomials. These functions play an important role in calculus and
polynomial is.
have applications in different aspects such as physics, engineering,
chemistry and biology. They are made up of very simple pieces 2 Add and subtract
called terms. We start our discussion by introducing the concept of polynomials.
a term. Then we define polynomials and study operations on them.
3 Multiply
A term in one variable, say x , is a constant or an expression of the polynomials.
form axn , where a is a real number and n is a positive integer. The
exponent n is called the degree of the term, and a is called the 4 Learn special
coefficient of the term. A term in two variables, say x, y , is a constant product formulas.
or an expression of the form axn ym , where a is a real number and
n, m are positive integers. The degree of the term axn ym is n + m ,
and the degree of a constant term is 0. Here are some examples on
terms in one or more variables:
Term Coefficient Degree
3x 4 3 4
- 2x5 -2 5
3 3 0
3x 3 1
x7 1 7
- 1 x2 -1 2
2 2
2x2 y 2 3
- 3xy3 z -3 5
x4 y 1 5
25
Polynomials
Section P.3
A polynomial in one variable, say x , is a sum of a finite number of

terms in the variable x . A polynomial in two variables, say x, y , is a
sum of a finite number of terms in the variable x or the variable y
or in both variables.
Definition P.3.1: A Polynomial
A polynomial is a sum of a finite number of terms.
Polynomials are classified according to their degree or number of

terms in them. The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of
the terms in it. A polynomial with one term is called a monomial.
A polynomial with two terms is called a binomial, and a polynomial
with three terms is called a trinomial. Here are some examples on
polynomials in one or more variables:
Number Number
Polynomial Type Degree
of variables of terms
2x2 - 3 1 2 Binomial 2
x 2 + 5x - 3 1 3 Trinomial 2
- 3x 1 1 Monomial 1
2x y + 3xy - y
2
2 3 Trinomial 3
Example 1
Classify each of the given expressions to polynomial or not, if
yes, determine the coefficients and its degree.
a. x - 2 . b. 2 - 5 . c. - 3x2 - 2 .
x
Solution:
a. The expression x - 2 is not a polynomial.
b. The expression 2 - 5 is not a polynomial.
x
Answer Key c. The expression - 3x2 - 2 is a polynomial with coefficient - 3 and

Related Problem (1) degree 2.
a. Not a polynomial
Polynomial , coefficient 6 Related Problem 1
b.
Degree 1
c. Not a polynomial Classify each of the given expressions to polynomial or not, if
d. Not a polynomial yes, determine the coefficients and its degree.
a. 3
x . b. 6x - 2 . c. 1 - 8 . d. x .
7 x x-5
26
The standard form of a polynomial in one variable x of degree

k $ 1 is
ak xk + ak - 1 xk - 1 + g + a1 x + a0, ak ! 0,
where ai, i = 0, 1, g, k, are real numbers.
ak is called the leading coefficient and a0 is called the constant
term. We can write any polynomial P , in one variable x , in standard
form, by reordering the terms in it in descending order according to
their degrees, and inserting 0xr when the polynomial has no term of
degree r , where 1 # r 1 degree]P g.
Let us discuss some examples.
Example 2
Write each polynomial in standard form, and then identify its
leading coefficient and constant term.
a. 3 - 5x .
b. 2x + x2 - 5 .
c. 1 - x - x3 .
d. 2 + 3x 4 - 2x2 + 5x .
e. 9 - x2 .
Solution:
Leading Constant
Polynomial Standard Form
Coefficient Term
Answer Key
a 3 - 5x - 5x + 3 -5 3 Related Problem (2)
b 2x + x2 - 5 x2 + 2x - 5 1 -5 a. -x - 5
Leading -1, Constant -5
c 1 - x - x3 - x3 - x + 1 -1 1
b. 3x2 + 9x - 4
d 2 + 3x - 2x + 5x
4 2
3x + 0x - 2x + 5x + 2
4 3 2
3 2 Leading 3, Constant -4
e 9 - 2x3 - 2x3 + 0x2 + 0x + 9 -2 9
c. - x3 + 1
Leading -1, Constant 1
d. - 3x8 + 3x6 + x + 1
Related Problem 2 Leading -3, Constant 1
Write each polynomial in standard form, and then identify its x2 - 1

e. 2
leading coefficient and constant term. Leading 1, Constant -1
2
a. - 5 - x .
b. 9x + 3x2 - 4 .
c. 1 - x3 .
d. 1 + 3x6 - 3x8 + x .
e. - 1 + x2 .
2
27
Polynomials
Section P.3
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

Like terms are either constants or terms having the same variables
raised to the same powers. The following examples illustrate how to
combine such terms.
Example 3
Remark
Simplify 6 + 5x2 y - xy - x2 y - 3x2 y + 7 .
Like terms in a polynomial
are combined by adding their Solution:
coefficients. First, we group like terms and get that
6 + 5x2 y - xy - x2 y - 3x2 y + 7 = ]6 + 7g + (5x2 y - x2 y - 3x2 y) - xy.
Since
]6 + 7g + ^5x2 y - x2 y - 3x2 y h = 13 + ]5 - 1 - 3g x2 y = 13 + x2 y,
we conclude that
6 + 5x2 y - xy - x2 y - 3x2 y + 7 = 13 + x2 y - xy.

Related Problem (3)
- 4x2 y3 - xy Simplify 3x2 y3 + xy - 6x2 y3 - x2 y3 - 2xy .
Adding or subtracting polynomials is just a matter of combining

like terms, with some order of operations considerations thrown
in. We illustrate how to perform these operations through examples.
Example 4
Perform (2x2 + 5x - 1) + (3x2 - 4x + 2) .
Solution:
Note that
(2x2 + 5x - 1) + (3x2 - 4x + 2) = 2x2 + 5x - 1 + 3x2 - 4x + 2 .
Grouping like terms and simplifying, we get that
2x2 + 5x - 1 + 3x2 - 4x + 2 = ]2x2 + 3x2g + ]5x - 4x g + ]- 1 + 2g

= 5x2 + x + 1.
Thus (2x2 + 5x - 1) + (3x2 - 4x + 2) = 5x2 + x + 1 .
Answer Key
Related Problem (4)
Related Problem 4
9x2 + 11x - 3
Perform (3x2 + 4x + 9) + (6x2 + 7x - 12) .
28
Example 5
Perform (3x2 - 5x - 1) - (- x2 - 2) .
Solution:
Note that
(3x2 - 5x - 1) - (- x2 - 2) = 3x2 - 5x - 1 + x2 + 2 .
Grouping like terms and simplifying, we get that
3x2 - 5x - 1 + x2 + 2 = ]3x2 + x2g - 5x + ]- 1 + 2g
= 4x2 - 5x + 1.
Thus,
(3x2 - 5x - 1) - (- x2 - 2) = x2 - 5x + 1 .

Related Problem (5)
Perform (x2 - 4x - 2) - (- x2 + 12) . 2x2 - 4x - 14
Addition and subtraction of polynomials can be done vertically

by writing one of the polynomials on top of the other, so that
both polynomials are in standard form, and like terms in the two
polynomials are above each other.
Example 6
Perform vertically (x3 - 3x + 9) + (3x2 + 2 - 4x) .
Solution:
Note that, we write the terms (x3 - 3x + 9) and (3x2 + 24x) as a
polynomials in standard form, we get
x3 - 3x + 9 = x3 + 0x2 - 3x + 9
and
3x2 + 2 - 4x = 3x2 - 4x + 2
= 0x3 + 3x2 - 4x + 2.
Vertically, the problem can be written as
x 3 + 0x 2 - 3x + 9
+ 0x 3 + 3x 2 - 4x + 2
Performing addition column wise, we get that

x 3 + 0x 2 - 3x + 9
+
0x 3 + 3x 2 - 4x + 2
x3 + 3x2 - 7x + 11
Thus,
(x3 - 3x + 9) + (3x2 + 2 - 4x) = x3 + 3x2 - 7x + 11 .
29
Polynomials
Section P.3
Related Problem 6
Answer Key
Related Problem (6) Perform vertically (x3 5x + 8) + (2x3 3x2 x + 7) .
3x3 3x2 6x + 15
Example 7
Perform vertically (- 2x2 + 5x - 1) - (x2 - 4x - 1) .
Solution:
Note that both polynomials are in standard form and of degree 2.
Vertically, the problem can be written as
- 2x2 + 5x - 1
-
x 2 - 4x - 1
Performing subtraction columnwise, we get that
- 2x2 + 5x - 1
-
x 2 - 4x - 1
Thus, - 3x2 + 9x + 0
(- 2x2 + 5x - 1) - (x2 - 4x - 1) =- 3x2 + 9x .

Related Problem (7)
Perform vertically (2x2 - 5x - 1) - (- 4x2 + 3x - 1) .
6x2 - 8x
Multiplying Polynomials
when multiplying two binomials, we use a shortcut called the FOIL

method which is stated as follows:
FOIL Method for Multiplying Two Binomials

L
F To multiply two binomials, find the sum of the products of
F: the First terms.
(ax + b) (cx + d) O: the Outer terms.
I: the Inner terms.
L: the Last terms.
I
O Example 8
Perform (2x - 3) (4x - 1) .
30
Solution:
Using the FOIL method, we get that
L
F = (2x)(4x) = 8x 2 , F
O = (2x) (- 1) = - 2x
I = (- 3) (4x) =- 12x (2x - 3) (4x - 1)
L = (- 3) (- 1) = 3 . I
Therefore, O Answer Key
(2x - 3) (4x - 1) = F + O + I + L Related Problem (8)
= 8x2 - 2x - 12x + 3 9x2 - 9x - 4
= 8x2 - 14x + 3
Related Problem 8
Perform (3x - 4) (3x + 1) .
Also, In order to multiply polynomials, we can use the distributive

property of multiplication over addition, and then group like terms.
Example 9
Perform (3x + 2) (5x2 - 2x - 4) .
Solution:
Using the distributive property twice, we get that Remark
(3x + 2) (5x2 - 2x - 4) = 3x (5x2 - 2x - 4) + 2 (5x2 - 2x - 4) The distribution law:
= (15x3 - 6x2 - 12x) + (10x2 - 4x - 8)
a (b + c) = ab + ac
= 15x3 - 6x2 - 12x + 10x2 - 4x - 8.
a (b + cb + g + f) = ab + gaf
Grouping like terms and simplifying, we conclude that
(3x + 2) (5x2 - 2x - 4) = 15x3 + ]- 6x2 + 10x2g + ]- 12x - 4x g - 8
= 15x3 + 4x2 - 16x - 8.

Related Problem (9)
Perform (2x + 3) (4x2 - 3x - 1) . 8x3 + 6x2 - 11x - 3
Example 10
Perform (2x2 - x) (- x + 1) .
31
Polynomials
Section P.3
Solution:
Using the distributive Property twice, we get that
(2x2 - x) (- x + 1) = (2x2 + (- x)) (- x + 1)
= 2x2 (- x + 1) + (- x)(- x + 1)
=- 2x 3 + 2x2 + x2 - x.
Grouping like terms and simplifying, we conclude that

(2x2 - x) (- x + 1) =- 2x3 + ]2x2 + x2g - x
=- 2x3 + 3x2 - x.
Answer Key
- 10x + 13x + 3x
3 2
Perform (5x2 + x) (- 2x + 3) .
Special Product Formulas
The Product of a Binomial and its Conjugate
For any real numbers a, b,

(a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2 .
The conjugate of the binomial (a ! b) is (a " b) .
Example 11
Perform each of the following:
a. (x - 5) (x + 5) . b. (3x - y) (3x + y) . c. (x2 - 1) (x2 + 1)
Solution:
a. (x - 5) (x + 5) = (x) 2 - (5) 2 = x2 - 25 .
b. (3x - y) (3x + y) = (3x) 2 - (y) 2 = 9x2 - y2 .
c. (x2 - 1) (x2 + 1) = ^x2h2 - ^1 h2 = x4 - 1

a. Perform each of the following:
x2 - 2
a. ^x - 2 h^x + 2 h.
b. 4x2 - 25y2
c. b. (2x - 5y) (2x + 5y) .
x6 - 4
c. (x3 - 2) (x3 + 2)
32
The Square of a Binomial
For any real numbers a, b,

(a ! b) 2 = a2 ! 2ab + b2 .
Example 12
a. (x + 2) 2 .
b. (2x - 5) 2 .
Solution:
a. (x + 2) 2 = (x) 2 + 2 (x)(2) + (2) 2
= x2 + 4x + 4.
b. (2x - 5) 2 = (2x) 2 - 2 (2x) (5) + (5) 2
= 4x2 - 20x + 25.
Answer Key
Related Problem 12
a. x2 + 16x + 64
Perform each of the following: b. 9x2 - 42x + 49
a. (x + 8) 2 .
b. (3x - 7) 2 .
Example 13
a. (x + 2 ) 2 . b. (x - 3 ) 2
Solution:
a. (x + 2 ) 2 = (x) 2 + 2 (x) ( 2 ) + ( 2 ) 2

= x2 + 2 2 x + 2.
(x - 3 ) 2 = (x) 2 - 2 (x) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) 2
b.
= x2 - 2 3 x + 3.

Perform each of the following: a. x2 + 2 7 x + 7
a. (x + 7 ) 2 . b. (x - 5 )
2
b. x2 - 2 5 x + 5

33
Polynomials
Section P.3
Exercises P.3
In Exercises, 1-10, determine whether the given algebraic expression
is a polynomial. If yes, state its degree.
1. x2 - 3x + 5 . 2. 2x2 + 3x 4 - 8 .
3. x2 - 3 x + 5 . 4. - 2x3 + 2 x2 - 12x + 1.2 .
3
3 2 1
5. x - 3x + . 6. 3x + 5n + 17 .
-2
5
7. 2x2 + 5x - 1 - 1 . 8. x 4 - 2 .
5
4
9. 5 + x - x + 1 .
3
10. x + x - 2 + x + 1 .
3
x
In Exercises 11- 19, determine whether the given polynomial is a
monomial, a binomial, a trinomial or not, and state its degree.
11. 3x2 - x + 5 . 12. 7x + 3 .
13. 3x - 8 .
4
14. x2 - x 4 + 2x - 9 .
15. x + 2x3 + 9x7 - 21 . 16. 1 x3 + 2 x2 - x + 1 .
2 3
17. x - 3 . 18. 3x .
19. - 3 + 2x .
In Exercises 20-24, write the given polynomial in standard form and

name its leading coefficient.
20. 3x3 + 5x2 - x + 1 . 21. 3x - 1 + x2 .
22. 4x5 - x2 + 3x3 - x + 5 . 23. 1 a - 3a 4 + 2 .
2
24. 5 - 2x3 .
In Exercises 25-30, state the conjugate of the given binomial, and

then find the product of the binomial and its conjugate.
25. x - 5 . 26. 2x - 3 .
27. x + 2y . 28. ab - c .
29. x + y . 30. xy2 + z .
In Exercises 31-42, perform the given operation.

31. (3x2 + 4x + 5) + (2x2 + 7x - 2) .
32. (2x3 + 3x2 - 4x + 1) + (x3 - 2x2 + 3x - 1) .
33. (x3 - 5x2 + x + 3) + (- 2x2 + 3x - 2) .
34. (- 3x2 - 5x + 7) - (2x2 - 7x + 7) .
35. (4x - 3) + (7x2 + 2x - 4) .
36. (4x5 + 5x3 + 2x2 - 3) + (2x3 + 3x - 1) .
37. b 3 x2 + 1 x + 3 l - b 1 x2 + 3 x - 5 l.
4 2 4 2 4
34
38. (5x 4 - 3x2 + 9) - (6x 4 + 11x2 - 10) .

39. (x 4 + 2x3 + x2 + 2x) - (x 4 - 3x3 + 4x2 - 3x) .
40. (x6 + 2x5 + x 4 + 2x3) - (x5 + 2x 4 + x2 + 2x) .
41. (5x2 + 3x - 1) - (2x + 1) + (x2 + 2x - 5) .
42. (3x3 - 4x + 2) - (x2 - 2x + 3) + (2x2 + x + 5) .
In Exercises 43-49, use the FOIL method to find the indicated product.
43. (2x - 1) (3x + 4) . 44. (5x + 1) (2x + 7) .
45. (x - 5) (2x + 7) . 46. (5x - 11y) (2x - 7y) .
47. (9x + 5y) (2x + 5y) . 48. (2x - y) (3x + 7y) .
49. (3x + 5y) (2x - 5y) .
In Exercises 50-60, compute the given product. Simplify your answer.

50. 2x (3x2 + 5x - 1) . 51. - 3x2 (x2 - 2x - 3) .
52. (2x - 1) (3x + 5) . 53. (x + 3) (2x - 7) .
54. (x + 2) (x2 - 5x + 1) . 55. (x + 1) (x2 + 2x + 2) .
56. (x + 4) (x2 - 4x - 3) . 57. (2x - 3) (2x2 - x + 5) .
58. x (x - 3) 2 . 59. (x - y) 2 (x + y) 2 .
60. (x - 2y) 2 (x + 2y) .
In Exercises 61-69, use the special product formulas to perform the

indicated operation.
61. (2x - 3) (2x + 3) . 62. (5x2 - 2y) (5x2 + 2y) .
63. 6(x + 5) + y@ 6(x + 5) - y@ . 64. 6(x - 2y) + 7@ 6(x - 2y) - 7@ .
65. (x - 3) 2 . 66. (2x + 5) 2 .
67. (5 - y) 2 . 68. (ab - 1) 2 .
69. (5x + 2y) 2 .
In Exercises 70-73, evaluate the given polynomial at the indicated

value of the variable.
70. x2 - 5x + 3, x = 3 . 71. x2 + 7x - 10, x = 5 .
72. 2x3 - x2 + 5x + 3, x =- 1 . 73. 1 - x 4, x =- 1 .
35
Polynomials
Section P.3
Polynomial Polynomial Not a

1. 2. 3. polynomial
Degree 2 Degree 4
Polynomial Polynomial Not a
4. 5. 6. polynomial
Degree 3 Degree 3
Not a Polynomial Not a
7. polynomial 8. 9. polynomial
Degree 4
Not a Trinomial Binomial

10. polynomial 11. deg ree = 2 12.
deg ree = 1
Binomial Not one of Not one of
13. deg ree = 4 14. them 15. them
Not one of Binomial Monomial

16. 17. 18.
them deg ree = 1 deg ree = 1
binomial 3x3 + 5x2 - x + 1 x2 + 3x - 1
19. deg ree = 1 20. Leading is 3 21.
Leading is 1
4x + 3x - x - x + 5
5 3 2 - 3a 4 + 1 a + 2 - 2x3 + 5
22. 23. 2 24.
Leading is 4 Leading is - 2
Leading is - 3
Conjugate x + 5 Conjugate 2x + 3 Conjugate x - 2y

25. 26. 4x - 9
2 27
x - 25
2
x - 4y
2 2
Conjugate xy - z
2
Conjugate ab + c Conjugate x - y
28. 29 30 x y -z
2 4 2
a2 b2 - c2 x -y
2 2
5x2 + 11x + 3
31 32 3x3 + x2 - x 33 x3 - 7x2 + 4x + 1
- 5x2 + 2x
34 35 7x2 + 6x - 7
1 x2 - x + 17
36 5 3 2
4x + 7x + 2x + 3x - 4 37
2 4
x6 + x5 - x 4 +
38 - x - 14x + 19
4 2
39 5x - 3x + 5x
3 2
40 2x 3 - x 2 - 2x
36
41 6x2 + 3x - 7 42 3x3 + x2 - x + 4 43 6x2 + 5x - 4

44 10x2 + 37x + 7 45 2x2 - 3x - 35 46 10x - 57xy + 77y
2 2
47 18x2 + 55xy + 25y2 48 6x2 + 11xy - 7y2

49 6x2 - 5xy - 25y2 50 6x + 10x - 2x
3 2
51 - 3x4 + 6x3 + 9x2
52 6x2 + 7x - 5 53 2x2 - x - 21 54 x3 - 3x2 - 9x + 2
55 x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 2 56 x3 - 19x - 12 57 4x3 - 8x2 + 13x - 15
58 x3 - 6x + 9x 59 x4 - 2x2 y2 - y4 60 x3 - 4xy2 - 2x2 y + 8y3
61 4x2 - 9 62 25x 4 - 4y2 63 x2 + 10x - y2 + 25
64 x2 - 4xy + 4y2 - 49 65 x2 - 6x + 9 66 4x2 + 20x + 25
67 y2 - 10y + 25 68 a2 b2 - 2ab + 1 69 25x2 + 20xy + 4y2
70 - 3 71 50 72 - 5
73 0
37
Polynomials
Section P.3
38
Chapter
Factoring
In this section, we will learn how to factor a variety of polynomial 1 Determine the
expressions, with a primary focus on trinomials. To factor a polynomial
greatest common factor of two
means to express it as a product of polynomials of smaller degree,
or more terms.
called factors. Factoring a polynomial aids in analyzing its behavior
and in solving polynomial equations. 2 Factor by grouping.
Factoring by Using the greatest Common Factor 3 Factor quadratic

trinomials with integer
The first method for factoring polynomials is by factoring out the coefficients.
greatest common factor of all terms in it. This method is based on
the distributive law which states that a (b + c) = ab + ac for each 4 Apply difference of
real numbers a, b, c . Let us illustrate this method through examples. squares, difference of cubes and
sum of cubes formulas.
Example 1
Factor out the greatest common factor of all terms in the
polynomial 8x 4 - 4x3 + 10x2 .
Solution:
Clearly, 2x2 is the greatest common factor of all terms in the given
polynomial. This implies that
8x 4 - 4x3 + 10x2 = 2x2 (4x2 - 2x + 5) .
Related Problem 1
Factor out the greatest common factor of all terms in the Answer Key
polynomial 12x5 - 9x 4 + 51x3 . Related Problem (1)
3x3 ^4x2 - 3x + 17h
39
Factoring
Section P.4
Remark Example 2
Factor out the greatest common factor of all terms in the
The greatest common factor is polynomial 9x 4 y3 + 15x3 y2 - 3x2 y .
the highest number that divides
exactly into two or more Solution:
numbers. For example, to find
Clearly, 3x2 y is the greatest common factor of all terms in the
the greatest Common Factor of
given polynomial. This implies that
12 and 16 as follows:
9x 4 y3 + 15x3 y2 - 3x2 y = 3x2 y (3x2 y2 + 5xy - 1) .
1. Factors of 12 is
Related Problem 2
1, 2,3,4,6,12 and Factors of
16 is 1,2,4,8,16 Factor out the greatest common factor of all terms in the
polynomial 16x7 y5 + 12x 4 y3 - 20x2 y .
2. Choose the Greatest of those
Thus the greatest common

Factoring by Grouping
factor of 12 and 16 is 4
Sometimes a polynomial may not have a particular factor common to
every term in it. However, we may still be able to produce a factored
form such polynomial. For example, the polynomial 3x2 - 2x + 12x - 8
has no single factor that is common to every term in it. However, if
we group together the first two terms and the second two terms, we
see that each resulting binomial has a particular factor common to
both terms in it, that is;
S
3x 2 - 2x +S
12x - 8
Answer Key
x is a common factor 4 is a common factor
Related Problem (2)
Factoring x out of the first two terms, and 4 out of the second two
4x2 y^4x5 y4 + 3x2 y2 - 5h
terms, we get that
3x2 - 2x + 12x - 8 = x (3x - 2) + 4 (3x - 2) .
Since (3x - 2) is a common factor of x (3x - 2) and 4 (3x - 2) , we get

that
3x2 - 2x + 12x - 8 = x (3x - 2) + 4 (3x - 2)
= (3x - 2) (x + 4) .
Example 3
Factor x5 + x - 2x 4 - 2 by grouping.
Solution:
Note that the polynomial x5 + x - 2x 4 - 2 has no factor that is
common to all terms in it. However, if we group together the first
two terms and the second two terms, we see that each resulting
binomial has a particular factor common to both terms in it, that is;
40
SS
x 5 + x +- 2x 4 - 2
x is a common factor -2 is a common factor
Factoring x out of the first two terms and -2 out of the second
two terms, we get that
x5 + x - 2x 4 - 2 = x (x 4 + 1) - 2 (x 4 + 1) .
Since (x 4 + 1) is a common factor of x (x 4 + 1) and 2 (x 4 + 1) , we

get that
x5 + x - 2x 4 - 2 = x (x 4 + 1) - 2 (x 4 + 1)
= (x 4 + 1) (x - 2) .
Answer Key
^x + 1h^x - 5h
5 2
Factor x7 + x2 - 5x5 - 5 by grouping.
Example 4
Factor 8x2 y 4 - 4y 4 + 14x2 - 7 by grouping.
Solution:
Note that the polynomial 8x2 y 4 - 4y 4 + 14x2 - 7 has no factor that is
common to all terms in it. However, if we group together the first
two terms and the second two terms, we see that each resulting
binomial has a particular factor common to both terms in it, that is;
8x 2 y 4 - 4y 4 +S
14x 2 - 7
1 44 2 44 3
4
4y is a common factor 7 is a common factor
Factoring 4y 4 out of the first two terms and 7 out of the second
two terms, we get that
8x2 y 4 - 4y 4 + 14x2 - 7 = 4y 4 (2x2 - 1) + 7 (2x2 - 1) .
Since (2x2 - 1) is a common factor of both 4y 4 (2x2 - 1) and
7 (2x2 - 1) , we get that
8x2 y 4 - 4y 4 + 14x2 - 7 = 4y 4 (2x2 - 1) + 7 (2x2 - 1)
= (2x2 - 1) (4y 4 + 7) .

Related Problem (4)
Factor 12x3 y3 - 3y3 + 20x3 - 5 by grouping.
^4x - 1h^3y + 5h
3 3
41
Factoring
Section P.4
Factoring Quadratic Trinomials with integer coefficients
A quadratic trinomial in one variable, say x , is a trinomial whose

highest exponent is two. The general form of a quadratic trinomial is
ax2 + bx + c , where a is the leading coefficient and c is the constant
term. The following strategy is used for factoring a quadratic
trinomial of the form x2 + bx + c , where b and c are integers.
Strategy for factoring x2 + bx + c , where b and c are integers
Step 1: List all possible factors of c .

Step 2: Determine the pair of factors among those found in Step 1,
whose product is c and whose sum is b.
Step 3: Write two sets of parentheses with x s on the left inside
each set.
Step 4: Place the factors inside the parentheses after the x s .
Step 5: Check your answer using the FOIL method.
Let us discuss some example:
Example 5
Factor x2 - 8x + 15 .
Solution:
Note that c = 15 and b =- 8 . The factors of c are:
1, - 1, 3, - 3, 5, - 5, 15, - 15 . The pairs of factors whose product is
c are:
"1, 15 , , "- 1, - 15 , , "5, 3 , , "- 5, - 3 ,.
Evaluating the sum of each one of these pairs, we get that
1 + 15 = 16
- 1 +- 15 =- 16
5+3 = 8
- 5 +- 3 =- 8 = b.
Thus,
x2 - 8x + 15 = (x - 5) (x - 3) .
Check the answer:
(x - 5) (x - 3) = x2 - 5x - 3x + 15 = x2 - 8x + 15 .
Answer Key
Related Problem (5)
Related Problem 5
^x - 5h^x - 4h Factor x2 - 9x + 20 .
42
Example 6
Factor x2 + 5x - 14 .
Solution:
Note that c =- 14 and b = 5 . The factors of c are:
1, - 1, 2, - 2, 7, - 7, 14, - 14 . The pairs of factors whose product is
equal to c are:
"- 1, 14 , , "1, - 14 , , "- 2, 7 , , " 2, - 7 ,.
- 1 + 14 = 13
1 +- 14 =- 13
-2+7 = 5 = b
2 +- 7 =- 5.
Thus,
x2 + 5x - 14 = (x - 2) (x + 7) . Answer Key
Related Problem (6)
Check the answer:
(x - 2) (x + 7) = x2 + 7x - 2x - 14 = x2 + 5x - 14 . ^x - 4h^x + 2h
Related Problem 6
Factor x2 - 2x - 8 .
So far we have only looked at quadratic trinomials with integer

coefficients whose leading coefficient is 1.
To factor a trinomial ax2 + bx + c , where a, b and c are integers with
a ! 1 , we use the following pattern
Factors of a
( x+ )( x+ )
Factors of c
The main goal is to find a combination of factors of a and c such
that the outer and inner products add up to the middle term bx . Let
us illustrate this through an example.
Example 7
Factor 2x2 + 17x + 26 .
43
Factoring
Section P.4
Solution:
Note that a = 2, b = 17 and c = 26 . The pairs of factors of a
whose product is a are:

"1, 2 , , "- 1, - 2 ,.
The pairs of factors of c whose product is c are:

"1, 26 , , "- 1, - 26 , , " 2, 13 , , "- 2, - 13 ,.
Trying all combination of factors of a and c so that the outer and
inner products add up to the middle term bx, we get that
(x + 1) (2x + 26) = 2x2 + 28x + 26.
(x - 1) (2x - 26) = 2x2 - 28x + 26.
(x + 2) (2x + 13) = 2x2 + 17x + 26.
(x - 2) (2x - 13) = 2x2 - 17x + 26.
Therefore,
2x2 + 17x + 26 = (x + 2) (2x + 13) .
Answer Key
^x - 1h^3x - 2h Factor 3x2 - 5x + 2 .
Strategy for factoring ax2 + bx + c , where a, b and c are integers

and a ! 1
Step 1: List all possible factors of the quantity ac .
Step 2: Determine the pair of factors among those found in Step 1,
whose product is ac and whose sum is b.
Step 3: Write the middle coefficient of ax2 + bx + c as the sum of
the pair of factors that found in Step 2.
Step 4: Group the first two terms and the last two terms together.
Step 6: Factor out the greatest common factor from each group.
Step 7: Factor out the greatest common factor again.
Step 8: Check your answer using the FOIL method.
Let us discuss some examples
Example 8
Factor 2x2 + 17x + 26 .
Solution:
Note that a = 2, b = 17 and c = 26 , which implies that
ac = ]2g]26g = 52
44
The pairs of factors of ac whose product is ac are:

"1, 52 , , "- 1, - 52 , , "2, 26 , , "- 2, - 26 , , "4, 13 , , "- 4, - 13 ,.
1 + 52 = 53
- 1 +- 52 =- 53
2 + 26 = 28
- 2 +- 26 =- 28
4 + 13 = 17 = b
- 4 +- 13 =- 17.
Writing the middle coefficient of 2x2 + 17x + 26 as the sum of the

pair "4, 13 ,, we get that.
2x2 + 17x + 26 = 2x2 + ]4x + 13x g + 26 .
Grouping the first two terms and the second two terms together,
and factoring out the greatest common factor of each pair of terms,
we get that
2x2 + 17x + 26 = 2x2 + 4x + 13x + 26
= ]2x2 + 4x g + ]13x + 26g
= 2x ]x + 2g + 13 ]x + 2g .
Since ]x + 2g is a common factor of 2x ]x + 2g and 13 ]x + 2g, we

conclude that
2x2 + 17x + 26 = 2x ]x + 2g + 13 ]x + 2g
= ]x + 2g]2x + 13g .
Check the answer:
(x + 2) (2x + 13) = 2x2 + 13x + 4x + 26 = 2x2 + 17x + 26 .

Related Problem (8)
Factor 3x2 - 5x + 2 .
^3x - 2h^x - 1h
Example 9
Factor 5x2 - 17x + 6 .
Solution:
Note that a = 5, b =- 17 and c = 6 , which implies that
ac = ]5g]6g = 30 .
The pairs of factors of ac whose product is ac are:
"1, 30 ,, "- 1, - 30 ,, "2, 15 ,, "- 2, - 15 ,, "5, 6 ,, "- 5, - 6 ,.
45
Factoring
Section P.4

1 + 30 = 31
- 1 +- 30 =- 31
2 + 15 = 17
- 2 +- 15 =- 17 = b
5 + 6 = 11
- 5 +- 6 =- 11.
Writing the middle coefficient of 5x2 - 17x + 6 as the sum of the
pair "- 2, - 15 ,, we get that.
5x2 - 17x + 6 = 5x2 + ]- 2x - 15x g + 6 .
Grouping the first two terms and the second two terms together,
and factoring out the greatest common factor of each pair of terms,
we get that
5x2 - 17x + 6 = 5x2 - 2x - 15x + 6
= ^5x2 - 2x h + ^- 15x + 6h
= x]5x - 2g - 3]5x - 2g.
Since ]5x - 2g is a common factor of x ]5x - 2g and 3 ]5x - 2g, we

conclude that
5x2 - 17x + 6 = x ]5x - 2g - 3 ]5x - 2g
= ]5x - 2g]x - 3g .
Check the answer:
]5x - 2g]x - 3g = 5x2 - 15x - 2x + 6 = 5x2 - 17x + 6 .
Answer Key
Related Problem (9)
Related Problem 9
^3x - 2h^2x + 1h Factor 6x2 - x - 2 .
Special formulas
There are some formulas which are used in factoring special forms of
polynomials. We list them as follows:
a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b) 2
Perfect-Squares Trinomial
a2 - 2ab + b2 = (a - b) 2
a2 - b2 = (a - b)(a + b) Difference of two perfect squares
a3 + b 3 = (a + b) (a2 - ab + b2) Sum of two perfect cubes
a 3 - b 3 = (a - b)(a2 + ab + b2) Difference of two perfect cubes
46
Example 10
Factor each of the following polynomials.
a. x2 - 20x + 100 . b. x2 + 6xy + 9y2 .
c. 49x2 - 25 . d. 27x3 + 1 .
e. 8x3 y6 - 64 . f. x 2 - 2
Solution:
a. x2 - 20x + 100 = (x) 2 - 2 (x) (10) + (10) 2 = (x - 10) 2 .
b. x2 + 6xy + 9y2 = (x) 2 + 2 (x) (3y) + (3y) 2 = (x + 3y) 2 .
c. 49x2 - 25 = (7x) 2 - (5) 2 = (7x - 5) (7x + 5) .
d. 27x3 + 1 = (3x) 3 + (1) 3 = (3x + 1)[(3x) 2 - (3x) (1) + (1) 2]
= (3x + 1)]9x2 - 3x + 1g.
e. 8x3 y6 - 64 = (2xy2) 3 - (4) 3 = [(2xy2) - 4] [(2xy2) 2 + (2xy2) (4) + (4) 2]
= (2xy2 - 4) (4x2 y 4 + 8xy2 + 16) .

Answer Key
f. x - 2 = x - _ 2 i = _x - 2 i_x + 2 i
2 2 2
a. ^x - 4h^x - 4h
b. ^x + 5y h^x + 5y h
Related Problem 10
c. 9^3x - 2h^3x + 2h
Factor each of the following polynomials.
a. x2 - 8x + 16 . d. ^2x + 3h^4x - 6x + 9h
2
b. x2 + 10xy + 25y2 .
c. 81x2 - 36 . d. 8x3 + 27 . ^4x y - 3h
2 4
e.
e. 64x6 y12 - 27 . f. x2 - r ^16x y + 12x y + 9h
4 8 2 4
f. ^x - r h^x + r h
47
Factoring
Section P.4
Exercises P.4
In Exercises 1- 15, factor the given polynomials using the greatest
common factor method.
1. 5x + 25 . 2. 4x + 16 .
3. - 5x2 + 15 . 4. 8x2 + 12x .
5. 12x2 + 8x - 32x . 6. 3x3 - x2 .
7. - 15x2 - 12x . 8. 6x 4 - 8x3 + 2x2 .
9. - 5x 4 - 10x3 + 20x2 . 10. 9x2 + 27x3 - 18x 4 .
11. 10x2 y + 6xy - 14xy2 . 12. 8x3 y - 6x2 y2 + 4xy3 .
13. 3x (x - 1) + 5 (x - 1) . 14. 2x (x2 - 3) - 4 (x2 - 3) .
15. (x - 3)(a + b) + (x - 3)(a + 2b) .
In Exercises 16- 26, factor the given polynomials using factoring by

grouping.
16. x3 + 5x2 + x + 5 . 17. x3 + 3x2 + x + 3 .
18. 6x3 - 9x2 - 2x + 3 . 19. 3x3 + x2 + 6x + 2 .
20. 4x3 + 6x2 - 2x - 3 . 21. 18x3 + 15x2 + 12x + 10 .
22. x6 + 7x4 + 5x2 + 35 . 23. 12x7 + 4x5 + 3x 4 + x2 .
24. 3x7 + 3x5 + x 4 + x2 . 25. 3x2 - xy - 6x + 2y .
26. x2 y2 - xy3 + xz - zy .
In Exercises 27- 41, factor the given trinomials.

27. x2 - 5x - 14 . 28. x2 + 7x + 12 .
29. x2 - 10x - 24 . 30. x2 - 9x + 20 .
31. x2 - 13x + 42 . 32. x2 + 9x + 20 .
33. x2 + 12x - 28 . 34. 2x2 + x - 3 .
35. 6x2 + x - 35 . 36. 3x2 - 8x - 3 .
37. 8x2 - 26x + 15 . 38. 20x2 + 53x + 18 .
39. 15x2 - 22x - 48 . 40. 6x 4 + 23x2 + 15 .
41. 9x 4 + 10x2 + 1 .
48
In Exercises 42- 53, factor the given perfect square trinomials.

42. x2 - 8x + 16 . 43. x2 + 6x + 9 .
44. x2 + 14x + 49 . 45. x2 - 14x + 49 .
46. 9x2 + 6x + 1 . 47. 4x2 - 20x + 25 .
48. 25x2 + 40x + 16 . 49. 49x2 + 42x + 9 .
50. 9x2 - 42x + 49 . 51. x 4 + 4x2 y2 + 4y 4 .
52. 9x 4 - 30x2 y2 + 25y 4 . 53. x2 - 3
In Exercises 53- 66, factor the given polynomials.

54. x3 + 64 . 55. 27x3 - 8 .
56. x3 + 1000 . 57. 8x3 - 125 .
58. x3 - 1 . 59. 8x3 - 27 .
64
60. 8x - 27y3 .
3
61. 27 - x6 .
62. 40x3 + 5 . 63. 7x3 + 56 .
64. 3x 4 + 24x . 65. x3 y6 - z9 .
66. (x - 1) 3 - 8 .
49
Factoring
Section P.4
Answer Key for Exercises P.4

1. 5^ x + 5h 2. 4^ x + 4h
3 - 5^x - 3 h^x + 3 h 4 4x^2x + 3h
5 12x^ x - 2h 6 x2 ^3x - 1h
7 - 3x^5x + 4h 8 2x2 ^3x - 1h^x - 1h
9 - 5x2 ^x2 + 2x - 4h 10 - 9x2 ^2x2 - 3x - 1h
11 2xy^5x - 7y + 3h 12 2xy^4x2 - 3xy + 2y2h
13 (x - 1)^3x + 5h 14 ^2x - 4h^x - 3 h^x + 3 h
15 (x - 3)^2a + 3bh 16 ^x + 5h^x2 + 1h
17 ^x + 3h^x2 + 1h 18 ^- 2x + 3h^- 3x2 + 1h
19 ^x2 + 2h^3x + 1h 20 ^2x + 3h^2x2 - 1h

21 ^6x + 5h^3x2 + 2h 22 ^x2 + 7h^x4 + 5h
23 x2 ^3x2 + 1h^4x3 + 1h 24 x2 ^x2 + 1h^3x3 + 1h
25 ^3x - y h^x - 2h 26 ^x - y h^xy2 + z h
27 ^x - 7h^x + 2h 28 ^x + 4h^x + 3h
29 ^x - 12h^x + 2h 30 ^x - 5h^x - 4h
31 ^x - 6h^x - 7h 32 ^x + 5h^x + 4h
33 ^x + 14h^x - 2h 34 ^2x + 3h^x - 1h
35 ^3x - 7h^2x + 5h 36 ^3x + 1h^x - 3h
37 ^4x - 3h^2x - 5h 38 ^5x + 2h^4x + 9h
39 ^5x + 6h^3x - 8h 40 ^6x2 + 5h^x2 + 3h
41 ^9x2 + 1h^x2 + 1h 42 ^x - 4h^x - 4h
43 ^x + 3h^x + 3h 44 ^x + 7h^x + 7h
45 ^x - 7h^x - 7h 46 ^3x + 1h^3x + 1h
47 ^2x - 5h^2x - 5h 48 ^5x + 4h^5x + 4h
49 ^7x + 3h^7x + 3h 50 ^3x - 7h^3x - 7h
51 ^x2 + 2y2h^x2 + 2y2h 52 ^3x2 - 5y2h^3x 2 - 5y2h
53 ^x + 3 h^x - 3h 54 ^x + 4h^x2 - 4x + 16h
55 ^3x - 2h^9x2 + 6x + 4h 56 ^x + 10h^x2 - 10x + 100h
57 ^2x - 5h^4x2 + 10x + 25h 58 `x - 1 j`x2 + 1 x + 1 j

4 4 16
59 ^2x - 3h^4x2 + 6x + 9h 60 ^2x - 3y h^4x2 + 6xy + 9y2h
50

61 ^3 - x2h^9 + 3x2 + x4h 62 5^2x + 1h^4x2 - 2x + 1h
63 7^x + 2h^x2 - 2x + 4h 64 3x^x + 2h^x2 - 2x + 4h
65 ^xy2 - z3h^x2 y4 + xy2 z3 + z6h 66 ^x - 3h^x + 3h
2
51
Factoring
Section P.4
52
Chapter
Rational Expressions
An important generalization of a rational number is a rational 1 Know what a

expression. In this section, we will be looking at rational expressions,
rational expression is.
reducing them to lowest terms and performing algebraic operations
on them. 2 Reduce a rational
Definition: P.5.1: Rational Expression expression to lowest terms.
A rational expression in one variable, say x , is an expression
3 Find the domain of a
P (x)
of the form , where P (x) and Q (x) are polynomials rational expression.
Q (x)
and Q (x) is not the zero polynomial. 4 Add, subtract,
multiply and divide rational
(x + 7)2
Using this definition, it is easy to see that x +2 2x - 8 and

2
expressions.
2x + 1 -
(x 1) (x + 2)
are rational expressions.
Reducing Rational Expressions to Lowest Terms
To reduce a rational expression to lowest terms, we need to cancel

out the common factors between its numerator and denominator. Let
us illustrate this through examples.
Example 1
Reduce 6 to lowest terms.

8
Solution:
Note that
6 = (2) (3) and 8 = (2) (4) .
53
Section P.5
Thus,
6 = (2) (3) = 3 ,
8 (2) (4) 4
which is in lowest terms.

Related Problem (1)
3 Reduce 27 to lowest terms.
2 18
Example 2
Reduce x + 2x - 8 to lowest terms.

2
x-2
Solution:
Note that
x2 + 2x - 8 = (x + 4) (x - 2) .
Thus,
x2 + 2x - 8 = (x + 4) (x - 2) = x + 4.
x-2 (x - 2)

Related Problem (2)
Reduce x - x - 6 to lowest terms.
2
x+2
x-3
Example 3
Reduce 6x 2 - 21x - 12 to lowest terms.

2
54x + 45x + 9
Solution:
Note that
6x2 - 21x - 12 = 3 (2x2 - 7x - 4) = 3 (x - 4) (2x + 1)
and
54x2 + 45x + 9 = 9 (6x2 + 5x + 1) = (3) (3) (3x + 1) (2x + 1) .
Thus,
6x2 - 21x - 12 = 3 (x - 4) (2x + 1)
54x + 45x + 9
2
(3) (3) (3x + 1) (2x + 1)
(x - 4)
= .
3 (3x + 1)
54
Answer Key
2 _x - 1i
Reduce 4x +2 10x - 6 to lowest terms.
2
x-3
x -9
Example 4
Reduce x3 - x to lowest terms.

6x 4 + 2x3 - 8x2
Solution:
Note that
x3 - x = x (x2 - 1) = x (x - 1) (x + 1)
and
6x 4 + 2x3 - 8x2 = 2x2 (3x2 + x - 4) = 2x2 (x - 1) (3x + 4) .
Thus,
x3 - x x (x2 - 1)
2 =
6x + 2x - 8x
4 3
2x (3x2 + x - 4)
2
x (x - 1) (x + 1)
=
2x^x h (x - 1) (3x + 4)
(x + 1)
=
2x (3x + 4)

Related Problem (4)
Reduce x 4 - 4x2 to lowest terms. x+2

6x 4 - 15x3 + 6x2 3 _2x - 1i
Finding the Domain of a Rational Expression.
The domain of a rational expression in one variable, say x , consists

of all real values of x for which the expression is real. To find the
domain of a rational expression, we use the following strategy:
Strategy for finding the domain of a rational expression

Step 1: Set the denominator of the expression equal to zero and
solve.
Step 2: The domain consists of all real numbers except those values
found in Step 1.
Let us discuss some examples.
Example 5
Find the domain of 1 .

x-3
55
Section P.5
Solution:
Setting the denominator to zero, we obtain the equation
x - 3 = 0.
Solving this equation, we get that
x = 3,
Thus, the domain of 1 is
x-3
Answer Key {x ! R: x ! 3} or (- 3, 3) , (3, 3) .
Related Problem (5)
{x ! R: x ! 6} or Related Problem 5
(- 3, 6) , (6, 3)
Find the domain of 1 $
x-6
Example 6
Find the domain of x+5 .

x2 + 3x - 4
Solution:
x2 + 3x - 4 = 0
x2 + 3x - 4 = 0
(x - 1) (x + 4) = 0
x = 1 or x =- 4
Thus, the domain of x + 5 is

x + 3x - 4
2
{x ! R: x ! 1 and x ! - 4} or (- 3, - 4) , (- 4, 1) , (1, 3) .
Related Problem 6
Answer Key
Related Problem (6)
Find the domain of x-5 $
(- 3, - 7) , (- 7, 2) , (2, 3) x + 5x - 14
2
Example 7
Find the domain of x2 - 4 $

x + 5x + 6
2
Solution:
x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
56

x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
(x + 2) (x + 3) = 0
x =- 3 or x =- 2.
Thus, the domain of x2 - 4 is

x 2 + 5x + 6 Answer Key
{x ! R: x ! - 3 and x ! - 2} or (- 3, - 3) , (- 3, - 2) , (- 2, 3) . Related Problem (7)
{x ! R: x ! - 2} or
Related Problem 7 (- 3, - 2) , (- 2, 3)
Find the domain of x-5 $

x 2 + 4x + 4
Example 8 Common Mistake
Find the domain of x2 - 9 $ Find the domain of

x - x - 12
2
x2 - 9
Solution: x - x - 12
2

x2 - x - 12 = 0 Solution:
Solving this equation, we get that Note that
x2 - x - 12 = 0 x2 - 9 = (x - 3) (x + 3)
x - x - 12
2
(x - 4) (x + 3)
(x + 3) (x - 4) = 0
(x - 3)
x =- 3 or x = 4 = .
(x - 4)
Thus, the domain of x2 - 9 is equal to The domain consists of all real

x2 - x - 12 numbers except those that make
{x ! R: x ! - 3 and x ! 4} or (- 3, - 3) , (- 3, 4) , (4, 3) . the denominator zero.
But the denominator is zero
when x - 4 = 0, that is; when
Related Problem 8 x = 4 . Thus, the domain is
{x ! R: x ! 4} .
Find the domain of x2 - 25 $
x + 8x + 15
2
Multiplication of rational expressions. Answer Key

Related Problem (8)
Rational expressions are multiplied together in much the same way {x ! R: x ! 3 and x ! 5} or
that rational numbers are multiplied together. To multiply a rational
(- 3, - 5) , (- 5, - 3) , (- 3, 3)
expression by another, we simply multiply the numerators together and
the denominators together. Symbolically, if p1 (x), q1 (x), p2 (x), q2 (x)
are polynomials and q1 (x), q2 (x) are nonzero, then
p1 (x) p2 (x) p1 (x) p2 (x)
$ = .
q1 (x) q2 (x) q1 (x) q2 (x)
57
Section P.5
Since rational expressions tend to be longer than rational numbers,

we can simplify the multiplication process by factoring all numerators
and denominators and cancelling out the common factors between
them before performing the multiplication.Let us illustrate this
through examples.
Example 9
(x2 - 9) x
Perform 2 $ 2 $
(x + 4x) (x + 9x + 18)
Solution:
Factoring all numerators and denominators, we get that
(x2 - 9) x (x - 3) (x + 3) x
$ = $
(x2 + 4x) (x2 + 9x + 18) x (x + 4) (x + 6) (x + 3)
Cancelling out common factors between numerators and

denominators, and then performing the multiplication, we
conclude that
(x2 - 9) x (x - 3)
$ 2 = $ 1
-
(x 3x) (x + 9x + 18)
2
(x + 4) (x + 6)
(x - 3) $ 1
=
(x + 4) (x + 6)
(x - 3)
= $
(x + 4) (x + 6)
Answer Key
1
x+4 (x2 - 4) x
Perform $ $
(x2 - 2x) (x2 + 6x + 8)
Division of rational expressions

To divide a rational expression by another, we first invert the
divisor and then multiply the two expressions. Symbolically, if
p1 (x), q1 (x), p2 (x), q2 (x) are polynomials and q1 (x), q2 (x), p2 (x) are
nonzero, then
p1 (x) p2 (x) p1 (x) q2 (x)
' = $ $
q1 (x) q2 (x) q1 (x) p2 (x)
Example 10
x2 - 9 (3 - x) (x + 6)
Perform ' $
x + 5x + 6
2
x+2
58
Solution:
By definition,
(3 - x) (x + 6)
x2 - 9 = 2 x -9 x+2
2
' $
x + 5x + 6
2
x+2 x + 5x + 6 (3 - x) (x + 6)
Factoring all numerators and denominators, we get that
x2 - 9 (x + 2) (x - 3) (x + 3) (x + 2)
$ = $
x + 5x + 6 (3 - x) (x + 6)
2
(x + 2) (x + 3) (3 - x) (x + 6)
Cancelling out common factors between numerators and Remark
denominators, and then performing the multiplication, we
conclude that Remember that (3 - x) =- (x - 3) .
x2 - 9 (x + 2) (x - 3) (x + 3) (x + 2)
$ = $
x + 5x + 6 (3 - x) (x + 6)
2
(x + 2) (x + 3) (3 - x) (x + 6)
(x - 3) (x + 3) (x + 2)
= $
(x + 2) (x + 3) - (x - 3) (x + 6)
=1$ 1
1 - (x + 6)
= 1 = -1
- (x + 6) (x + 6)
Thus,
x2 - 9 (3 - x) (x + 6)
' = -1 $
x + 5x + 6
2
x+2 (x + 6)

Perform x 3 - 4x ' 2-x $
x + 7x + 10 x + 5
2 -x
Addition and Subtraction of rational expressions

Rational expressions are added/subtracted in the same way that
rational numbers are added/subtracted. First, we discuss addition and
subtraction of rational expressions having common denominators,
and then extend our procedure for general expressions.
To add (subtract) rational expressions having a common denominator,
we add(subtract) their numerators and write the result over the
common denominator. Symbolically, if p1 (x), q (x), p2 (x) are polynomials
and q (x) is nonzero, then
p1 (x) p2 (x) p1 (x) ! p2 (x)
! = $
q (x) q (x) q (x)
Example 11
Perform 1 - 5 $
12 12
59
Section P.5
Solution:
Note that the two rational expressions have a common denominator,
which is equal to 12. Thus,
1 - 5 = 1-5
12 12 12
= -4
12
= -4
(3) (4)
= -1 $
3

-3 Perform 5 - 8 $
13 13 13
Example 12
Perform 2x 3+ 15x - 6 + x 3 - x + 1 , and write your answer in

2 2
x + 125 x + 125
lowest terms.
Solution:
Note that the two rational expressions have a common denominator,
which is x3 + 125 . Thus
2x2 + 15x - 6 + x2 - x + 1 = (2x + 15x - 6) + (x - x + 1)
2 2
x3 + 125 x3 + 125 x3 + 125

= 3x 3+ 14x - 5 $
2
x + 125
Simplifying 3x 3+ 14x - 5 , we get that
2
x + 125
2x2 + 15x - 6 + x2 - x + 1 = (3x - 1) (x + 5)

x + 125
3
x + 125
3
(x + 5) (x2 - 5x + 25)
= 2 3x - 1 $
x - 5x + 25
Related Problem 12
Answer Key
Perform 2x +3 9x + 17 + - x 3+ x - 1 , and write your answer in
2 2
x+8 x +8 x +8
x 2 - 2x + 4 lowest terms.
60
Adding or Subtracting Rational Expressions with Unlike Denominators

To add/subtract two rational expressions with unlike denominators,
you need to replace the two expressions with equivalent ones having
a common denominator. Let us illustrate this procedure through an
example on rational numbers.
Example 13
Perform 3 + 1 , and reduce your answer to lowest terms.

25 10
Solution:
In order to replace the fractions 3 and 1 by equivalent ones
25 10
having a common denominator, first we need to find the least
common multiple of their denominators.
To do so, we find the prime factorization of each denominator as
follows:
25 = 5.5 = 52
10 = 5.2 = 51 .21 .
Thus, the least common multiple of 25 and 10 is
LCM = 52 .21 = 25 $ 2 = 50 .
Next, we multiply the numerators and denominators of 3 and

25
1 by what it needs each denominator to turn into 50. Doing so,
10
we get that
3 + 1 = 3 (2) + 1 (5)
25 10 25 (2) 10 (5)
= 6 + 5 $
50 50
Since the new fractions have a common denominator, which is 50,

we conclude that
3 + 1 = 6 + 5
25 10 50 50
= 6+5
50
= 11 $ Answer Key
50 Related Problem (13)
Related Problem 13
23
52
Perform 1 + 5 , and reduce your answer to lowest terms.

4 26
61
Section P.5
We summarize the procedure we have just illustrated in order to

add/subtract two rational expressions having unlike denominators
as follows:
Step 1: Factor both denominators.
Step 2: Find the least common denominator(LCD) for both
denominators.
Step 3: Replace the given rational expressions by equivalent ones
having the LCD as a common denominator.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 14
Perform x2 - 1 + 2 2x , and reduce you answer to lowest

x - 1 x - 2x + 1
terms.
Solution:
Factoring both denominators, we get that
x-1 + 2x = x-1 + 2x $
x2 - 1 x2 - 2x + 1 (x - 1) (x + 1) (x - 1) (x - 1)
The LCD of the two denominators is equal to
LCD = (x + 1) (x - 1) (x - 1) .
Replacing x-1 and 2x by equivalent

(x - 1) (x + 1) (x - 1) (x - 1)
expressions having LCD as a common denominator (keep both
denominators in factored form), we get that
x-1 + 2x =
(x - 1) (x + 1) (x 1) (x - 1)
-
(x - 1) (x - 1) 2x (x + 1)
+
(x - 1) (x + 1) (x - 1) (x + 1) (x - 1) (x - 1)
Since the new rational expressions have a common denominator,
which is equal to LCD, we conclude that
x-1 + 2x (x - 1) (x - 1) 2x (x + 1)
= +
x - 1 x - 2x + 1
2 2
(x - 1) (x + 1) (x - 1) (x + 1) (x - 1) (x - 1)
(x - 1) (x - 1) + 2x (x + 1)
=
(x - 1) (x + 1) (x - 1)
= x - 2x + 1 + 2x + 2x
2 2
(x - 1) (x + 1) (x - 1)
= 3x2 + 1 .
(x - 1) 2 (x + 1)
62
Answer Key
2 _2x 2 + x + 2i
Perform x2 - 2 + 2 3x , and reduce you answer to lowest
x - 4 x - 4x + 4 _x - 2 i _x + 2 i
2
terms.
Example 15
Perform 2 - x - 1 , and reduce you answer to lowest terms.

x+1 x+2
Solution:
Note that the denominators are already factored, and the LCD of
them is equal to
LCD = (x + 1) (x + 2) .
Replacing 2 and x - 1 by equivalent expressions having

x+1 x+2
LCD as a common denominator (keep both denominators in
factored form), we get that
2 - x-1 = 2 (x + 2) (x - 1) (x + 1)
- $
x+1 x+2 (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 1) Remark
Since the new rational expressions have a common denominator, Be careful about minus signs
which is equal to LCD, we conclude that and parenthesis when doing
subtraction.
2 - x - 1 = 2 (x + 2) - (x - 1) (x + 1)
x+1 x+2 (x + 1) (x + 2)
2x + 4 - (x2 - 1)
=
(x + 1) (x + 2)
= 2x + 4 - x + 1
2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
= - x + 2x + 5 $
2
(x + 1) (x + 2)

Perform 5 - x - 3 , and reduce your answer to lowest terms. - x 2 + 5x + 34
x+3 x+5
_x + 3i_x + 5i
Example 16
Perform 4 - 1 + 1 , and reduce your answer to lowest terms.

t+2 t
63
Section P.5
Solution:
Note that
4 -1 +1 = 4 -1 +1.
t+2 t t+2 t 1
The LCD of the three denominators is equal to

LCD = t (t + 2) .
Replacing 4 , 1 and 1 by equivalent expressions having LCD

t+2 t 1
as a common denominator (keep both denominators in factored
form), we get that
4 -1 +1 = 4t (t + 2) t (t + 2)
- + .
t+2 t t (t + 2) t (t + 2) t (t + 2)
Since the new rational expressions have a common denominator,
which is equal to LCD, we conclude that
4 - 1 + 1 = 4t - (t + 2) + t (t + 2)
t+2 t t (t + 2)
= 4t - t - 2 + t + 2t
2
t (t + 2)
= t + 5t - 2 .
2
Answer Key t (t + 2)
Related Problem 16
7t 2 + 44t - 6
t_t + 6i 3 - 1 + 7 , and reduce your answer to lowest terms.
Perform
t+6 t
64
Exercises P.5
In Exercises 1-16, simplify the given rational expression.
1. 2x - 1 . 2. x-7 .
1 - 2x - 3x + 21
3. 42 x + 12x . 3x - 6 .
2
4.
x + 6x + 9 6x2 - 12x
5. 123+ x - x2 . 6. x - x - 20 .
2 2
x + 3x 3x - 15
7. x -2 15x - 14 . 8. 2x2 - 5x - 12 .
2 2
x - 6x - 7 2x + 5x + 3
9. x +
2
3x - 4 . 10. x - 25 .
2
x + 4x
2
5-x
x3 - 9x . 12. x 2+ 8 .
3
11.
x + x2 - 6x
3
x -4
3x3 + x2 14. x -3x + x .
3 2
13. .
3x - 11x3 - 4x2
4
x +1
x4 - x4 y
15. 6x 4+ 14x3 + 4x2 .
4 3 2
16. .
6x - 10x - 4x x3 y - x3
In Exercises 17-29, perform the indicated addition or subtraction.

Write answers in lowest terms.
17. x + 3 . 18. x + 5 + 2x - 7 .
5 5 y y
2x + 5y - 2x - 3y
19. + . 20. 6x - 5 - 3x - 8 .
4y 4y x+1 x+1
21. 7x + x . 22. x + 7x .
2 (x - 3) 2 (x - 3) x-5 x+3
23. 2x - 23 . 24. 2x - 1 - 2x .
x -9 x -9 4x + 1 4x - 1
25. x + 2x . 26. 3x + 5x - 240 .
3 2
x+2 x+2 x+2 x-2 x -4

27. 22 x - x + 1 - 2x . 28. 4x + 28 +2.
2
x -1 x-1 x+1 3x - 4 3x - 4x x
29. 3 + 5 + 2x .
x 3x + 1
In Exercises 30-35, perform the indicated multiplication. Write
answers in lowest terms.
30. 6x + 4 $ x - 4 .
2x - 8 9x + 6
31. x - 3 $ 10x + 20 .
2x + 4 5x - 15
65
Section P.5
32. 25x - 9 $ 4 - x .
2 2
4 - 2x 10x - 6
33. x + x $ 3x 2+ 19x + 28 .
2 2
2x + 3 x + 5x + 4
34. 3x2 - 15 $ 2x + 16x + 30 .

2
2x - 50 6x + 9
^9 - x h
2
$ x 2+ 2x + 1 .
2
35.
x + 1 - x + 2x + 3
In Exercises 36-42, perform the indicated division. Write answers in

lowest terms.
36. x + 3 ' 4x + 12 .
20 5
37. x + 2 ' 4x + 8 .
6 9
38. x - 9 ' 2x +2 6 .
2
x 5x
39. x - 1 ' 72x - 7 .

2
3x x +x
40. x2 - 81 ' x +
2 2
5x - 36 .
x - 16 x - x - 20
2
41. 5x +4 12x + 4 ' 25x +2 20x + 4 .

2 2
x - 16 x - 2x
42. x2 + 5x + 6 ' x2 + 3x + 2 .
2 2
x + 6x + 9 x + 7x + 12
66
1. -1 2. -1 3. 4x
3 x+3
1 4-x x+4
4. 2x 5. 6.
x2 3
x - 14 x-4 x-1
7. 8. x+1 9.
x-7 x
-x - 5 x-3 x - 2x + 4
2
10. 11. x-2 12. x-2
13. 1 14. x 15. x+2

x-4 x+1 x-2
x+3 3x - 2
16. -x 17. 18. y
5
1 4x
19. 20. 3 21. x - 3
2
22. 8x2 - 32x 23. 1 24. 1 - 8x

^ x + 3h^ x - 5h x+3 16x2 - 1
25. x2 26. 8x + 20 27 -^x2 + 1h

x+2 x2 - 1
28. 4x + 6 29 11x2 + 18x + 5 30 1

3x - 4 x^3x + 1h 3
^5x + 3h^2 + xh x^3x + 7h
31 1 32 33
4 2x + 3
34 x+3 35 x+3 36 1
2x + 3 16
37 3 38 5x^x - 3h 39 ^ x + 1h2
8 2 21
40 x2 - 14x + 45 41 x 42 x+4
x2 - 8x + 16 ^x + 4h^5x + 2h
2
x+1
67
Section P.5
68

ch0 PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ch0 PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Preliminaries Section P

Real Numbers System

Sets 1 Understand what a

byA is all elements of U but not inA, which equivalent to the

Let A = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10}, B = {1, 3, 5, 9} and C = {4, 9} . Find

The difference operation on sets is not Solution:

Let U = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10}, B = {1, 2, 5} and C = {7, 8} . Find

Let U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {4, 2, 10} and C = {2, 10} . Find

1. Associative Law: 2. Commutative Law:

The Real Number System

In order to understand the real number system, it is helpful to

2 , 3 , 5 , 3 4 , 5 6 are irrational numbers. Another common

The following strategy is used to construct the real number line.

Strategy for constructing the real number line

Step 1: Draw a horizontal line.

Step 2: Choose any point on the line and label it 0.

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

The following diagram illustrates the relationships of the sets that

Rational Numbers(Q ) Irrational Numbers (I )

Answer Key Related Problem 6

Operations on Real Numbers

Regarding Addition, if the numbers have negative signs, we simply

Table P.1.1: Main Properties of Operations on Real Numbers

Use the given sets to answer the exercises (7-12)

14. Determine which of the following numbers is integer.

64, 9 , 11.3, 0, 0.26, 18, 11 .

In Exercises (16-21). Perform each of the following operations.

Use the given sets to answer the exercises (22-29).

Use the given sets to answer the exercises (30-35).

Answer key for Exercises P.1

6. " - 1, 2, 11, r, 8, h, 4, 9 , 7. { - i} 8. " n ,

22 "1, 3, 5 , 23 "5 , 24 "5 ,

Exponents and Radicals

Let n be a positive integer and x a real number. Then 5 Simplify radical

a. 75 Write each of the following in exponential notation.

Example 3 shows that when multiplying two exponentials having the

If b is a real number and m , n are integers, then

c. (- 4y2) (3y7) = (- 4) (3) (y2)(y7) =- 12y2 + 7 =- 12y9

Related Problem 5 565

Example 5 shows that when dividing two exponential expressions hav-

Quotient Rule of Exponents

Example 7 shows that when raising an exponential to another exponent,

Power Rule of Exponents

If b is a real number and m , n are integers, then

The following two rules of exponents show that exponentiation is

Distributive Rules of Exponents

1. If a, b are real numbers and m is an integer, then

a. 1296p8 q4 Expand each of the following expressions.

Non-Positive Integer Exponents

If a, b are real numbers with b ! 0 , and n is a positive integer,

Simplify each of the following using positive exponents only.

Related Problem 11 Answer Key

Rational Exponents and Radicals

In order to extend the definition of integer exponents to rational exponents,

Let n 2 1 be an integer, and let a be a real number. Then a n

is the principal radical denoted by n

For the case n = 2 , we usually write a instead of 2

b. 1 Evaluate each of the following

For n a natural greater than 1, x and y are positive real numbers

In order to simplify a radical we need to get factors out of its radicand

Related Problem 14 Answer Key

Now, we are ready to define rational exponents.

Definition P.2.3 : Rational Exponents